Showing papers in "Economic Botany in 2012"

Contribution of “Women’s Gold” to West African Livelihoods: The Case of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) in Burkina Faso

Abstract: Contribution of “Women’s Gold” to West African Livelihoods: The Case of Shea ( Vitellaria paradoxa ) in Burkina Faso. This paper (i) quantifies the contribution that Vitellaria paradoxa makes to the total income of rural households belonging to different economic groups in two areas of Burkina Faso; (ii) quantifies the involvement of women in shea nuts and fruits collection and processing; and (iii) empirically verifies the “gap filling” function of shea products in Burkina Faso by quantifying the commercialization and subsistence use of shea fruits, nuts, and butter between agricultural seasons. Based on data collected from structured household surveys used on a quarterly basis during a one-year period on 536 households, we demonstrate that the reliance on shea is generally high in the sampled populations, and is at its highest for the poorest households, for which it contributes 12 % of total household income. Moreover, shea nut collection and processing was found to provide a valuable source of cash income to female household members who otherwise have very few income possibilities. Finally, due to its ecology, shea fills in an income gap during a period where human activities are at their highest while income is at its lowest. Although shea is crucial for poor people’s livelihoods and for the generation of income for women, its harvesting and processing are time-consuming activities that generate low returns per unit of labor. We argue that shea collection and processing should therefore not be considered as a remedy to poverty but instead as a way for households to diversify their livelihood strategy and decrease their vulnerability to food insecurity and climate variability.

Famine Foods of Brazil’s Seasonal Dry Forests: Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Aspects

Abstract: Famine Foods of Brazil’s Seasonal Dry Forests: Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Aspects. Famine foods are used by people in times of food scarcity. Although the northeast of Brazil regularly faces periods of drought that cause a shortage of traditional foods, the use of famine foods is insufficiently recorded. The purpose of this study was to record the knowledge of famine food in two rural Caatinga communities, Carao and Cachoeira, in the states of Pernambuco and Paraiba, respectively, and to determine the chemical composition of the major famine foods utilized. The ethnobotanical aspect was divided into two stages: free lists and semistructured interviews. Based on the interviews, the main famine foods known by communities were selected for nutritional analysis. The study revealed that certain foods are used by communities only in times of shortages. Carao showed a higher species richness than Cachoeira, but the food knowledge was more widespread among the interviewees in Cachoeira. In Carao, the main species mentioned were Dioclea grandiflora and Manihot dichotoma, whereas in Cachoeira, Encholirium spectabile and Pilosocereus gounellei were the major species indicated. The species examined had a high carbohydrate content, especially D. grandiflora, Manihot glaziovii, and M. dichotoma, and could be used for complementary feeding of the population if adverse effects could be minimized. Mandevilla tenuiflora is indicated for future studies of potential agro-industrial applications and the beneficial aspects of its root, which could represent an alternative source of income for the population.

Understanding Interrelationships Among Predictors (Age, Gender, and Origin) of Local Ecological Knowledge1

Abstract: Understanding Interrelationships among Predictors (Age, Gender, and Origin) of Local Ecological Knowledge. Understanding which factors predict local ecological knowledge can provide insight into how this knowledge is learned and how it may change in the future. We assess how knowledge of both useful plants and plant natural history vary according to gender, age, and origin in mestizo communities in Venezuela’s Caura Basin. Two sets of structured questionnaires were carried out with a total of 83 adults in three communities. Multiple regression analyses were used to identify the predictors of knowledge of 6 plant-use categories and natural history knowledge of 12 plant species. Gender, age, and origin (≥2 generations in the Caura vs. foreign-born) were all important predictors of knowledge of useful plants and natural history; however, their importance differed between the two types of knowledge. Origin was a more important predictor of knowledge of useful plants, whereas age was more important in predicting knowledge of natural history. This suggests differences in how each type of knowledge is learned and transmitted. Gender was an important predictor variable in most models, reflecting gender roles in the Caura mestizo communities. Also, for most categories of plant-use knowledge, the interactions among predictors were significant, indicating that the effect of one variable depended on the level of the other. These results illustrate how overlooking interactions among variables, as most studies to date have done, can risk misinterpretation of results by simplifying complex situations.

The Archaic Diet in Mesoamerica: Incentive for Milpa Development and Species Domestication

Abstract: The Archaic Diet in Mesoamerica: Incentive for Milpa Development and Species Domestication. One of the central questions in the development of Mesoamerican civilization is how the alimentary, agronomic, and ecological complementarities were achieved within the milpa agroecosystem, which is one of its more important and distinctive cultural elements. In the Mesoamerican center of origin of agriculture and domestication of plants, located in western Mexico, we inquired among Nahuatl communities about the ancient dishes prepared with wild plants that are part of their ancient foodways, and the tools and technology used to prepare them. We found that the wild progenitors of Agave spp., Zea mays L, Cucurbita argyrosperma Hort. Ex L.H. Bayley, Phaseolus spp., Capsicum annum L., Solanum lycopersicum L., Physalis phyladelphica Lam, Spondias purpurea L., Persea americana Mill., and Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit are consumed in dishes that remain in the present food culture of the poor peasants, and are prepared with techniques and tools that were available in the Archaic period: Sun drying, roasting, toasting, baking, cracking, grinding, crushing, fermenting, and soaking in plain water or in water with ash, using three–stone fireplaces, stone toasters, crushers, grinders, rock pits, and three types of earth ovens. A remarkable finding was that beans could be incorporated into the diet without boiling, but just by toasting, stone grinding, and baking in corn dough tamales. Results obtained suggest that the basic Mesoamerican diet could have been shaped before the species involved were domesticated. Its nutritional complementarity since the Archaic period could have been one of the incentives for the development of the milpa system and the domestication of its species, achieving in this way also their ecological and agronomical complementarity.

The Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology of Wild Tomatillos, Physalis longifolia Nutt., and Related Physalis Species: A Review

Abstract: The Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology of Wild Tomatillos, Physalis longifolia Nutt., and Related Physalis Species: A Review. The wild tomatillo, Physalis longifolia Nutt., and related species have been important wild-harvested foods and medicinal plants. This paper reviews their traditional use as food and medicine; it also discusses taxonomic difficulties and provides information on recent medicinal chemistry discoveries within this and related species. Subtle morphological differences recognized by taxonomists to distinguish this species from closely related taxa can be confusing to botanists and ethnobotanists, and many of these differences are not considered to be important by indigenous people. Therefore, the food and medicinal uses reported here include information for P. longifolia, as well as uses for several related taxa found north of Mexico. The importance of wild Physalis species as food is reported by many tribes, and its long history of use is evidenced by frequent discovery in archaeological sites. These plants may have been cultivated, or “tended,” by Pueblo farmers and other tribes. The importance of this plant as medicine is made evident through its historical ethnobotanical use, information in recent literature on Physalis species pharmacology, and our Native Medicinal Plant Research Program’s recent discovery of 14 new natural products, some of which have potent anti-cancer activity.

Ethnobotanical Knowledge Transmission and Evolution: The Case of Medicinal Markets in Tanga, Tanzania1

Abstract: Ethnobotanical Knowledge Transmission and Evolution: The Case of Medicinal Markets in Tanga, Tanzania. This paper explores the range and distribution of local ecological knowledge (LEK) of popular medicinal plants by means of a case study in the medicinal markets of Tanga, Tanzania. Seventy–four medicinal plant harvesters, healers, and vendors were surveyed to test if knowledge differed based on their role in the market system, age, years of experience, and level of formal education. These results diverge from previous studies that explain variation in plant knowledge based on sociodemographic variables. It also questions the assumption that markets inevitably erode local or traditional knowledge. This study contributes to an understanding of the dynamics of ethnobotanical knowledge transmission and evolution by showing how particular contexts, in this case medicinal plant markets, can influence this process.

Species substitution in medicinal roots and possible implications for toxicity of herbal remedies in Morocco

Abstract: Species Substitution in Medicinal Roots and Possible Implications for Toxicity of Herbal Remedies in Morocco. Herbal medicine is an integral part of health care in Morocco and is widely used by Moroccans. However, the efficacy and safety of traditional plant-based medicine in Morocco is threatened by insufficient knowledge about practices of adulteration and substitution. These issues are of particular importance when subterranean plant parts are employed. A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods was used to identify where and why confusion (accidental substitution) and intentional substitution occurs in root-based medicines sold in Marrakech. Additionally we examined local perceptions of the toxicological risks posed by substitution. We recorded a total of 20 species (34 unique cases) of roots for which substitution or confusion was reported by either herbalists or collectors. Substitution or confusion occurred in 54.6 % of the 33 most commonly sold medicinal roots, with herbalists reporting substitution in more species than collectors. Collectors and herbalists cited poor availability of roots (in part due to overexploitation of wild resources), high demand, high prices, and lack of knowledge as factors driving substitution and confusion. Roots for which substitution was reported were significantly more difficult for herbalists to identify. Moreover, profit was higher for roots for which intentional substitution was reported. Despite the detailed knowledge held by many herbalists and a long tradition of use of herbal medicine in Morocco, doctors and pharmacists had dismissive attitudes towards traditional medicine and expressed concern about both efficacy and safety of medicinal plant use. Given the high rates of substitution and confusion documented by this study, there is an urgent need for appropriate regulation of herbal remedies in Morocco, a conclusion embraced by herbalists and Western-trained medical practitioners alike.

Parallel Evolution Under Domestication and Phenotypic Differentiation of the Cultivated Subspecies of Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae)

Abstract: Parallel Evolution under Domestication and Phenotypic Differentiation of the Cultivated Subspecies ofCucurbita pepo(Cucurbitaceae). Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin, squash, gourd, Cucurbitaceae) is an ancient North American domesticate of considerable economic importance. Based on molecular genetic polymorphisms, two cultivated lineages of this species, each consisting of very many edible–fruited cultigens, have been recognized, C. pepo subsp. pepo and C. pepo subsp. texana. However, the phenotypic commonalities and differences between these two subspecies have not as yet been systematically collected and organized. Among the evolutionary developments common to the two subspecies are the increased size of the plant parts, less plant branching, and premature loss of chlorophyll in the exocarp of the fruits. In both subspecies, bush growth habit, conferred by allele Bu, is common to the cultigens grown for consumption of the immature fruits, as is the deviation from the 1:1 ratio of fruit length to fruit width. A major characteristic differentiating between the edible–fruited cultigens of the respective subspecies are the longitudinal protrusions, in subsp. pepo, versus depressions, in subsp. texana, of the fruit surface corresponding with the subsurface primary carpellary vein tracts. Subsp. pepo also has larger fruits and larger and longer seeds. In addition, some alleles affecting stem color, leaf mottling, multiple flower bud production, and fruit characteristics are frequently occurring to nearly fixed in one subspecies but are rare to less common in the other.

Adulteration of Selected Unprocessed Botanicals in the U.S. Retail Herbal Trade

Abstract: Adulteration of Selected Unprocessed Botanicals in the U.S. Retail Herbal Trade. Adulteration of botanical dietary supplements through the accidental or deliberate use of a plant species other than the one claimed to be present is a well-publicized concern. Recent surveys of these products have found that some historically reported adulterations still occur despite strict quality control regulations. For a few botanicals, the accidental inclusion of toxic lookalike species has caused consumer illnesses. Since most of the Western market, as measured by monetary value, consists of processed dietary supplements, relatively little attention has been paid to the question of whether unprocessed bulk herbs sold to herbalists and in herb stores are equally subject to adulteration. We hypothesized that adulterations similar to those seen in materials sold for use in dietary supplements would occur. Nine botanicals were selected that had been previously reported to be adulterated, or were suspected to be at risk of adulteration, and that could be distinguished from known or likely adulterants by the morphology of parts in commerce. Samples were purchased from eleven vendors and authenticated by morphological examination. Most were correctly identified, and no toxic adulterants were found. Samples of Juniperus and Tilia commonly contained species other than those specified, and most samples of alleged Arnica montana were entirely composed of Heterotheca inuloides (“false arnica”). We conclude that the likelihood of adulteration of crude botanicals in retail commerce is taxon-specific; while most species are consistently correctly identified, a few are often confused. One implication is that botanicals purchased for use in research should always be independently authenticated in some fashion.

Diversity of Medicinal and Food Plants as Non-timber Forest Products in Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve (China): Implications for Livelihood Improvement and Biodiversity Conservation

Abstract: Diversity of Medicinal and Food Plants as Non-timber Forest Products in Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve (China): Implications for Livelihood Improvement and Biodiversity Conservation. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play an important role in rural livelihoods. People living in and around forests are dependent on a variety of NTFPs for their subsistence and for income generation. This paper gives a general overview on the diversity of NTFPs in the Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve, with a focus on medicinal and food plants. Data on NTFPs use were gathered through an ethnobotanical inventory with semistructured, free-listing, and household socioeconomic interviews. Interviews were supplemented with voucher collections. Bamboo shoots were analyzed further as proxy NTPF. It was hypothesized that there is no significant difference between collection amounts of bamboo shoots and their contribution to the household income between the villages studied. A rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) was conducted to identify vulnerable and threatened species. A total of 480 plant species (25% of recorded flora) from 117 families and 334 genera are used as NTFPs by the local people. Results revealed that there is a significant difference in the collection and contribution of bamboo shoots to household income among the villages. However, their contribution to per-capita income is very low, and they are mainly used in households. Vulnerability assessment showed that most of the medicinal species have moderate vulnerable status and that most of the food species have less vulnerable status. Some medicinal plants, such as Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis, are overexploited and getting scarce. Sustainable harvest and management strategies should be implemented to prevent overexploitation of these species.

Impact of Future Climate and Land Use Change on Non-timber Forest Product Provision in Benin, West Africa: Linking Niche-based Modeling with Ecosystem Service Values

Abstract: Impact of Future Climate and Land Use Change on Non-timber Forest Product Provision in Benin, West Africa: Linking Niche-based Modeling with Ecosystem Service Values. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) make a major contribution to the livelihoods of the West African population. However, these ecosystem services are threatened by climate and land use change. Our study aims at 1) the quantification and monetary mapping of important NTFPs, and 2) developing a novel approach to assess the impacts of climate and land use change on the economic benefits derived from these NTFPs. We performed household interviews in northern Benin to gather data on annual quantities of collected NTFPs from the three most important savanna tree species: Adansonia digitata, Parkia biglobosa, and Vitellaria paradoxa. Current market prices of the NTFPs were derived from local markets. We assessed the species’ current and future (2050) occurrence probabilities by calibrating niche-based models with climate and land use data at a 0.1° resolution (cell: ~10 × 10 km). To assess future economic gains and losses, respectively, we linked modeled species’ occurrence probabilities with the spatially assigned monetary values. Highest current annual benefits are obtained from V. paradoxa (USD 54,111 ± 28,126/cell), followed by P. biglobosa (USD 32,246 ± 16,526/cell) and A. digitata (USD 9,514 ± 6,243/cell). The future simulations showed spatially varying impacts of environmental change. In particular A. digitata might benefit in some regions. However, large areas are projected to lose up to 50 % of their current economic value by 2050 with regard to the three species. Our findings provide a first benchmark for local policy-makers to economically compare different land use options and adjust existing management strategies.

Plant Diversity in Hmong and Mien Homegardens in Northern Thailand

Abstract: Plant Diversity in Hmong and Mien Homegardens in Northern Thailand. We surveyed 180 homegardens in three Hmong and three Mien villages in northern Thailand to study their floristic diversity and composition and to understand the impact of forced migration and ecological conditions for the development of the rich homegarden flora. We also looked at the role of culturally important species as carriers of cultural identity. We found 406 species: 341 (99 families) and 270 species (90 families) in Hmong and Mien homegardens, respectively. Five lowland villages had the richest homegarden flora, in part due to the presence of many widespread species. Twenty-two species were widespread in tropical countries and found in most Hmong and Mien homegardens, and 14 additional common species were shared between Hmong and Mien homegardens. Seventeen species were exclusive to Hmong homegardens and eight to Mien homegardens; these we have designated as culturally important species. The presence of culturally important species determines the homegardens’ characteristics and reflects the cultural identity related to plant uses of a group. Similarities in floristic composition of the two groups can be attributed to widespread and common species. Floristic variation and diversity in homegardens were strongly related to homegarden geographical location, personal preference, and cultural background of the owners.

Ethnobotany of Mauritia flexuosa (Arecaceae) in a Maroon Community in Central Brazil

Abstract: Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa L.f.), a Brazilian native palm, is widely used by many ethnic groups. In central Brazil, a traditional community of African descendants (maroons), known as the Kalunga, utilize all the native palm species of the region. Buriti is the most important palm species for the Engenho II community of Kalungas, localized in the municipality of Cavalcante, state of Goias. Leaves are used for construction, household utensils, fodder, and medicine. Forests and wetlands of the Brazilian Cerrado are rapidly being converted to pastures and agriculture. Ethnobotanical studies of plant resources may aid in their conservation and also improve the lives of the local inhabitants. The genus Mauritia is comprised of solitary palms, with tall, robust, erect stems and palmate leaves. Two species are recognized, one of which is widely distributed throughout wet areas in northern South America, east of the Andes and just reaching Trinidad (Mauritia flexuosa L.f.) (Henderson et al. 1995). The other is more narrowly distributed in the Amazon region (Mauritia carana Wallace) (Henderson et al. 1995). The common name buriti is derived from dembyriti, a word from the native Indian language Tupi-Guarani, and signifies “a palm tree that oozes liquid.” Other common names for this majestic palm include aeta, aguaje, bariti, boriti, buriti palm, canaguche, caranda-guacu, carandai-guacu, carandai-guazu, chomiya, coqueiro-buriti, ideui, ite, mariti, meriti, miriti, morete, moriche, moriti, muriti, palma real, palmeira-buriti, palmeira-dos-brejos (Cymerys et al. 2005; Lorenzi et al. 2010; Martins et al. 2010a). Buriti frequently occurs at low elevations, forming large populations on river banks and lake margins, around water sources, and in inundated or humid areas. These buriti populations are known in Brazil as “veredas” (Ribeiro and Walter 2008) and are ecological indicators of the presence of surface water. In Brazil, buriti is the most widespread of all palm trees, occurring in the Amazon region, Cerrado, Caatinga, and Pantanal (Henderson et al. 1995; Lorenzi et al. 2010). In the Cerrado biome, the buriti palms grow spontaneously in the veredas, surrounded by shrubby and herbaceous plant communities. They also commonly inhabit inundated gallery forest habitats (Ribeiro and Walter 2008). These palms thrive in flat terrain with humid soils that permit surface water to accumulate (Reatto et al. 2008). Brazilian ethnobotanical studies of palms have focused mostly on indigenous, ribeirinhos (rivermargin dwellers of mixed ethnicity), and seringueiros (itinerant rubber collectors) (e.g., Campos and Ehringhaus 2003; Kahn 1988). A few ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in maroon communities in Brazil (Barroso et al. 2010; Crepaldi and Peixoto 2010; Silva and Freitas 2008). Notes on Economic Plants

Quantifying Medicinal Plant Knowledge among Non–Specialist Antanosy Villagers in Southern Madagascar

Abstract: Quantifying Medicinal Plant Knowledge among Non–Specialist Antanosy Villagers in Southern Madagascar. Medicinal plant knowledge among non–specialist Antanosy villagers of southeastern Madagascar was investigated in a two–stage study. First, free–listing was used to collect the names of medicinal plants most familiar to local people. Data were organized by habitat and frequency into a short list of the 42 most frequently listed plants by habitat. A second group of interviewees were asked to name health conditions that could be treated with plants on the short list. Age, gender, and dwelling proximity to the forest were tested across the general habitat in which medicinal plants were found: in or near the village, in disturbed buffer areas between the village and the forest, or in the forest itself. Neither age nor gender was significant in free–listing. Naming health conditions treated with specific plants showed that knowledge increases with age and that for all but the oldest age group, women knew more plant uses than men. Women knew more plants from the village and buffer areas, and fewer from the forest than men. The proximity of the home to the forest had no influence on medicinal plant knowledge. The non–specialists interviewed named an average of 14 medicinal plants and most knew an average of 37 uses for 9 of the 42 most common medicinal plants. The most common conditions for people knew of plant treatments were stomach ache, babies’ fevers, and several unlisted conditions. Both exotic and endemic plant species were known to the non–specialists indicating that medicinal plant knowledge is being sustained and adapted to changes affecting both the people and their environment.

Earth Ovens (Píib) in the Maya Lowlands: Ethnobotanical Data Supporting Early Use

Abstract: Earth Ovens ( Piib ) in the Maya Lowlands: Ethnobotanical Data Supporting Early Use. Earth oven cooking is very important among the Yucatec Maya. It is used for daily, festive, and ceremonial occasions, contrasting with other Mesoamerican cultures that use this technique sporadically. In this paper we present an ethnobotanical analysis of the use of earth ovens in a Maya community in Yucatan, Mexico, and discuss its possible antiquity, probable reasons for its continuity, and its current and past importance. We found four oven types in daily use as well as in ritual and celebratory contexts. These involve both men and women in a way that favors transmission of traditional knowledge to the next generation and promotes social bonding and ethnic identity. Of the 46 plant species used in their construction or for the dishes cooked in them, 82% are native and produced in traditional agricultural systems: milpa (kool in Maya) maize-bean-squash association and conuco (pach pakal in Maya) based on tubers such as manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Research suggests that this food preparation technology has the same antiquity as its associated agricultural systems (approximately 3400 to 3000 B.C.E.). Earth ovens were probably used to cook roots and meat in the Archaic and then to cook tamales (vegetal-wrapped maize dough) beginning in the Preclassic. Continuity of traditional agricultural and cultural practices has favored preservation of earth ovens.

Distribution of Herbal Remedy Knowledge in Tabi, Yucatan, Mexico.

Abstract: Distribution of Herbal Remedy Knowledge in Tabi, Yucatan, Mexico. The distribution of herbal remedy knowledge among a group of people is studied for two main reasons: (1) to identify plants that are promising for pharmacological analysis, and (2) to examine the factors that lead to herbal remedy knowledge erosion as opposed to dynamism in the acquisition of knowledge. The goal of this particular study, which is aligned with the second reason, is to establish the variation in herbal remedy knowledge among the Yucatec Maya in Tabi, Yucatan, Mexico. Free listing and cultural consensus analysis revealed that knowledge about a few medicinal plants and herbal remedies was distributed widely among the Yucatec Maya in Tabi, whereas the majority of knowledge was idiosyncratic. This finding was consistent with other studies of herbal remedy knowledge distribution among indigenous groups in Latin America and Africa. Assessing patterns in the distribution of herbal remedy knowledge is an important next step in determining the degree of dynamism or erosion in knowledge acquisition and transmission in Tabi.

Economic Stratification Differentiates Home Gardens in the Maya Village of Pomuch, Mexico

Abstract: Economic Stratification Differentiates Home Gardens in the Maya Village of Pomuch, Mexico. In this paper, we analyze if economic stratification of peasant families in a Maya village in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico influences species composition and structure of home gardens. Our general hypothesis was that composition and structure reflect a higher dependence on home garden produce of relatively poorer families as compared to more prosperous families. We registered the cultivated trees and herbs in samples of twelve home gardens of poorer and wealthier families that had similar assets in the 1980s, and classified them by principal use and geographic origin. Total species richness of cultivated herbs was highest in home gardens of the more prosperous families, whereas total species richness of trees was highest in home gardens of the poorer families. Average species richness of trees and herbs and species composition was similar in both economic strata. Poorer families cultivated relatively more trees for uses other than fruit than richer families. The average and total number of native tree species and density of trees with diameter at breast height of less than 10 cm was significantly higher in poorer families’ home gardens than in those of wealthier families. We conclude that economic stratification leads to different production strategies in home gardens. Richer families are comparatively more interested in obtaining fruit occasionally and emphasize diversity of herbaceous ornamentals. Poorer families emphasize different uses, favor the native flora, and increase tree density. Thereby they contribute more to biodiversity conservation than wealthier families.

Plants with Histories: The Changing Ethnobotany of Iquito Speakers of the Peruvian Amazon

Abstract: Plants with Histories: The Changing Ethnobotany of Iquito Speakers of the Peruvian Amazon. This paper describes the first ethnobotanical study carried out with speakers of Iquito, a critically endangered language of northeastern Peru. The work examines significant changes the pharmacopoeia has undergone, developing a new measure, the Index of Plant Novelty (IPN) that combines oral history, linguistic, comparative ethnobotanical, and botanical data. Research was carried out in 2009 and 2010, with structured interviews and collection of 87 botanical voucher specimens in 39 botanical families. The study results suggest that no one single factor can fully explain the patterns of borrowing in the pharmacopoeia of San Antonio, although data show some support for previously proposed hypotheses that such borrowing fills gaps in the pharmacopoeia or that edible and ornamental plants are often adopted for medicinal use. However, this process must also be understood within the context of colonization by mestizo settlers, which has given higher prestige to uses and species from outside. A comparison between oral history data and the linguistic and comparative data suggests that the Iquito informants interviewed have underestimated the extent to which their current pharmacopoeia has been borrowed.

The Enigma of Solanum maglia in the Origin of the Chilean Cultivated Potato, Solanum tuberosum Chilotanum Group1

Abstract: The Enigma of Solanum maglia in the Origin of the Chilean Cultivated Potato, Solanum tuberosum Chilotanum Group. Landrace potato cultivars occur in two broad geographic regions: the high Andes from western Venezuela south to northern Argentina (Solanum tuberosum Andigenum Group, “Andigenum”), and lowland south-central Chile (S. tuberosum Chilotanum Group, “Chilotanum”), with a coastal desert and 560 km between southernmost populations of Andigenum and Chilotanum. Unlike Andigenum landraces, Chilotanum landraces are adapted to long days and carry a 241 base pair plastid DNA deletion. However, Andigenum and Chilotanum landraces are morphologically similar. We investigated a hypothesis that Chilotanum landraces arose from Solanum maglia, a rare tuber-bearing species found in Chile and Argentina. This hypothesis was formulated first based on morphological analyses of starch grains of extant and preserved (12,500 years before present) S. maglia, and on putative sympatry of extant S. maglia and Chilotanum landraces. Our new starch grain analyses fail to support this hypothesis; we could find no evidence of current sympatric distributions, and S. maglia lacks the 241-bp plastid deletion. However, microsatellite data group all accessions of S. maglia exclusively with Chilotanum, which is supported by our previous observation at the single locus of the waxy gene. These results could be interpreted in various ways, but all explanations have problems. One explanation is that S. maglia is a progenitor of Chilotanum. However, the plastid deletion in Chilotanum but not S. maglia cannot be easily explained. Another explanation is that Chilotanum was formed by hybridization between S. maglia and pre-Chilotanum, but this conflicts with prior cladistic analyses. These new data shed light on aspects of this question and highlight various evolutionary scenarios, but the origin of Chilotanum and the involvement of S. maglia in its origin remain an enigma.

Regeneration Ecology of the Useful Flora of the Putu Range Rainforest, Liberia

Abstract: Regeneration Ecology of the Useful Flora of the Putu Range Rainforest, Liberia. We test the hypothesis that useful plants in general, and medicines in particular, are more likely to be pioneer and herbaceous species than any other guild or habit, using data from six communities in southeastern Liberia. Of 624 surveyed species from seven locally defined vegetation classes, 228 species (36 %) were found to be useful in the categories of food, medicine, materials, and social use. Five habits account for 98 % of surveyed species: Trees, treelets (including two palm species), lianes (including root climbers), shrubs, and herbs. Four guilds account for 93 % of the surveyed species: Swamp, shade–bearer, pioneer, and non–pioneer light demander (NPLD) species. A significantly higher proportion of pioneers is found to be useful overall (55 %) and useful medicinally (69 %) than for any other guild. However, the shade–bearing guild provides the greatest number of useful species (92 species) and the greatest number of medicinal species (55 species). Fifteen species were shortlisted by the communities for their particular importance, of which only one is a pioneer species. A similar proportion of species of each habit (about one–third of species) was found to be useful overall. In the case of medicinal use in particular, a significantly larger proportion of herbs (63 %) is medicinal than for any other habit. Our study from West Africa supports the findings of others working in the neotropics that disturbed and secondary vegetation classes are important sources of useful plants, particularly medicines. However, the greatest number of useful species are shade–bearing, which are most abundant in primary forest. Familiarity with and accessibility of old–growth forests to the communities of our study site due to Liberia’s recent history is likely responsible for their usefulness.

Diversity of Medicinal Plants among Different Forest-use Types of the Pakistani Himalaya

Abstract: Diversity of Medicinal Plants among Different Forest-use Types of the Pakistani Himalaya Medicinal plants collected in Himalayan forests play a vital role in the livelihoods of regional rural societies and are also increasingly recognized at the international level. However, these forests are being heavily transformed by logging. Here we ask how forest transformation influences the diversity and composition of medicinal plants in northwestern Pakistan, where we studied old-growth forests, forests degraded by logging, and regrowth forests. First, an approximate map indicating these forest types was established and then 15 study plots per forest type were randomly selected. We found a total of 59 medicinal plant species consisting of herbs and ferns, most of which occurred in the old-growth forest. Species number was lowest in forest degraded by logging and intermediate in regrowth forest. The most valuable economic species, including six Himalayan endemics, occurred almost exclusively in old-growth forest. Species composition and abundance of forest degraded by logging differed markedly from that of old-growth forest, while regrowth forest was more similar to old-growth forest. The density of medicinal plants positively correlated with tree canopy cover in old-growth forest and negatively in degraded forest, which indicates that species adapted to open conditions dominate in logged forest. Thus, old-growth forests are important as refuge for vulnerable endemics. Forest degraded by logging has the lowest diversity of relatively common medicinal plants. Forest regrowth may foster the reappearance of certain medicinal species valuable to local livelihoods and as such promote acceptance of forest expansion and medicinal plants conservation in the region. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12231-012-9213-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Sesame Utilization in China: New Archaeobotanical Evidence from Xinjiang

Abstract: Sesame Utilization in China: New Archaeobotanical Evidence from Xinjiang. A cache of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) seeds, discovered in the Thousand Buddha Grottoes at Boziklik, Turpan, China, dating to ca. 700 years before present (BP), is hard evidence of their use in China since that time. Morphological and anatomical features suggest a white sesame cultivar. The sizeable quantity unearthed implies that sesame was a valued commodity that could provision the monks and enrich the diet of ancient inhabitants as an oil source.

Medieval History of the Duda’im Melon ( Cucumis melo , Cucurbitaceae)

Abstract: Medieval History of the Duda’im Melon ( Cucumis melo , Cucurbitaceae). Melons, Cucumis melo, are a highly polymorphic species for fruit characteristics. The melons that are the most valued are the ones that turn sweet when ripe, including the muskmelons, cantaloupes, and casabas. Others, including the elongate adzhur, conomon, and snake melons, are consumed when immature, like cucumbers. The duda’im melons, Cucumis melo Duda’im Group, are special, as their small, spherical, thin-fleshed, insipid but beautifully maroon, dark-orange, or brown-and-yellow striped ripe fruits are valued for ornament and especially for their lush fragrance. The distinctive properties of duda’im melons are matched with special names given to them in several languages and geographical areas, which have made possible tracing of the history of these melons to mid-9th century Persia. From that region, duda’im melons diffused westward, likely facilitated by Islamic conquests, reaching North Africa and Andalusia in the 10th century.

Spatial, Temporal, and Economic Constraints to the Commercial Extraction of a Non–timber Forest Product: Copaíba ( Copaifera spp.) Oleoresin in Amazonian Reserves

Abstract: Spatial, Temporal, and Economic Constraints to the Commercial Extraction of a Non–Timber Forest Product: Copaiba (Copaifera spp) Oleoresin in Amazonian Reserves The increasing prevalence of government– and NGO–sponsored programs to encourage commercial non–timber forest product (NTFP) extractivism in the humid tropics has highlighted the need for ecological and socioeconomic appraisal of the viability of extractive industries We adopted a novel integrative approach to examine NTFP resource potential and produced credible landscape–scale estimates of the projected value of an economically important Amazonian NTFP, the medicinal oleoresin of Copaifera trees, within two large contiguous extractive reserves in Brazilian Amazonia We integrated results derived from previous spatial ecology and harvesting studies with socioeconomic and market data, and mapped the distribution of communities within the reserves We created anisotropic accessibility models that determined the spatial and temporal access to Copaifera trees in permanently unflooded (terra firme) and seasonally flooded (varzea) forests Just 649 % of the total reserve area was accessible, emphasizing the distinction between the actual resource stock and that which is available to extractors The density of productive tree species was higher in the varzea forests, but per–tree productivity was greater in the terra firme forests, resulting in similar estimates of oleoresin yield per unit area (64–67 ml ha–1) in both forest types A greater area of the varzea forests was accessible within shorter travel times of ≤250 minutes; longer travel times allowed access to increasingly greater volumes of oleoresin from the terra firme forests The estimated total volume of oleoresin accessible within the two reserves was 38,635 liters for an initial harvest, with projected offtake for a subsequent harvest falling to 8,274 liters A household that extracted just 2 liters of oleoresin per month could generate 5 % of its mean income; market data suggested that certification could increase the value of the resource fivefold Our approach is valuable in that it incorporates a range of methodologies and quantitatively accounts for the numerous constraints to the commercial viability of NTFP extraction

A New Monstera Species (Araceae) of Economic Importance from Honduras

Abstract: Monstera maderaverde Grayum & Karney (Araceae: Monsteroiodeae: Monstereae), here described as new to science, is an endemic, secondarily hemiepiphytic species from Honduras producing a saleable product. Remarkably, it has been completely missed in scientific identification. Many tropical communities worldwide employ fibrous Araceae for household applications and commercial sale. Hemiepiphytic Araceae are important medicinally and ornamentally in Bolivia, and pendent Araceae roots have been used for basket-weaving in Mexico (Monstera deliciosa Liebm., Syngonium podophyllum Schott) and Tonga (Epipremnum pinnatum [L.] Engl.), while Epipremnum cermaense has been used in canoe outrigging on the Indonesian island of Halmahera (Acebey et al. 2010; Hettinger and Cox 1997; Martínez-Romero et al. 2004). Further, basket-weaving and construction applications of aroids belonging to the genus Heteropsis have been documented in Amazonia (Knab-Vispo et al. 2003). In the case of Monstera maderaverde, pendent, fibrous roots 2–10 m in length are removed from plants growing in or near the canopy, with stems, leaves, and the supporting tree left intact. The roots are peeled, dried, and made into commercial products such as hats (Figs. 1, 2) and visors, containers for flowers, jewelry, and tortillas, wastebaskets, key-chains, furniture, mirror frames, and figurines. The raw material is known locally as “mimbre” (i.e., “wicker”). Honduras is within the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al. 2000), but has been poorly studied floristically, with neither a national flora nor any comprehensive treatment of Honduran Araceae yet available. Florulas of two Atlantic coastal regions, the Lancetilla and Aguán Valleys, were published by Standley (1931) and Yuncker (1940), respectively. Only one new species of Araceae was described in the latter work, and just three (none in Monstera) have been described from Honduras since 1940. Croat (1998) noted only one endemic species of Anthurium (Araceae) in Honduras, relative to far more in Costa Rica and Panama. The recognition of Monstera maderaverde suggests that a lack of research effort may be partly responsible for this apparent dearth, and it is probable that the forests where M. maderaverde occurs are of high biodiversity significance. The understudied nature of the Honduran flora is especially troubling given recent deforestation trends. Carr (2005) acknowledged Central America as the world region with the highest deforestation percentage in the latter half of the 20 century, with Honduras accounting for the regional peak during 1990–2005 (DeClerck et al. 2010). From 2005–2010, forested land area in Honduras was estimated to have been reduced from 5,744,000 ha to 5,150,000 ha (Oqueli et al. 2010). This trend is especially problematic for species showing an affinity for continuous primary forests, such as climbing epiphytes (Koster et al. 2009). The potentially benign harvest of a useable species like Monstera maderaverde could provide an economic incentive to conserve remaining forests.

Maize x Teosinte Hybrid Cobs Do Not Prevent Crop Gene Introgression

Abstract: Maize x Teosinte Hybrid Cobs Do Not Prevent Crop Gene Introgression. Whether introgression from crops to wild relatives can occur is an important component of transgene risk assessment. In the case of maize, which co-occurs with its wild relative teosinte in Mexico, the possibility of introgression has been controversial. Maize is cross-compatible with teosinte, and spontaneous hybridization is known to occur. Some scientists have hypothesized that the maize x teosinte cob infructescence will prevent progeny dispersal, thus preventing introgression. Motivated by a prior study where we found maize x teosinte hybrid fruits naturally dispersed under field conditions, we tested whether hybrid cobs hold their fruits as tightly as maize cobs. We found the force required to detach hybrid fruits was substantially and significantly less than that for maize. Consequently, we expect that introgression of transgenes from maize into teosinte in Mexico should occur largely unimpeded by the hybrid cob.La mazorca o elote hibrido de maiz x teocintle no impide la introgresion de genes transgenicos provenientes del cultivo. La introgresion entre el maiz cultivado y el maiz silvestre, o teocintle, es un componente importante en la evaluacion ambiental relacionada con los riesgos de la introduccion de genes transgenicos. La posibilidad de introgresion entre el maiz domesticado y el teocintle ha sido un tema controversial, en particular en Mexico, donde maiz y teocintle coexisten. El maiz es compatible con el teocintle y la hibridizacion espontanea ocurre entre ellos. Algunos cientificos han planteado como hipotesis que al cruzar el maiz con teocintle, la estructura interna de la infrutescencia que sujeta los frutos conocida como la mazorca de maiz o el elote, impide la dispersion de la progenie evitando que la introgresion ocurra. Los resultados de un estudio previo evidencian la dispersion de los frutos hibridos del maiz x teocintle en condiciones naturales. Motivados por estos resultados, hemos decidido investigar si la mazorca o el elote de las infrutescencias del hibrido sujetan los frutos con una fuerza comparable o mayor a la del maiz. Nuestras mediciones implican que la fuerza necesaria para liberar los frutos hibridos son substancial y significativamente menores que aquellas necesarias para desprender los frutos del maiz. Como conclusion sugerimos que en Mexico, la mazorca o el elote no representan una barrera que impida la introgresion de los genes transgenicos del maiz al teocintle.

Plant Remedies against Witches and the Evil Eye in a Spanish “Witches’ Village”

Abstract: Plant Remedies against Witches and the Evil Eye in a Spanish “Witches’ Village.” An ethnobotanical survey was carried out to understand the traditional knowledge and current use of different preventive and curative plant remedies against witches and the evil eye in a Spanish rural community (Villarino de los Aires, Salamanca). Located in a Spanish region known as “Arribes del Duero,” this locality has historically been considered an important “witches’ village.” An anonymous questionnaire was answered by 52 people living in the village. The cultural importance index (CI) of each species was calculated. To analyze how knowledge varies as a function of the socio-demographic characteristics of the different informants, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed, taking as variable to model the use-reports provided, and as explanatory variables the age, gender, and educational status. Age was the only variable that explained the variety in the number of plant remedies known; people over 60 knew significantly more plant remedies. Fifteen vascular plants were mentioned. The preventive remedies were particularly associated with key moments of the religious calendar. Branches gathered from olive trees, laurel, and/or rosemary are blessed on Palm Sunday, and then placed on window sills to protect people’s homes. During the celebration of Saint John’s Bonfire, aromatic plants are burnt, and the purifying and protecting power of the smoke emerges. The traditional use of plants hung behind doors of houses and stables to repel witches, and rituals for curing evil eye affecting people, animals, or even possessions were also revealed. Even today in rural communities of western Spain, there is a clear connection between popular religious and magic beliefs and their relationship with nature, especially plants.

Mexican Bark Paper: Evidence of History of Tree Species Used and Their Fiber Characteristics

Abstract: Mexican Bark Paper: Evidence of History of Tree Species Used and Their Fiber Characteristics. The use of bark fibers (secondary phloem) for the manufacture of the Mexican bark paper called amate can be traced back to the pre–Hispanic period. This paper was used extensively during this period, and for the last four decades has been produced as a handicraft by the Nahnus of San Pablito village in the Sierra Norte de Puebla region of Mexico. Due to the high demand for this product, new species are now used as a source of bark and specific phases of the traditional production technique have been modified. The focus of this study was to register all the species that have been used for bark paper manufacturing, both traditionally and more recently, and to analyze their fiber characteristics, mainly fiber length and lignin content. The main questions addressed by this study were: a) Which species have been used for bark paper production, both prior to and following its commercialization as a handicraft? b) Which anatomical and histochemical fiber characteristics of these species enable their use for bark paper production, regardless of taxa? And c) is there a relationship between the adoption and use of new species and recent changes in traditional paper making techniques? Based on an ethnobotanical study, a list of 13 species used for bark paper production was compiled and bark samples from each species were collected for phloem anatomical and histochemical analysis. Artisans and local healers were also asked to determine the main characteristics of each fiber and paper type. The results demonstrate that bark from currently used species differs anatomically and histochemically from species used during the pre–Hispanic period and until a few decades ago, and in terms of the quality assessed by local healers and artisans. Among other characteristics, the fibers of the new species have higher lignin content than the traditional ones, and this constitutes the main reason behind the modification of certain phases of the traditional paper making process.

Who Harvests and Why? Characteristics of Guatemalan Households Harvesting Xaté (Chamaedorea ernesti-augusti)1

Abstract: Who Harvests and Why? Characteristics of Guatemalan Households Harvesting Xate (Chamaedorea ernesti-augusti). Cultivation of harvested species is frequently proposed as a conservation strategy to reduce wild harvesting pressure and improve local livelihoods. The success of this approach is likely to be influenced by harvesters’ socioeconomic characteristics. Our study focuses on illegal harvesting of a palm species (Chamaedorea ernesti-augusti, locally known as xate), by Guatemalans in the largely Belizean Greater Maya Mountains. We surveyed 222 households in nine Guatemalan villages close to the Belize/Guatemala border. With this sample we estimated the current intensity of illegal harvesting by Guatemalans in Belize, the characteristics of harvesting households, and their perceptions of the enforcement level of harvesting laws. We estimated that 26 % of households in the study area actively harvest. Harvesting households owned less land than non-harvesting households. Harvesters are aware that harvesting in Belize is illegal and of the sanctions for harvesting. However, incomes from xate harvesting were favorable compared to alternative available activities and there were few barriers to entry. We conclude that successful conservation interventions promoting cultivation need to take account of existing harvester characteristics and constraints. Lack of secure land tenure means that cultivation is not a feasible alternative for many harvesting households.

Bush Medicine of the Bahamas. A Cross-Cultural Perspective from San Salvador Island, Including Pharmacology and Oral Histories

Abstract: Preserving knowledge of Bahamian bush medicine, associated cultural values, and relevant oral histories are among the authors’ stated goals for this impressive volume. Identification and uses of bush medicine plants, their cross-cultural potential, and preservation of the San Salvadoran ecology are additional objectives. That these goals have been met or surpassed is abundantly clear. While this work focuses on San Salvador Island, its relevance likely extends to the greater archipelago. From conception through interpretation, this narrative provides a detailed vicarious experience of the research process. Reminiscent of Rea’s style in At the Desert’s Green Edge, emic and etic perspectives are effectively fused, reporting Bahamian ethnomedicine through interview transcripts and commentary rooted in extensive library, herbaria and field studies. Background, methodology, historical, social, linguistic, and geographic context, photographs and the authors’ personal reflections are presented. Bush medicine practitioners are typically elderly, lending urgency to this documentation. The authors respond to this crisis by working with the Bahamian educational system to incorporate bush medicine knowledge into the curriculum. Beyond description of plants, their medicinal properties and suggested dosages, this project explores the complexity of the Bahamian ethnomedicine as neither a transplanted healing system, nor a totally new one. A syncretic fusion of multiple African dietary, medicinal, spiritual, world views and health traditions, reinterpreted within a common framework of Bahamian ecosystems, and ultimately influenced by indigenous American and colonial traditions, is systematically revealed. Pragmatism is shown to be a prime factor in the “transformation and reformulation” of the health and healing systems of enslaved people. West Africans of at least a half dozen distinct nationalities conserved transferable aspects of healing traditions, general plant knowledge, and cosmological constructs but selectively repressed others. This sacrifice facilitated the incorporation of New World species into their medical universe, compensating for key medicines and social elements now beyond their reach. Bush medicine within living memory is the foundation of this volume. Obeah, a loose collection of practices for influencing the supernatural and divining, healing, and protection from harm, is a key component of this AfroBahamian health maintenance system. Species identification, harvesting, preparation, dosage and administration of ethnomedicines are presented, largely in the informants’ own words. Sufficient information is provided that one can reach one’s own conclusions, as even conflicting information from informants is presented. Guidelines to the 176 page chapter, Materia Medica, are welcome as twenty categories of information are included for each of 120 medicinal plants and their uses. Sharp, full color plates illustrate 102 of these species. Specific chapters on “Granny Medicine” (midwifery), non-botanical remedies, and “practitioner portraits” complete this meticulous presentation. There is little to fault here. Black and white photos in each chapter are drab in contrast to the vibrant center plates and dust jacket. This likely represents an effort to maintain the reasonable price of $37. From dust jacket to final credits, Bush Medicine of the Bahamas engages casual and scholarly readers alike. This oversize treasury of folk medicine, story, biography, and photographs is equally appropriate to reference libraries and coffee tables. It is likely to become a standard reference. BOOK REVIEWS