Showing papers in "Economic Botany in 2016"

A Matter of Taste: Local Explanations for the Consumption of Wild Food Plants in the Catalan Pyrenees and the Balearic Islands

Abstract: A Matter of Taste: Local Explanations for the Consumption of Wild Food Plants in the Catalan Pyrenees and the Balearic Islands. Previous research has documented different trends in the consumption of wild food plants but has rarely analyzed the motivations behind their continued (or lack of) consumption. In this article, we use empirical data to explore the factors driving the consumption of a selected set of wild food plants. We start by analyzing the different trends (i.e., abandonment, maintenance, and valorization) across 21 selected species with different food uses. We then explore the reported motivations that drive such trends using data collected among 354 respondents in three Catalan-speaking rural areas. The consumption of wild food plants is decreasing in the three study areas and across the categories of food use analyzed. Respondents listed sociocultural factors, rather than environmental or economic factors, as more prominent determinants of consumption trends; taste preferences seem to be the most relevant motivation for those who continue to consume wild food plants, whereas a myriad of motivations related to changes in lifestyle were provided by those who explain the abandonment of their consumption.

Current and Remembered Past Uses of Wild Food Plants in Saaremaa, Estonia: Changes in the Context of Unlearning Debt

Abstract: It is widely agreed that in industrialized Europe, knowledge on the use of wild food plants shows a decreasing trend with few instances of valorization. We employed a folk history approach in order to understand the changes that have occurred in the use of wild food plants within the lifetime of the older generation living on Saaremaa Island. Comparing current and remembered past uses and evaluating temporal encounters afforded the understanding that, while the general picture of the use of wild food plants seems diverse and promising (89 plant taxa used, median 20 taxa used per person, Informant Consensus Index of 0.9), only 36% of uses have been practiced throughout life. Another third (34%) of uses existed as a childhood memory, which also encompassed taxa useful during times of food shortage, and 20% of the uses recorded were recently abandoned. The uses of wild food plants acquired later in life, at some point during adulthood (4%) or recently (6%), were few in number, rather temporal in nature and affected by fashion trends. To understand the temporal changes in the use of wild food plants and to identify the reasons causing those changes, it may be important for future researchers to document the exact time of the actual use. To ensure the survival of food security–related knowledge, during times of relative food abundance, it is important to ensure the continuity of the use of wild food plants on the family level by educating children through their participation in making food from wild plants.

Garcinia in Southern China: Ethnobotany, Management, and Niche Modeling

Abstract: Garcinia species are well known for being used traditionally in many different ways in Guangxi and Yunnan, China. To preserve this knowledge, this study recorded the ethnobotanical importance of the genus Garcinia in this area. Ethnobotanical data were collected from seven prefectures in Guangxi (Baise, Chongzuo, Guilin, Fangchenggang, Hechi, Liuzhou, Qinzhou) and six prefectures in Yunnan (Dehong, Honghe, Lincang, Puer, Wenshan, Xishuangbanna) from different ethnic groups. The data were collected in different seasons during 2008, and then again between 2010 and 2014, and 2016. A total of 250 informants were interviewed. Free listing methods, Smith’ S value, use frequency, semi-structured interviews, and potential distribution analysis were used to gather the data. Nine species were identified: Garcinia bracteata C. Y. Wu ex Y. H. Li, Garcinia cowa Roxb., Garcinia esculenta Y. H. Li, Garcinia multiflora Champ. ex Benth., Garcinia oblongifolia Champ. ex Benth., Garcinia paucinervis Chun & How, Garcinia pedunculata Roxb., Garcinia xanthochymus Hook. f. ex T. Anders., and Garcinia yunnanensis Hu. For each species, the field distribution, use knowledge, estimated usage intensities, prediction for potential distributions, and traditional management were recorded and analyzed. Conclusions are that (1) local knowledge of Garcinia species is diversified and influenced by ethnic groups. They are used as edible fruit, medicine, wood, ornamental plants, and extracting oil; (2) different ethnic groups share similar ideas regarding sustainable harvest and meeting their needs through resource management; and (3) with the rapid socio-economic changes in these areas, the traditional knowledge of the local people is being threatened.

Ancient Cannabis Burial Shroud in a Central Eurasian Cemetery

Abstract: An extraordinary cache of ancient, well-preserved Cannabis plant remains was recently discovered in a tomb in the Jiayi cemetery of Turpan, NW China. Radiometric dating of this tomb and the archeobotanical remains it contained indicate that they are approximately 2800–2400 years old. Both morphological and anatomical features support the identification of the plant remains as Cannabis. Research discussed in this paper describes 13 nearly whole plants of Cannabis that appear to have been locally produced and purposefully arranged and used as a burial shroud which was placed upon a male corpse. This unique discovery provides new insight into the ritualistic use of Cannabis in prehistoric Central Eurasia. Furthermore, the fragmented infructescences of Cannabis discovered in other tombs of the Jiayi cemetery, together with similar Cannabis remains recovered from coeval tombs in the ancient Turpan cemetery along with those found in the Altai Mountains region, reveal that Cannabis was used by the local Central Eurasian people for ritual and/or medicinal purposes in the first millennium before the Christian era.

Amazonian Guayusa (Ilex guayusa Loes.): A Historical and Ethnobotanical Overview

Abstract: Guayusa (Ilex guayusa Loes.) is an under–studied holly species found in the upper Amazon basin of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Societies throughout the region traditionally consume an infusion of guayusa brewed from its leaves, and its extensive usage by humans throughout its range strongly suggests some degree of domestication. Guayusa belongs to the only extant genus of the family Aquifoliaceae that contains 600 species, of which ca. 300 species can be found in the Neotropics (Loizeau et al. 2005). Available literature and museum collections have registered guayusa at altitudes ranging from 200 to 2,600 m (Loizeau and Barriera 1999). Members of the Ilex genus exhibit low inter–specific floral, palynological, and anatomical variation as well as a tendency for hybridization (Manen et al. 2010). Nearly all records for guayusa are associated with current or abandoned cultivation sites. Domesticated guayusa individuals can grow to an average of 10 m high and present a multitude of stems that measure 2 to15 cm at breast height (Fig. 1). When mature and if unmanaged, guayusa individuals can reach a height of approximately 25 m and a stem diameter of approximately 50 cm at breast height. Guayusa is a dioecious species (Shemluck 1979). Despite the presence of seeds, guayusa is only known to reproduce asexually by human planting of the leafless hardwood stem cuttings extracted from the base of a stock plant. Like several other species within the genus, guayusa leaves have been found to contain alkaloids (e.g., caffeine and theobromine) (Radice and Vidari 2000). In this paper we provide a summary of existing literature on guayusa, as well as ethnographic descriptions of its uses among contemporary human populations. Based on this information, we argue that I. guayusa should be considered a domesticated species (sensu Clement 1999) with a long history of human propagation and consumption. Consequently, we suggest lines of research needed to confirm this proposition.

Plant Diversity in the Indigenous Home Gardens in the Eastern Himalayan Region of Mizoram, Northeast India

Abstract: The eastern Himalayan region of Northeast India is well known for its traditional home gardens, which are considered to play important roles in the maintenance of livelihoods of indigenous communities and conservation of biological diversity. This study determines the plant diversity in home gardens and their importance in conservation of plant genetic resources (PGR) through utilization. We studied 90 home gardens in detail located in six villages. Different aspects of the home gardens and plant species were observed directly and through discussion with the farmers. A total of 333 plant species (133 trees, 92 shrubs, and 108 herbs) belonging to 128 plant families with an average of 78 species per home garden were recorded. The size of home gardens ranged between 0.10 and 0.60 ha and showed significant (P<0.001) positive correlation between the garden size and plant species diversity. The species diversity index for trees, shrubs, and herbs was 4.76, 4.39, and 4.58, respectively. The species similarity within each life form was high with 50% for trees, 38% for shrubs, and 49% for herbs. Plant species in the home gardens could be grouped into 11 major use categories with the majority of plants in the medicinal or multiple use category. These home gardens are reservoirs of PGR and play a vital role in sustaining the livelihood of local inhabitants. They are also functioning as domestication and conservation centers of many crop relatives.

Medicinal Plants Used for Treating Reproductive Health Care Problems in Cameroon, Central Africa(1).

Abstract: Medicinal Plants Used for Treating Reproductive Health Care Problems in Cameroon, Central Africa. Approximately 80% of the African population uses traditional plants to deal with health problems, basically because of their easy accessibility and affordability. This study was carried out to document indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used by traditional healers and elders in the treatment of reproductive health care in the Bamboutos Division of the West Region in Cameroon, Central Africa. The research methods used included semi-structured interviews and participative field observations. For the interviews, 70 knowledgeable respondents (40 traditional healers and 30 elders) were selected via purposive sampling. Voucher specimens were collected with the help of respondents, processed into the Cameroon National Herbarium in Yaounde following standard methods, identified with the help of pertinent floras and taxonomic experts, and submitted to Department of Botany at the University of Dschang. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze and summarize ethnobotanical information obtained. Informant consensus factors (ICF) were used to elucidate the agreement among informants on the species to be used in the treatment within a category of illness. The results showed that a total of 70 plant species from 37 families (mostly of the Asteraceae [8 species], Euphorbiaceae [7], and Acanthaceae and Bignoniaceae [4 each]) are used in the treatment of 27 reproductive ailments, with the highest number of species (37) being used against venereal diseases, followed by female (29) and male infertility (21), respectively. Leaves (47.3%) were the most commonly harvested plant parts and the most common growth forms harvested were the herbs (45.7%), followed by shrubs (30%). Sixty percent of plant material was obtained from the wild ecosystems. Herbal remedies were mostly prepared in the form of decoction (66.2%) and were taken mainly orally. Informant consensus about usages of medicinal plants ranged from 0.5 to 1.0 with an average value of 0.91. It can be concluded that medicinal plants have played and will continue to play major roles in the management of reproductive healthcare in the study area.

Diversity and Cultivation of Broomcorn Millet ( Panicum miliaceum L.) in China: A Review

Abstract: Broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) is a minor crop within the same genus as the bioenergy crop switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.). It is one of the oldest cultivated crops and it plays important roles in both food and culture in China. Its wide distribution and long history of cultivation have led to the accumulation of abundant genetic resources. Here, we introduce briefly the history and related culture of the crop and review the diversity of the crop for agronomic traits among the germplasm collections in China and recent developments in genetic diversity analysis. It will be helpful for facilitating further research on broomcorn millet.

Turning a Problem Into Profit: Using Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) for Making Handicrafts at Lake Alaotra, Madagascar

Abstract: In diverse ecosystems, invasive plant species represent a serious threat for nature conservation by leading to loss of native species as well as environmental degradation. The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) belongs to the top 10 worldwide most troublesome aquatic weeds. This study assesses the use of this invasive plant as a new source of raw material for handicrafts to substitute for the traditionally used papyrus (Cyperus madagascariensis) in the poor and remote region of Lake Alaotra in Madagascar. It has been recently observed that the current exploitation of papyrus in this region adds pressure on the receding Alaotra wetland and notably decreases habitat and food resources for the locally endemic and critically endangered lemur species Hapalemur alaotrensis. Within our research, water hyacinth handicrafts were produced by local artisans and compared with papyrus handicrafts regarding production path (collection, transportation, and processing of raw material) with a focus on financial costs, workload, and selling price. In addition, structured interviews were conducted with town-based handicraft retailers and potential customers to specify market expectations (quality, design, and marketing strategies). Our study revealed that despite the requirement for a longer time regarding raw material selection and drying (7 days vs 3 days) as well as additional financial costs (23% in addition) for ornaments, water hyacinth handicrafts displayed many advantages in comparison to papyrus handicrafts: (a) assembling water hyacinth handicrafts was easier and faster (33% less time investment), (b) led to robust products that were rated as being of acceptable to very good quality by 91% of the interviewees (c) and sold at three times (mean 2.25 US$) the sale prices of the traditional papyrus handicrafts (mean 0.75 US$). The use of water hyacinth has therefore the potential to increase local household incomes, open up new markets, and attenuate the pressure on the Alaotra wetland biodiversity by reducing the use of papyrus. A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis combined with research findings on rural handicrafts was drafted to identify four main steps for promoting the market establishment of water hyacinth handicrafts at Lake Alaotra: creation of artisans’ clusters and networks, improvement of managerial and marketing competence, access to finance and exploration of markets possibilities. This research can provide insights for other small rural handicraft enterprises in developing countries facing problem with water hyacinth throughout the world.

Perspectives on Medicinal Plants in Public Markets across the Amazon: A Review

Abstract: Perspectives on Medicinal Plants in Public Markets across the Amazon: A Review. Vendors in markets and street fairs in tropical urban centers play an important role in structuring the exploitation and distribution of non–timber forest products, including many medicinal plant species. This literature review seeks to estimate and compare the species richness of medicinal plants in urban markets across northern South America, focusing on the Amazon region. Information was systematized from scientific articles and research papers emerging from work carried out in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Guiana, Suriname, and French Guiana. Given the variation in botanical naming conventions, results were standardized using the APG III system. A total of 16 studies were reviewed, most of these coming from Brazil (5), Venezuela (3), Colombia (2), and Peru (2). Overall 844 species were identified, varying between 16 and 251 species per study, with a median of 91 (±63). The highest diversity of medicinal plant species was found in Suriname (251) and Venezuela (164). Among the 133 families identified, Fabaceae, Asteraceae, and Lamiaceae had the highest number of species overall. The most common plant parts encountered were leaves (324), followed by bark (162), whole plants (130), aerial parts (88), roots (80), fruit (76), and seeds (63). Ethnobotanical studies in urban centers are important for understanding the exploitation of botanical resources in different Amazonian ecosystems, highlighting the use of different species in regional pharmacopeias and pointing towards factors that could influence the conservation of medicinal plants.

Maize Germplasm Conservation in Southern California's Urban Gardens: Introduced Diversity Beyond ex situ and in situ Management.

Abstract: Contemporary germplasm conservation studies largely focus on ex situ and in situ management of diversity within centers of genetic diversity. Transnational migrants who transport and introduce landraces to new locations may catalyze a third type of conservation that combines both approaches. Resulting populations may support reduced diversity as a result of evolutionary forces such as genetic drift, selection, and gene flow, yet they may also be more diverse as a result of multiple introductions, selective breeding and cross pollination among multiple introduced varietals. In this study, we measured the amount and structure of maize molecular genetic diversity in samples collected from home gardens and community gardens maintained by immigrant farmers in Southern California. We used the same markers to measure the genetic diversity and structure of commercially available maize varieties and compared our data to previously reported genetic diversity statistics of Mesoamerican landraces. Our results reveal that transnational dispersal creates an opportunity for the maintenance of maize genetic diversity beyond its recognized centers of diversity.

Woody Plant Diversity in Urban Homegardens in Northern Thailand

Abstract: Woody Plant Diversity in Urban Homegardens in Northern Thailand. Homegardens are traditional farming systems located within homesteads and are found in many countries throughout the world. The main functions of the homegardens are providing food and other goods for the household and also contributing to the generation of cash income. The number of species found in homegardens is an important trait that reflects their versatility and multiple uses. Woody homegarden plants are important because, being perennial, they represent stability from year to year, and they also produce large amounts of fruits and leaves which are important for food security and income generation. Most homegarden studies have focused on rural areas while urban homegardens have received little attention. In this study we show the importance of homegardens in an urban area by investigating woody plant diversity and the factors that drive this trait in a village in northern Thailand. We identified 94 woody plant species, most of which had edible fruits. The most common was mango (Mangifera indica), whereas economically the most important woody plant was the white fig (Ficus virens), which generated about USD 40 two times a year per tree. Thirteen household characteristics were examined using nonlinear principle analysis (NLPCA) in three dimension. Only the household head’s level of education, occupation, and the age of the household were significantly correlated with diversity indices. Moreover, diversity (Shannon and Gini-Simpson indices) of woody plants was significantly correlated with abundance and overall species richness. However, evenness was negatively correlated with abundance.

On the Origin of the Genus Psilocybe and Its Potential Ritual Use in Ancient Africa and Europe1

Abstract: On the Origin of the Genus Psilocybe and Its Potential Ritual Use in Ancient Africa and Europe. The role of altered states of consciousness in the production of geometric and figurative art by prehistoric cultures in Africa and Europe has been hotly debated. Helvenston and Bahn have tried to refute the most famous hypothesis, Lewis-Williams’ neuropsychological model, by claiming that appropriate visual hallucinations required the ingestion of LSD, psilocybin, or mescaline, while arguing that none of these compounds were available to the cultures in question. We present here mycological arguments that tell another story. A prehistoric worldwide distribution of the mushroom genus Psilocybe, and therefore of psilocybin, is supported by the existence of endemic species in America, Africa, and Europe, the disjunct distribution of sister species, and the possibility of long-distance spore dispersal. It is more difficult to point to instances of actual prehistoric ritual use in Africa and Europe, but there are a growing number of suggestive findings.

The Sound of Trees: Wood Selection in Guitars and Other Chordophones

Abstract: Until recently, luthiers have been conservative in their wood choices for guitars and other chordophones. Most soundboards (tops) were made from American or European spruces. Rosewood and, less frequently, mahogany, maple, and koa, were used for backs and sides. Spanish cedar and mahogany were the preferred species for necks; ebony or rosewood for fretboards. Due to scarcity and increasing costs, new woods are now employed. Some are congeners of traditional woods; others are more innovative. The botanical identification of many of these species is inaccurate. A common name may refer to more than one species (under–differentiation, e.g., Madagascar rosewood for several Dalbergia spp.). Conversely, a binomial may be known by several common names (over–differentiation, e.g., European, German, or Italian spruce for Picea abies). Instrument makers and wood suppliers are unreliable sources of taxonomic names, especially with newer woods. Here, I provide the full taxonomic identification (binomials, author citations, and families) for both traditional and some new guitar woods. Many factors determine a wood’s suitability for lutherie. A model based on two mechanical properties of wood, density and modulus of elasticity, can be used to determine what species of wood constitutes each part of a guitar. Many of the “new” guitar woods are now becoming scarce. Luthiers face the continual task of finding suitable alternative woods. The model presented here can serve as a guide in future wood choices; further modifications, using additional wood properties, may help refine the model. These principles are also applicable to wood selection for other chordophones.

Local Knowledge, Use and Management of Ethnovarieties of Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) Ktze. in the Plateau of Santa Catarina, Brazil

Abstract: This study examines the human use and management of Araucaria angustifolia ethnovarieties from Santa Catarina, Brazil, and contributes to what is known about the ethnobotany of Araucaria species. The available literature on varietal differences of A. angustifolia is somewhat divergent, and there are currently no ethnobotanical studies on the intraspecific variation and management of this species. The study examined local knowledge and sociocultural and economic values of A. angustifolia varieties to understand how the varieties are managed and how management practices are influencing the conservation of the species. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 33 informants (identified using the snowball method) in the Painel and Urubici municipalities. Participants identified 12 local varieties, four of which were cited by more than one informant. Characteristic differences include size, color and flavor of the nut-like seeds (pinhao), and most importantly, season of maturation of the cone. The “Caiova” variety was preferred for its bigger, firmer, and sweeter seeds that are considered easier to peel and last longer in storage. Even though there is some interest in developing management practices that favor some varieties in order to guarantee year-round production, seedlings are commonly removed. This management practice is most likely a response to current regulations that prohibit cutting down adult trees. The results of this study have important implications for the relationship between the knowledge of A. angustifolia practices and the current legal framework that protects this species. A more detailed understanding of the relevant ethnobotanical knowledge is required in order to establish the best practices for sustainable use of A. angustifolia and its varietal diversity and to support the communities that depend on this species as a resource.

Myrtle (Myrtus communis) as a Ritual Plant in the Holy Land—a Comparative Study in Relation to Ancient Traditions

Abstract: Myrtle (Myrtus communis) as a Ritual Plant in the Holy Land—a Comparative Study in Relation to Ancient Traditions. This article surveys the present-day ritual uses of myrtle (Myrtus communis) among Druze, Muslims, and Christians in the Holy Land, and compares current practices to traditions of the ancient world. Based on the use of myrtle in sacrifice in Sumer, and the important role of myrtle for the Zoroastrians, we suggest that the religious and ritual aspects of this plant originated in Mesopotamia. The later ritual use of myrtle by other religions (especially Judaism) is considered a result of syncretism during previous periods of cultural contact and common history.

Amerindian and Afro-American Perceptions of Their Traditional Knowledge in the Chocó Biodiversity Hotspot

Abstract: The Choco biodiversity hotspot is one of the most biodiverse and threatened regions on earth, yet the traditional knowledge (TK) of its inhabitants about biodiversity remains little studied. The Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) aims to integrate different knowledge systems, including scientific and TK, to assess the state of the planet’s biodiversity. We documented the TK of three ethnic groups: Afro-Colombians (n = 86 participants), Amerindian Embera (n = 88), and Tsa’chila (n = 52), focusing on their perceptions about (i) the most important palms, (ii) current vs. past uses, (iii) and TK transmission. We found 46 useful palm species and 520 different uses of palms. The species that were most important in local people’s views also had high use value, based on a commonly used quantitative index in ethnobotany. Although construction was the most commonly mentioned use category, palm materials were absent in Afro-Colombian and Tsa’chila homes, and were being increasingly replaced in Embera homes. In all three cultures, it was generally believed that TK was not being transmitted to the younger generations. In aggregate, the current perceptions of decreasing transmission of TK, decreasing use of forests, and intergenerational differences in perceptions in the Choco could accelerate the erosion of TK. Therefore, this could ultimately limit the contribution of Amerindian and Afro-Colombian TK to IPBES’s goals of assessing on-the-ground changes in biodiversity.

Forty-five years later: The shifting dynamic of traditional ecological knowledge on Pantelleria Island, Italy

Abstract: In 1969, Galt and Galt conducted an ethnobotanical survey in the community of Khamma on the volcanic island of Pantelleria, Italy. Since then, a number of botanical studies concerning the local wild flora and cultivation of the zibibbo grape and capers have been conducted, but none have investigated traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) regarding the use of wild plants and fungi. We documented the current TEK and practices concerning wild plants and fungi on the island, focusing on uses related to food and medicine with 42 in-depth interviews in six communities in June 2014. Our aim was to examine shifts in TEK, represented in terms of loss or gain of specific species uses, in comparison to the 1969 study. All interviews were conducted in person in Italian with prior informed consent. We employed two primary means of eliciting responses concerning traditional practices; informants were asked to: 1) free-list the most commonly used plants for wild foods, general medicine, and skin remedies; and 2) view and discuss a booklet composed of photos of species reported in the Galt and Galt study. In total, 86 botanical and 19 fungal species representing 53 families were cited. While many plant-based traditions have disappeared from daily practice, especially those related to traditional fishing and hunting, they remain in the memories of the eldest subset of the population. For example, one of the most pervasive species in the landscape, Opuntia ficus-indica, has current day uses that persist as a food source, but its past applications were much more diverse, and included manipulation into hunting snares for birds. Other predominant flora included a number of Euphorbia spp., whose toxic latex was regularly used as a fish poison. Fungi, on the other hand, nowadays represent an important source of wild food. In conclusion, we documented a decline in knowledge and practice of TEK related to ritual healing, livestock rearing, hunting and fishing practices and an increase in TEK concerning newly introduced edible fungi.

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) Symbolism in the Ancient Euro-Mediterranean Cultures

Abstract: Interpreting plant symbolism in archaeological artifacts can help us better understand humanenvironment relationships (Caneva et al. 2014; Day 2013). In the past, representations of plants and, more generally, natural elements were not only decorative or chosen for aesthetic reasons, but they often had a precise symbolic aim. We argue that in the past people were able to understand these symbolic meanings thanks to their deep connection to and understanding of their environments (Caneva 2010; Caneva et al. 2014). The grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is a cultural keystone species in many Euro-Mediterranean cultures (McGovern 2003). This species was associated with divinities, connected to specific rituals, and frequently represented in artifacts in many ancient cultures (e.g., Egyptian, Greek, and Roman cultures) (Kumbaric and Caneva 2014). In this paper, we explore interpretations of the grapevine symbol in Euro-Mediterranean artifacts to understand better how people in the past see and relate to nature. Here we show that both shape and uses of the grapevine are key to interpreting its symbolism. The ritual and religious uses of the grapes can be connected with its symbolic interpretation as the blood of the earth and life force. The wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera L., Vitaceae) is a liana. Its natural habitats include riverbanks, deciduous, and semi-deciduous forests (Arroyo-Garcia et al. 2006; Terral et al. 2010; Zohary and Hopf 2000). There are about 60 interfertile wild Vitis species, and their distribution includes Asia, North America, and Europe (Terral et al. 2010; This et al. 2006; Wan et al. 2013). The grapevine is also cultivated, and to date, research has established that there are approximately 10,000 grapevine cultivars (This et al. 2006). Numerous paleo-botanical, taxonomical, and agronomical studies show that even in the past there were different morphotypes/ varieties (Arroyo-Garcia et al. 2006; Manen et al. 2003; Núñez and Walker 1989). Since ancient times, people have cultivated and expanded the natural geographical distribution of Vitis vinifera (Figueiral et al. 2010; Núñez and Walker 1989). In the Caucasian region, which is probably the area of origin of the plant (Jackson 2000; McGovern 2003; Myles et al. 2011), it was likely cultivated and domesticated for the first time about seven to nine millennia ago (McGovern et al. 1996a, b; Myles et al. 2011; Zohary and Hopf 2000). From that region, ancient civilizations have spread grapevines to the Euro-Mediterranean and other Euro-Asiatic regions (Terral et al. 2010; Unwin 1991). In those regions, many cultures learned about its cultivation or winemaking (Branigan 1970; Guasch-Jane et al. 2006; Janick 2007; McGovern 2003; McGovern et al. 1996a). Grape and grapevine are widely represented in mural paintings, mosaics, and sculptures (Gago et al. 2009; Kumbaric and Caneva 2014). In this paper, we explore the potential explanations and interpretations of the grapevine symbol in EuroMediterranean artifacts to better understand planthuman relationships in the past. The aim of this paper is to explore how the morphological features and uses of grape, grapevine, and wine within ancient cultures, through the representation of this plant, could explain the meaning of the grapevine as a symbol and its frequent appearances in historical artifacts. The interpretation of the grapevine symbolism is possible because the representation

Growing Cassava (Manihot esculenta) in Mato Grosso, Brazil: Genetic Diversity Conservation in Small–Scale Agriculture

Abstract: Growing Cassava ( Manihot esculenta ) in Mato Grosso, Brazil: Genetic Diversity Conservation in Small–Scale Agriculture. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a tropical species that stands out as a food source for developing countries. Within an ethnobotanical and socioeconomic context, this study aimed to compare the level of genetic diversity of cassava maintained by small farmers in three municipalities of the Cuiaba Lowland in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil: Caceres, Porto Estrela, and Santo Antonio do Leverger. This region, which is included in the center of origin of cassava, is currently undergoing profound socioeconomic changes that can have negative impacts in the on farm conservation of cassava agrobiodiversity. We characterized 211 genotypes collected in 40 households in 10 communities, using 14 microsatellite loci. High levels for the observed (H O = 0.587) and expected (H E = 0.525) heterozygosities were found, whereas most of the genetic diversity was concentrated within communities (92%). A genetic differentiation was found between the municipality of Santo Antonio do Leverger and the municipalities of Caceres and Porto Estrela, not only due to a higher geographic distance among them, but also due to soil, climatic, and cultural factors. A different number of local varieties was observed in each municipality, while the number of unique varieties in each municipality was high, 83%, 84%, and 61%, respectively, representing an important aspect for the in situ conservation of this crop. Although local names provided by farmers were phenotypically coherent, intravarietal variability among local varieties sharing the same name was high (97%). Santo Antonio do Leverger was considered as a priority area for in situ conservation. Nevertheless, in view of the decline in local traditional agriculture systems and socioeconomic transformations in this region, public policies providing support and incentives to farmers are necessary.

From Farmer Al Falfa to the Hopperdozer: Medicago sativa in North American Folkways

Abstract: Alfalfa was integral to the agricultural revolution in Europe because of the plant’s soil nitrifying properties and was widely introduced throughout North America. American folkways eventually addressed planting, harvesting, plant protection, and uses of alfalfa as animal forage and human medicine. Tall tales and folk heroes featured the plant, and it was viewed as bringing luck and success. Alfalfa festivals, including Alfalfa Queens and Princesses (both human and livestock), became widespread in the West and Midwest. “Alfalfa” was used to name fictitious as well as historical persons and places. Alfalfa, the world’s most important forage legume, is scarcely represented in standard folkloristic references, a deficiency corrected by this compilation of North American folkways.

Plant Management in Agroforestry Systems of Rosetophyllous Forests in the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico

Abstract: Plant management in agroforestry systems of rosetophyllous forests in the Tehuacan Valley, Mexico. With a human cultural history of nearly 12,000 years, the Tehuacan Valley is one of the main reservoirs of biocultural richness of Mexico, harboring archaeological remains with early signs of agriculture associated with forest management. Current peoples’ subsistence is based on agriculture, livestock, and use of forest products, practicing productive systems with reminiscences of ancient practices. The Tehuacan Valley is a Biosphere Reserve, but some areas are affected by deforestation and overexploitation of natural resources. Identifying proposals for maintaining human culture and biodiversity are central issues of research and policies in the region, and we consider that agroforestry systems (AFS) may play important roles in such purposes. This study documented the conservation capacities of AFS and problems affecting them, analyzing plant species diversity in forests and AFS of rosetophyllous Izotal and Mexical forests, plant management influencing AFS composition, and factors influencing people’s decisions about keeping plants inside their AFS. We recorded 113 plant species in the Izotal forest and 89 in the associated AFS, while 96 species in the Mexical forest and 64 in AFS. AFS maintain 76 and 88 % of the native species recorded in the Izotal and Mexical forests, respectively. Shannon diversity index in both forest types averaged 3.99 ± 1.01, while average diversity in AFS was 3.36 ± 0.99. AFS sampled in the Mexical have more vegetation cover because of the cultivation of Agave salmiana. The main agroforestry practices are fringes against soil erosion and the borders surrounding plots, where people leave plants standing, sow seeds and vegetative propagules of different species, transplant entire individuals, or cultivate others with special care. The reasons people decide to conduct these practices are mainly for shade, fodder, food, beverages allowing monetary incomes, fuelwood, material for construction, and aesthetic value. AFS maintain a high richness and diversity of plant species, but significantly, lower than forests. It is possible to enrich AFS composition and improve their contribution to regional strategies of biodiversity conservation and people’s wealth. Manejo de plantas en sistemas agroforestales de bosques rosetofilos en el Valle de Tehuacan, Mexico. Con una historia cultural de cerca de 12,000 anos, el Valle de Tehuacan es uno de los principales reservorios de riqueza biocultural de Mexico, el cual ademas resguarda elementos arqueologicos con signos tempranos de agricultura asociada al manejo forestal. La subsistencia de la gente actual se basa en la agricultura, la ganaderia y el uso de recursos forestales. Y en los sistemas productivos actuales es posible apreciar antiguas practicas de manejo. El Valle de Tehuacan es una Reserva de la Biosfera, sin embargo algunas areas son afectadas por la deforestacion y sobreexplotacion de recursos naturales. La busqueda de propuestas para mantener la armonia entre los requerimientos humanos y la biodiversidad es uno de los principales retos de la investigacion y diseno de politicas publicas en la region. Los sistemas agroforestales (SAF) pueden contribuir significativamente a estos propositos. Este estudio documenta las capacidades de conservacion de los SAF y los problemas que los afectan, analizando el manejo de especies vegetales y la diversidad de plantas en bosques rosetofilos denominados izotal y mexical, y en los SAF que se construyen con base en su transformacion, las practicas de manejo para mantener plantas dentro de los SAF, asi como los factores que influencian las decisiones de la gente. Se registraron 113 especies de plantas en el izotal y 89 en el SAF asociado, mientras que se encontraron 96 especies en el mexical y 64 en el SAF asociado. Los SAF mantienen entre 76 y 88 % de las especies nativas registradas en los bosques de izotal y mexical, respectivamente. El indice de diversidad de Shannon en ambos tipos de bosques fue en promedio 3.99 ± 1.01, mientras que en los SAF el promedio fue 3.36 ± 0.99. Los SAF muestreados en el mexical tienen mayor cubierta vegetal debido al cultivo del maguey pulquero Agave salmiana. Las principales practicas agroforestales son las franjas contra la erosion de suelo, asi como los bordes de vegetacion que rodean las parcelas. En estas areas la gente deja en pie plantas del bosque, siembra semillas o propagulos vegetativos de otras, trasplanta individuos completos de algunas y cultiva otras con cuidados especiales. Las principales razones por las que la gente mantiene estas plantas son la procuracion de sombra, forraje, alimentos, produccion de pulque que asegura ingresos monetarios, material de construccion, lena, y valores esteticos. Los SAF mantienen una alta riqueza y diversidad de especies de plantas nativas, aunque significativamente menor que la que existe en los bosques. Sin embargo, es posible enriquecer la composicion de los SAF y mejorar su contribucion a la conservacion de la biodiversidad regional y al mejoramiento de la calidad de vida de la gente.

Oral History Reveals Landscape Ecology in Ecuadorian Amazonia: Time Categories and Ethnobotany among Waorani People1

Abstract: Oral History Reveals Landscape Ecology in Ecuadorian Amazonia: Time Categories and Ethnobotany among Waorani People. Waorani oral history in Ecuadorian Amazonia reveals that traditional ecological knowledge contributes to the understanding of the natural environment of this human group. When the Waorani interpret the landscape, they identify certain elements that stand out for their cultural and practical value, as these are products of past and present settlements. The oral history and management practices, by two family clusters settled at the riverbanks of the Nushino River, contributed to assembling an analytical tool called “Waorani time categories.” These four time categories were analyzed with floristic composition based on a matrix formed by 522 plant species collected at 12 forest patches, which either had or lacked social history. The aim of this research was to examine how Waorani oral history records the ecological dynamics of some Amazonian forest patches. The use of multivariate statistical methods made establishing differences in plant diversity, evenness, and richness between managed and unmanaged forests plots possible, thus revealing human impact at specific places in Amazonia. This research confirms that it is important to intertwine social history and landscape ecology in ethnobotany with quantitative statistical interpretation, because it permits the association of a human group with a particular forest.

The Trade in African Medicinal Plants in Matonge-Ixelles, Brussels (Belgium)

Abstract: Maintaining cultural identity and preference to treat cultural bound ailments with herbal medicine are motivations for migrants to continue using medicinal plants from their home country after moving to Europe and the USA. As it is generally easier to import exotic food than herbal medicine, migrants often shift to using species that double as food and medicine. This paper focuses on the trade in African medicinal plants in a Congolese neighborhood in Brussels (Belgium). What African medicinal plants are sold in Matonge, where do they come from, and to which extent are they food medicines? Does vendor ethnicity influence the diversity of the herbal medicine sold? We hypothesized that most medicinal plants, traders, and clients in Matonge were of Congolese origin, most plants used medicinally were mainly food crops and that culture-bound illnesses played a prominent role in medicinal plant use. We carried out a market survey in 2014 that involved an inventory of medicinal plants in 19 shops and interviews with 10 clients of African descent, voucher collection and data gathering on vernacular names and uses. We encountered 83 medicinal plant species, of which 71% was primarily used for food. The shredded leaves of Gnetum africanum Welw., Manihot esculenta Crantz, and Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam were among the most frequently sold vegetables with medicinal uses. Cola nuts, shea butter, Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f., and Mondia whitei (Hook.f.). Skeels were the main non-food medicines sold. Women’s health, aphrodisiacs, and rituals were the most important medicinal applications, but culture-bound ailments did not entirely dominate the plant uses. While most clients in Matonge were Congolese, most vendors and plant species were not. The Pakistanis dominated the food trade, and typical Congolese plants were sometimes replaced by West African species, creating confusion in vernacular names. African-managed shops had significantly more species of medicinal plants in stock than shops managed by Pakistanis. Almost all non-food herbal medicine was sold by Africans. Apart from informal shops, non-food herbal medicine was also sold from private homes and by ambulant vendors, probably to reduce costs and escape taxes and control by the authorities. We expect that in the future, increasing rent, strict regulations, and decreasing investments by the Congolese community will force the medicinal plant trade in Matonge to go even more underground.

Use and Management of Piquiá Suggest in situ Domestication along the Lower Tapajós River, Brazilian Amazonia 1

Abstract: Piquiá (Caryocar villosum [Aubl.] Pers., Caryocaraceae) is an emergent tree of the Amazonian forest. We studied how traditional people use and manage piquiá, looking for evidence of its domestication in the Tapajós National Forest (FLONA Tapajós), Pará, Brazilian Amazonia. Piquiá has several uses for traditional people, with food and medicinal uses most important. They are managing to promote the species, selecting seeds from non-bitter fruits to cultivate. We found isolated trees and stands of piquiá in the forest (piquiazal). The trees occur in different types of soil, but not in anthropogenic soils, known as Amazonian Dark Earth (ADE). However, all the piquiazals were close to ADE sites, which are ancient human settlements, suggesting influence of past human activities on the species’ distribution patterns. Current uses, management, and aggregated distribution patterns of piquiá suggest a long process of domestication of the species in the FLONA Tapajós. Plant domestication is a process in which human selection of valuable phenotypes results in changes in future plant populations, making them more useful for humans and better adapted to human interventions in the landscape (Clement 1999a). Landscape domestication is also a humanmediated process that involves changes in landscape ecology and plant demography, resulting in more productive and congenial landscapes for humans (Clement 1999a). Both are processes that have different degrees of intensity and they are interrelated. Consequently, aggregated stands of species in the landscape can indicate either landscape domestication or plant population domestication or both. For example, stands of Caryocar spp. in Amazonian landscapes probably resulted from pre-conquest plant and landscape domestication performed by indigenous societies (Clement 1999a, b; Frikel 1987; Shanley and Galvão 2005). Among 83 native plant species with some degree of domestication before European conquest (Clement 1999a),C. villosum probably has incipiently domesticated populations in Central Amazonia (Clement 1999b). Piquiá reaches 40–50 m height and 2.5 m in diameter at breast height, and produces large oilystarchy fruit (Prance and Silva 1973). In the early 1900s, the pericarp oil was suggested as an alternative oil crop, but failed commercially in Malaysian plantations due to the highly competitive market with cheaper fats and oils from more abundant sources (Lane 1957). Despite the failure in the past, the commercial potential of the species is still discussed as an alternative source of income for traditional people (Clement 1999c). Besides its commercial value, the species has different uses among Amazonian traditional people (Shanley and Galvão 2005), who also select characters of interest and propagate occasionally, enabling the study of its domestication in situ.

Ethnomycology of Macrofungi in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey: Identification to Marketing

Abstract: Edible natural or cultivated macrofungi (mushrooms) are economically significant in the Western Black Sea region of Turkey. Although they have considerable direct and indirect economic, social, and cultural value, these are to date poorly explored. In this study, edible macrofungi were investigated for their ethnomycological standing from identification to marketing. The method was face-to-face data collection with a semi-structured questionnaire, applied in 6 provinces (Bolu, Duzce, Karabuk, Zonguldak, Bartin, and Kastamonu): 6 provincial centers, 17 counties, and 120 villages from April 2012 to December 2013. Seventy different local markets were visited particularly during mushroom gathering seasons. Four hundred and seventy-five responses from the forest villages provided results identifying the gender, identification of mushrooms, use, and marketing. Thirty-three species in 14 families were used for food (55.4 %), income (43.8 %), or medicine (0.8 %). These were Russulaceae (7), Morchellaceae (5), Agaricaceae (4), Cantharellaceae (3), Tricholomataceae (3), Boletaceae (2), Gomphaceae (2), Amanitaceae (1), Gomphidiaceae (1), Hericiaceae (1), Hydnaceae (1), Lyophyllaceae (1), Marasmiaceae (1), and Pleurotaceae (1). In addition, 169 different Turkish folk names were registered and five marketing channels were identified: three for cultivated mushrooms and two for wild mushrooms. Morels (Kuzu gobegi) were the most expensive among all harvested macrofungi species while Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Gray and L. salmonicolor R. Heim & Leclair (Kanlica) were the most affordable. The Black Sea region in Turkey, which is very rich in mushroom genetic resources, deserves more intensive ethnomycological study.

A Rapid Sustainability Assessment of Wild Plant Extraction on the Dutch Caribbean Island of St. Eustatius

Abstract: The Caribbean islands are considered a biodiversity hotspot, with high levels of endemism but also extreme levels of habitat loss. One factor causing local extinction or species scarcity is plant extraction by humans. Very few recent ethnobotanical studies exist for the Dutch Caribbean. We aimed to make a rapid sustainability assessment of wild plant harvesting on the island of St. Eustatius. A quantitative inventory of 11 plots (25 × 25 m) was carried out to obtain abundance data on wild plants, and 31 interviews were conducted to collect information on wild plant uses, extraction methods, and harvesting locations. In total, our respondents mentioned 181 useful plant species of which 66 were harvested exclusively from the wild. Four of these (Melocactus intortus (Mill.) Urb., Nectandra coriacea (Sw.) Griseb., Pilosocereus royenii (L.) Byles & G. D. Rowley, and Chiococca alba (L.) Hitchc.) may encounter sustainability problems in the future or might suffer from overharvesting already, as they do not survive harvesting and occur in low numbers in protected areas only. For the majority of wild species on St. Eustatius, plant extraction does not form an immediate threat to their survival. Several wild species are cultivated in gardens. Further population studies on the four shortlisted species are needed to calculate sustainable harvest levels and design adequate management plans for their survival in the future.

Small-Scale Farmers as Stewards of Useful Plant Diversity: A Case Study in Portland Parish, Jamaica

Abstract: For centuries, small-scale farmers in Jamaica have managed and cultivated a variety of plants for use as subsistence and market crops, fodder, construction materials, and medicine. Free-listing, casual conversations, guided visits to 35 farm plots and 16 homegardens, semi-structured interviews with 16 farmers, and quantitative analysis were used to identify the factors that most correlate with useful plant richness on these lands. Jamaican farmers reported on average 87 different useful plant ethnotaxa (ethnovarieties, including single-variety species as one ethnotaxon) of cultivated and wild plants growing on all their land holdings, across an average of 62 biologically distinct species. The cumulative acreage controlled by a farmer (total land size), consisting of their homegarden (“yard”) and all their farm plots, explained 61% of the variation in useful plant richness recorded for each farmer (r = 0.78; p < 0.001). In contrast, there was no effect from the farmers’ age, their level of farming experience, or household size. Overall, mean ethnotaxa richness was higher on farm plots than homegardens (p = 0.012) because of their larger size. However, on a per-unit area basis (0.1 acres), homegardens contained more useful plants than farm plots (p = 0.005). While homegardens were important repositories of wild plants that are commonly used as medicines and as regular teas for consumption in the morning, farm plots were important repositories of timber trees. This nuanced understanding of factors that contribute to useful plant richness may help to direct efforts to support local farmers and better utilize the capacity of those farmers who most promote useful plants. These results underscore the complexity of agrobiodiversity conservation in rural Jamaica.

Your Poison in My Pie—the Use of Potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) Leaves in Sakartvelo, Republic of Georgia, Caucasus, and Gollobordo, Eastern Albania

Abstract: William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299, St. Louis, MO 63166-0299, USA Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Instituto de Ecología-UMSA, Campus Universitario, Cota Cota Calle 27, La Paz, Bolivia Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Botanikuri St. 1, 0105, Tbilisi, Georgia 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, 5, Cholokasvili Ave, 0162, Tbilisi, Georgia University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, I-12060, Pollenzo, CN, Italy *Corresponding author; e-mail: rainer.bussmann@mobot.org

Prioritizing the Conservation of Epiphytic Bromeliads Using Ethnobotanical Information from a Traditional Mexican Market

Abstract: The study of traditional markets is a useful tool in the development of studies on species management and conservation because it allows us to identify the species under collection pressure as well as the intensity of their collection. The “Mercado de Jamaica” in Mexico City, Mexico, is one of the main places where cut flowers and foliage are sold. Given that wild bromeliads commercialized in Mexico originate from natural populations, their collection has put certain species at risk, and developing management and conservation programs for them has become an urgent priority. Hence, we carried out an ethnobotanical study focused exclusively on bromeliads used as cut flowers and/or foliage. To obtain information on the species, plant parts, number of plants sold, and vendor characteristics, we made monthly visits to the Mercado de Jamaica over a year (January 2014 to January 2015) to conduct semistructured interviews with bromeliad vendors. We also bought species samples for taxonomic identification. Twelve species belonging to the genus Tillandsia L. were identified, 66% of which are endemic to Mexico. Approximately 60,300 inflorescences and/or whole plants are sold per year. Tillandsia punctulata Schltdl. & Cham. was sold the most (16,200 plants), followed by Tillandsia makoyana Baker (9,200 inflorescences). Sale prices varied between MXN 10–70 (Mexican pesos). Bromeliads were collected from the states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Michoacan. Of the 10 bromeliad vendors, 60% were collectors between 26 and 65 years old. The collection of wild bromeliads for sale as cut flowers or foliage could have a strong impact on the conservation of these species because of the loss of adult individuals—adulthood being the most vulnerable stage in the life cycles of these plants. This loss, along with the loss of inflorescences, which eliminates the seeds that give rise to new individuals and constantly colonize new trees, could threaten the survival of epiphytic bromeliad populations.