Showing papers in "Economic Botany in 2017"

Theories and Major Hypotheses in Ethnobotany

Abstract: Ethnobotany has evolved from a discipline that largely documented the diversity of plant use by local people to one focused on understanding how and why people select plants for a wide range of uses. This progress has been in response to a repeated call for theory-inspired and hypothesis-driven research to improve the rigor of the discipline. Despite improvements, recent ethnobotanical research has overemphasized the use of quantitative ethnobotany indices and statistical methods borrowed from ecology, yet underemphasized the development and integration of a strong theoretical foundation. To advance the field of ethnobotany as a hypothesis-driven, theoretically inspired discipline, it is important to first synthesize the existing theoretical lines of research. We review and discuss 17 major theories and hypotheses in ethnobotany that can be used as a starting point for developing research questions that advance our understanding of people–plant interactions. For each theory or major hypothesis, we identify its primary predictions and testable hypotheses and then discuss how these predictions have been tested. Developing research to test these predictions will make significant contributions to the field of ethnobotany and create the critical mass of primary literature necessary to develop meta-analyses and to advance new theories in ethnobotany.

Medicinal Plant Trade in Northern Kenya: Economic Importance, Uses, and Origin1

Abstract: Despite the importance of the medicinal plant trade in Africa, little is known about the existing trade in Kenya outside major urban centers. We assessed the economic importance, uses, and origins of the plants traded in two major towns in northern Kenya. We interviewed vendors, assessed volumes and prices, and collected specimen samples for identification. We also discussed with collectors and made observations on harvesting techniques and species’ relative abundance in the wild. Thirty species were found to be traded in Marsabit and Moyale towns, of which only Myrsine africana L. was collected in a forest. The seven most frequently traded species accounted for an annual volume of 5500 kg with an annual retail value of US$25,900. Several uses mentioned by vendors had not been previously reported in the literature. Interestingly, some species high in demand in major urban centers are abundant in these montane forests. Our study highlights the substantial economic importance of the medicinal plant trade in the area and the strong effect ethnicity has on plant use. While more research is needed on the previously undocumented uses of certain plant species, it seems that the trade of certain species could be further promoted.

Alkaloid-Poor Plant Families, Poaceae and Cyperaceae, Are Over-Utilized for Medicine in Hawaiian Pharmacopoeia

Abstract: The theory of non-random medicinal plant selection predicts that the number of medicinal plant species in a given family is related to the total number of species in that family. As a consequence of such a strong relationship, some plant families are over-utilized for medicinal purposes while others are not. Medicinal plant families that are often over-utilized share evolutionary traits such as the presence of secondary plant compounds which are known to have medicinal values. Consistent with this model, several studies have shown that alkaloid-poor plant families such as Poaceae and Cyperaceae, two families known more for their physical defenses rather than their chemical defenses, are medicinally under-utilized across the world. In this study, we demonstrate that contrary to expectation, Poaceae and Cyperaceae are over-utilized in the Hawaiian ethnopharmacopoeia. One reason for this over-utilization is a result of the Hawaiian cultural practice of converting plants in the Poaceae and Cyperaceae families into ash for direct medicinal use or as a component in other medicinal preparations. The over-utilization of Poaceae and Cyperaceae is also potentially due to their versatility and greater availability in parts of the land divisions where most humans are allowed to visit. Knowledge of how to use ash is taught through mo‘olelo, Hawaiian history, and represents a Native Hawaiian understanding of and relationship to chemical knowledge. Our study provides new evidence for the theory of non-random medicinal plant selection and shows, contrary to expectation, that unique patterns of plant family over-utilization could arise in unique cultural and geographical contexts.

Patterns of Knowledge and Use of Medicinal Plants in Santiago Camotlán, Oaxaca, Mexico

Abstract: Medicinal plants continue to play an important role in healthcare, both in Mexico and around the world. We investigated the relationship between various sociodemographic factors, such as age, economic activity, years of schooling, socioeconomic levels, gender, and language proficiency, and the knowledge and frequency of medicinal plant use in Santiago Camotlan, Sierra Norte of Oaxaca, with a mainly Zapotec population. In a first stage, we interviewed specialists in depth and collected and identified plants for a catalogue of the medicinal plant flora (90 species). With this catalogue, we then interviewed a sample of the general population and the specialists on knowledge and frequency of use. The relationship between the sociodemographic variables and knowledge was analyzed by multiple regression. To explore differences of knowledge within the population, we identified three groups with a two-step cluster analysis; the results were compared statistically with a Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test and then a post hoc Dunn’s test to see if all the differences between groups were significant. Age and occupation explained 54% of the variation of knowledge. Medicinal plant knowledge in the region persists mainly because of the necessity to treat the diseases that the “doctor does not cure,” the culture-bound syndromes, and the most common ailments, malfunctions of the digestive system.

Comparison of Herbarium Label Data and Published Medicinal Use: Herbaria as an Underutilized Source of Ethnobotanical Information

Abstract: The use of herbarium specimens as vouchers to support ethnobotanical surveys is well established. However, herbaria may be underutilized resources for ethnobotanical research that depends on the analysis of large datasets compiled across multiple sites. Here, we compare two medicinal use datasets, one sourced from published papers and the other from online herbaria to determine whether herbarium and published data are comparable and to what extent herbarium specimens add new data and fill gaps in our knowledge of geographical extent of plant use. Using Brazilian legumes as a case study, we compiled 1400 use reports from 105 publications and 15 Brazilian herbaria. Of the 319 species in 107 genera with cited medicinal uses, 165 (51%) were recorded only in the literature and 55 (17%) only on herbarium labels. Mode of application, plant part used, or therapeutic use was less often documented by herbarium specimen labels (17% with information) than publications (70%). However, medicinal use of 21 of the 128 species known from only one report in the literature was substantiated from independently collected herbarium specimens, and 58 new therapeutic applications, 25 new plant parts, and 16 new modes of application were added for species known from the literature. Thus, when literature reports are few or information-poor, herbarium data can both validate and augment these reports. Herbarium data can also provide insights into the history and geographical extent of use that are not captured in publications.

Traditional Sustainable Harvesting Knowledge and Distribution of a Vulnerable Wild Medicinal Root ( A. pyrethrum var. pyrethrum ) in Ait M’hamed Valley, Morocco

Abstract: This study examined traditional harvesting knowledge and practices, paired with field-based assessment of distribution of a vulnerable wild medicinal root, Anacyclus pyrethrum var. pyrethrum, in southern Morocco. Research included focus groups, qualitative interviews, and a survey of 38 collectors. Based on local knowledge, replanting trials were conducted and transects and plot-based assessments were used to examine distribution. Local collectors reported significant declines in A. pyrethrum var. pyrethrum populations, driven by poaching and premature (either before the root has become large enough or before the season of seed dispersal) harvesting in sites that cannot be protected from poaching, as well as grazing and tilling. Thirty sites, totaling approximately 30% of the region, were surveyed: A. pyrethrum var. pyrethrum was identified in only nine. In five sites, plot transects were used to determine plant density, revealing that plant density and the number of flowers and fruit per plant were significantly higher closest to habitation. This research contributes to the understanding and evaluation of the causes of over harvesting and factors that could help to protect this vulnerable species. We believe that there is significant room to build on local collector’s knowledge of harvesting and management of this important natural resource, with potential benefits for both local livelihoods and local ecosystems.

Diversity and Traditional Knowledge of Textile Dyeing Plants in Northeastern Thailand

Abstract: The objective of this study was to document the traditional knowledge of plants used for textile dyeing by the Tai-Lao ethnic group in Roi Et province in northeastern Thailand. Traditional knowledge of plants used for textile dyeing is disappearing because of modernization including new lifestyles, urbanization, and the introduction of synthetic colors. Textile dyeing with local plants, however, is experiencing a revival connected to ecotourism and global interest in natural products. To exploit that potential, it is important to preserve the local knowledge related to textile dyeing. We interviewed 60 Tai-Lao informants in 15 villages and 9 districts about their dyeing traditions and the species used through individual semi-structured and focus groups interviews. A total of 56 species in 50 genera and 31 families were used for dyeing cotton and silks; most species belonged to Fabaceae (11 spp., 19%) and Anacardiaceae (5 spp., 9%). Trees (36 spp., 65%) were the best represented life form among the dye plants, followed by shrubs and herbs (8 spp., 16% each), and climbers (4 spp., 7%). Bark was the plant part most commonly used for dyeing (25 spp., 42%) followed by leaves (12 spp., 20%), and fruits (9 spp., 15%). Home gardens were the most common habitat of dye plant (30 spp., 53%) followed by community forests (16 spp., 28%). Indigofera tinctoria L. and Pterocarpus indicus Willd. were the most important dye plant species of the Tai-Lao ethnic group as demonstrated by their high use value index (UV = 0.60). Blue/indigo-blue was the color most informants had common knowledge about with an informant consensus factor (ICF) of 0.92 followed by black with ICF = 0.84. Ten different colors were obtained from the 56 plant species. Brown/pale-brown/golden-brown was the color obtained from most dye plant species (14 spp., 25%) followed by green/pale-green/dark-green (13 spp., 23%). Nine different kinds of mordants were used in the dyeing, including alum, chrome (potassium dichromate; K2Cr2O7), copper sulfate (CuSO4), iron oxide (Fe2O3), tamarind juice (tartaric acid), salt (NaCl), lime (calcium oxide; CaO), ash (potassium hydroxide; KOH), and mud. Among the 56 species used for textile dyeing, three are on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, including: Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. & G.Don, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq., and Pterocarpus indicus Willd. Documenting these and other species used for textile dyeing will provide additional arguments for their conservation. It will also help to secure the reappearing tradition of textile dyeing with local plants, and hence support the cultural integrity of the Tai-Lao communities, and serve as an example for other communities in Thailand and elsewhere for preserving their traditional knowledge.

Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Building Materials from the Island of Bali, Indonesia

Abstract: Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Building Materials from the Island of Bali, Indonesia. Local knowledge of plant-based building materials has long been part of Balinese tradition. In order to better understand this particular tradition, we carried out a comprehensive ethnobotanical study of 13 aga villages. The data were obtained through semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. Seventy-eight species of plants were identified, comprising 63 genera and 34 families, of which 46% are native to the Flora Malesiana floristic region, 20% to the Indian floristic region, and 17% to the Indochinese floristic region. Ninety-one percent were trees. The most frequently used part was the stem (88%). The main use categories reported for building materials were houses (58%), religious uses (Balinese Hindu temple; 35%), stables (5%), and barns (2%). Thirty-eight percent appeared in more than one use category. Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. and Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre were the two species that possessed the highest values in the preference ranking for use value (UV) followed by Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Species richness differed substantially between villages according to their different levels of traditional knowledge preservation. Despite the impact of the fast-growing tourist industry and the decline of local knowledge, the Balinese who live in the study areas still depend on locally available indigenous plant species for their building materials. The cultivation of these indigenous plants is in a period of crisis, especially with regard to conservation.

Weed Diversity and Uses: a Case Study from Tea Plantations in Northern Thailand

Abstract: Based on concerns that useful weed diversity in agroecosystems as well as associated traditional knowledge may be declining due to agricultural intensification and indiscriminate eradication of weeds, we studied weed diversity and use by local ethnic groups in tea plantations in northern Thailand under different agricultural intensities and landscape complexities, namely agroforestry, organic, and Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) based conventional system. In each system, we sampled five tea plantations using belt-transects of 25 m2. Use data were collected through interviews with specialist informants. We recorded 214 weed species (gamma-diversity) of which 66 were useful. Agroforestry system had the highest alpha- and beta-weed diversity, suggesting that the low agricultural intensity and high landscape complexity in this system is associated with higher weed diversity in tea plantations. The common weed species were clearly different in the three systems and only a small fraction (22 species) of widespread weeds was shared among them, resulting in low weed similarity between systems. The 66 useful species of weeds were mostly for food and medicine. Uses of some weeds were shared between systems. Many of the useful weeds are invasive species, suggesting that they are prevalent and inexpensive plant resources for rural people and could represent alternative resources in the future. Because the occurrence of invasive weeds may affect the natural habitats of the native flora, integrating the exploitation of weeds into weed management strategies may reduce the weed population while sustaining agrobiodiversity and conserving associated traditional knowledge in the long term.

Is it still necessary to continue to collect crop genetic resources in the Mediterranean area? a case study in Catalonia

Abstract: Crop genetic resources have been extensively collected in Europe in the last century, creating large, publicly available ex situ collections. While this huge genetic diversity is often underutilized, in recent decades, several initiatives have emerged at the local level to collect germplasm cultivated on farm. Uncoordinated actors often carry out these collecting missions without considering previously collected data. To explore whether new collecting missions are likely to be worthwhile, we studied the crop genetic resources conservation network in Catalonia by analyzing the passport data and geographical distribution of germplasm stored in seed banks. Moreover, to determine whether this germplasm was representative of the diversity cultivated on farm, we performed new collecting missions in four randomly selected areas in the European Union’s Natura 2000 network and compared the results with the ex situ databases. Seed banks currently hold a large germplasm collection (2931 accessions), although most materials are conserved in private collections without regulated systems for seed regeneration and are not present as duplicates in the National Inventory. One important shortcoming of the ex situ network is that the germplasm conserved ex situ shows a low geographical coverage, representing only 35.3% of the municipalities in Catalonia. Our new missions allowed us to collect 234 accessions, mostly tomatoes (17.5%) and beans (16.2%). The ecological indicators’ richness (both at species (S) and variety (V) levels), total abundance (A), and the Shannon-Weaver diversity index calculated at species (H2, considering the different accessions of each variety as a single population) and variety levels (H3, considering the intra-varietal genetic diversity) were higher in the newly collected germplasm than in the ex situ collections, suggesting that seed banks do not accurately represent the genetic diversity still cultivated on farm. Moreover, some important landraces from each area were absent or underrepresented in the ex situ collections. Thus, it is necessary to continue to devote efforts to collecting germplasm; better organization between actors and targeting specific species/varieties can increase the efficiency of new collecting missions. As a conclusion, we propose different criteria to guide new missions and to improve the network’s conservation activities.

Sharing Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Traditional Villages: Evidence of Food and Nutraceutical “Core Groups” in Bali, Indonesia

Abstract: The island of Bali has several aga (indigenous) villages that have survived despite the pressures of an intense tourist industry and agricultural changes. A rich ethnobotanical culture persists, but the meaning of differences in traditional ethnobotanical knowledge (TEK) remains under-explored. We analyzed information obtained from interviews of inhabitants from diverse villages on food and nutraceutical plants to identify plant patterns, i.e., relevant plant groups with species sharing a similar occurrence. Through cluster analysis, we identified 12 main groups of species and found that species were grouped based on traditional knowledge and the use each community made of plants on the whole, and not on growth forms nor on specific uses. The frequency distribution of species clusters showed a bimodal trend, with several groups present only in few villages, and a few groups present in almost all villages. The latter are defined as “core groups,” and represent the shared TEK of each aga community. Other “satellite species groups” embodied in the local TEK were related to small isolated communities. Cultural erosion caused by modernization, with the consequent fragmentation of information, was judged to be one of the main causes of increasing TEK heterogeneity.

Comfrey and Buttercup Eaters: Wild Vegetables of the Imereti Region in Western Georgia, Caucasus

Abstract: The use of wild greens is an important issue in gastronomic ethnobotany as in some parts of the world, wild greens have been widely used to supplement human nutrition (Bharucha and Pretty 2010; Cruz-Garcia and Struik 2015; Johns 1990; Leonti 2012; Serrasolses et al. 2016; Turner et al. 2011). One of the places where the use of wild vegetables has been sparsely documented until recently, in spite of the incredible richness of their use, is the area of the Caucasus. Some uses of wild vegetables in this area are recorded by older Russian and Georgian sources (see for example Grossgejm 1952; Javakhishvili 1986) and a few general ethnobotanical studies were made recently (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Hovsepyan et al. 2016), whereas Kaliszewska and KołodziejskaDegórska (2015) studied the use of wild vegetables in Dagestan (North Caucasus, Russian Federation). However, no such studies have been conducted in the Imereti region. We document the use of all the wild greens, which are predominantly used in a dish called —which according one of the Georgian transliteration rules (Romanization system for Georgian link 2017) is written pkhali (though in some texts it is also written pxali, phkhali, phali, or pchali). This dish is of great importance in the culinary tradition of Georgia, especially its western part, and is eaten almost on a daily basis. Pkhali is also made with cultivated vegetables such as cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.), beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.), or spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), but the consumption of pkhali made of wild vegetables, so called veluri pkhali (wild pkhali) or mindvris pkhali (field pkhali), is equally common. Pkhali constitutes the main form of consumption of wild greens in the area and is served as a side dish. The term mkhali, the literary version, is often used as well, while pkhali is its synonym in the local dialects of Imereti, Guria, and Racha (Lomtatidze et al. 1962). As a large number of species are used in the dish, some of them of little known edibility, it is of scientific and economic importance to document the plants used.

On the Trail of Date-Plum ( Diospyros lotus L.) in Italy and Its First Archaeobotanical Evidence

Abstract: Diospyros lotus L. is an arboreal species native to the Balkans and Caucasus and ranging to the Far East. In Italy, it has been cultivated for centuries and has reverted to the wild state in some regions. During archaeological excavations carried out in the historical center of Modena (northern Italy), two floral calyxes of D. lotus were discovered in a layer dating from the first century ce. These are the first and only remains of D. lotus found in an archaeological context in Italy thus far. The first historical mention of this species as an arboreal plant in Italy occurs in the 1565 edition of Dioscorides’ Commentarii de Medica materia by Pietro Andrea Mattioli. Our research allowed us to establish that the first three Italian herbaria containing samples of D. lotus, dating to the 1551–1570 period, are the Erbario B of the Biblioteca Angelica of Rome, the Erbario Aldrovandi (Bologna) and the Erbario Cesalpino (Florence). However, archaeobotanical remains reveal that the fruits of this species were known during the Roman period, probably arriving in northern Italy as a luxury food owing to their exceptional flavor.

Indigenous Children’s Knowledge About Non-timber Forest Products in Suriname

Abstract: Childhood and adolescence are important life stages for the acquisition of knowledge about non-timber forest products (NTFPs). We show at which stage in life traditional plant knowledge is learned and analyze whether cross-cultural ethnobotanical knowledge transmission takes place. We evaluate whether the degree of forest dependency influences ethnobotanical knowledge by comparing two indigenous communities in Suriname. Traditional knowledge was documented and vouchers collected during forest walks with adult informants. Questionnaires were completed by 74 schoolchildren (age 4 to 14) to capture their knowledge of names and uses of nine important NTFPs. We tested for knowledge differences by ethnicity and NTFP categories. Local names for NTFPs were analyzed to determine cross-cultural transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge. Children from the forest-dependent Trio community (n = 23) possessed similar knowledge of NTFPs as their more urbanized peers from Apoera (n = 51). NTFP uses were acquired at an earlier age than plant names. Food and commercial NTFP uses were better known than medicinal plant uses. Cross-cultural transfer of knowledge occurred between the two communities. NTFP knowledge of children appeared to be influenced more by the time they spent within the forest, either walking to school or walking to agricultural plots, than by the level of forest dependency or acculturation.

Palm Use by Two Chachi Communities in Ecuador: a 30-Year Reappraisal

Abstract: This study reappraised traditional knowledge (TK) about palms (Arecaceae) by the Chachi indigenous group in northwestern Ecuador, 30 years after the first study in 1985 on Chachi palm ethnobotany (Barfod and Balslev 1988). We wished to gain insight about which palm species the Chachi people use today, and how palm TK has changed among the Chachi since 1985. In 2015, using semi-structured interviews and participant observation, we documented nine useful palm species and 457 use reports. The 1985 methods were less formalized, based on open-ended interviews and recorded 14 palm species with 38 use descriptions. Most uses fell into the categories Food (13 use descriptions), Utensils/Tools (10), and Construction (7). In 2015, most of the use descriptions similarly fall into the categories Food (38), Construction (20), and Utensils and tools (19). As in 1985, the most important species harvested today are Iriartea deltoidea and Wettinia quinaria. Four understory palm species reported as useful in 1985 were not recorded in 2015. Still, most of the uses documented among the Chachi in 1985 were also registered in 2015. Knowledge about blowguns, blowgun darts, and marimba keys, however, seems to have vanished. Although palms still provide important ecosystem services for the Chachi, (e.g., food and construction), better management of natural resources and land-use is pivotal to meet the Sustainable Development Goals that Ecuador is committed to through their participation in the United Nation‘s Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. This is particularly complicated because of the rapid human population growth in the coastal lowland of Ecuador and the impending threats from climate change.

Social and Ecological Characteristics of an Expanding Natural Resource Industry: Aloe Harvesting in South Africa

Abstract: Sustainable harvesting practices are important for conserving plant species and their habitats, but also the livelihoods of those that depend on them. Aloe ferox, a valuable natural resource harvested for its leaves, is the focus of a recent rural development initiative in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. This has the potential to benefit poor residents through a high-value, sustainable, export market. We characterize the social and ecological components of the system, in order to evaluate the potential for effective natural resource management. We interviewed aloe tappers to obtain information on their dependence on the A. ferox industry and harvesting practices. We assessed the harvesting pressure on A. ferox populations, sampling plants at three plots positioned along each of four transects at distances of 1.5, 3.45, and 7 km from the factory, grouping plants into two size classes: small (height 0.5 m). We investigated the influence of proximity to the factory and plant size class on the likelihood and intensity of harvest. The majority of aloe tappers were women, unemployed, and in receipt of government welfare grants, and the main reason for harvesting A. ferox was to generate a cash income for their daily needs. Training guidelines did not appear to be followed, with aloe tappers leaving on average 6 leaves, rather than the recommended 18–20 leaves, allowing insufficient time to pass between harvesting episodes and harvesting outside of the prescribed wetter periods. In line with training guidelines, aloe tappers were targeting larger plants; however, against recommendations, smaller plants were also regularly harvested. Harvesting pressure decreased with increasing distance from the factory. We discuss requirements to ensure A. ferox is harvested at sustainable levels in the region, particularly in light of a possible regional roll out of the program, and provide recommendations for regulating use and better training.

Local Knowledge on the Uses, Habitat, and Change in Abundance of Multipurpose Mimusops Species in Benin

Abstract: Multipurpose NTFP species typically experience higher harvest demand because of their multiple uses, which, when combined with unsustainable land use practices, may threaten population viability. We assessed local knowledge on the uses, habitat, and population status of Mimusops andongensis and Mimusops kummel, both multipurpose NTFP species in Benin, to promote their valorization and conservation and thus sustain local knowledge on their uses for domestication issues. One hundred households were randomly selected for structured interviews for M. andongensis and 500 for M. kummel. The relationship between age, sex, and ethnic groups and the species uses was assessed using comparison and correspondence analyses. Nearly all organs of the species were used. Both species were mainly exploited for medicinal purposes but also in construction and as firewood. We found similarities in some uses of the species organs, although the species occur in different ecological zones and are used by different ethnic groups. This result should be considered for the valorization of the species. Most informants reported that populations of M. andongensis were decreasing, although some felt that they were increasing, whereas less than one-third said that M. kummel was decreasing. There were strong relationships between gender, age, and ethnic affiliation of the users and the exploited organs of both species. Potential uses exist based on both the past and current uses of the species and in comparison to other countries where they are exploited. Local ethnoecological knowledge and practices will help to valorize and conserve the species. However, further research on the species’ seed germination and propagation ability are also necessary.

The Consumption of Acorns (from Quercus spp.) in the Central West of the Iberian Peninsula in the 20th Century

Abstract: There is evidence of the consumption of acorns from Quercus species in the Iberian Peninsula from prehistory through the 20th century up until the 1960s. Acorns were used primarily for human consumption, mainly during food shortages. The high abundance and even distribution of Quercus tree species made it possible for acorn consumption to be widespread across the Iberian Peninsula. The favored species was the holm oak (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota), because a large part of its harvest consists of sweet acorns, while in other species the acorns are almost always bitter. People developed a substantial knowledge base underpinning a great variety of uses of acorns, from eating them directly from the tree to preparation with very simple treatments, such as drying, roasting, or boiling. By manipulating levels of bitterness in a number of species, cooks were able to prepare dishes that ranged from salty to sweet. Based on interviews with knowledgeable people and a review of ethnobotanical papers, this article describes the forms of consumption, the processed products, and the other uses of acorns of the species of the genus Quercus in the central west of the Iberian Peninsula. We also suggest why acorns lost their prominence in the late 1960s. At present, the main use of the acorn is as food for Iberian black pigs to obtain quality sausages. In addition, new products such as acorn liquor, caramels, and other items have recently appeared, marketed as distinctive products on a small scale.

Cultural Importance of Wild or Traditionally Collected Plants in the Sierra de Grazalema (Southern Spain)

Abstract: The aim of this work is to evaluate the knowledge about, and diversity and cultural significance of, wild or traditionally collected plants used in the Sierra de Grazalema, located in Southeastern Spain. Nine hundred and ninety-three use reports for 98 popular names, corresponding to 124 species, were recorded. The ethnobotanical information was obtained through semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions. Informants had high empirical knowledge of wild plants and lived and/or worked in the area. The human food uses showed the highest use reports with 40% of the total, followed by that of technological uses with 30%. Mentha pulegium (pennyroyal) is the most culturally significant plant in the area according to the cultural importance index (1.50). The second plant in the ranking (1.20) is Olea europaea var. sylvestris (wild olive). Inflorescences from Helichrysum italicum and Helichrysum stoechas have medicinal uses (0.94). The fourth plant in the cultural importance index ranking is Scolymus hispanicus (0.97). Finally, amongst the most popular plants in the Sierra de Grazalema is Phlomis purpurea (0.97). Our results indicate that in the Sierra de Grazalema, some wild or traditionally collected plants are deeply rooted in popular culture. The cultural importance index presented in this work could be a useful tool to evaluate the possibilities of sustainable exploitation of these resources.

The Ethnic Textile Use of Natural Fibers from Fireweed ( Gerbera delavayi ) in Southwest China

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Plant Knowledge and Current Uses of Woody Flora in Three Cultural Groups of the Brazilian Semiarid Region: Does Culture Matter?

Abstract: Patterns of plant use in human populations are context-specific and influenced by many different ecological and social factors like plant diversity and availability, and gender, age, and household structure. The aim of this study is to evaluate current levels of knowledge and use of native plant species in different sociocultural groups living in the same ecological area. We examine the association between an individual’s species knowledge and use and (1) species availability and (2) individual age, gender, and group pertinence. Data were collected through interviews with three different groups living in the municipality of Acu, Rio Grande do Norte (n = 233): an urban community, a local community of fishers, and a traditional community of self-identified indigenous people (Caboclos de Acu). The results show no correlation between knowledge/use and resource availability. Elders know and use more species than younger interviewees. Men know more species than women, but there is no difference between the number of species used by men and women. Group pertinence was related to both current levels of species knowledge and use: the urban community had less knowledge of the flora than the local and traditional communities. Regarding species uses, the traditional community uses more plants than the local community, and informants in the urban community use the least. Our results dovetail recent anthropological research suggesting that, despite other important cultural changes, the Caboclos de Acu continue to maintain at least part of their traditional knowledge system, probably because they depend on the use of plant resources for their livelihood. Overall, our results highlight the predominance of culture above the environment in driving plant use and knowledge.

Phenotypic and Genetic Diversity of Local Perilla (Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.) from Northern Thailand

Abstract: Phenotypic and Genetic Diversity of Local Perilla ( Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.) from Northern Thailand. Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt., an important oil and culinary crop in Asia, is a valuable genetic resource. Despite its nutritional value and historic and cultural importance, research on Perilla has been scarce, particularly as far as its genetic diversity is concerned. The aims of the present study were to assess variability within and between 29 seed samples of P. frutescens collected from farmers in northern Thailand, and evaluation conducted of their genetic, morphological, and agronomic characteristics, and the seed composition, including polyunsaturated fatty acids omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9, and the vitamin E γ-tocopherols. Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. of northern Thailand is genetically variable, and structured according to origin of collection which was the consequence of local adaptation. The discovery of high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely α-linolenic acid and γ-tocopherols, in some Perilla samples indicates the potential for utilizing Perilla for its high omega-3 content including as a vitamin E supplement for humans, a prospect that should be taken into account when planning conservation strategies or when Perilla variability is used in breeding programs.

Identification of an Ancient Birch Bark Quiver from a Tang Dynasty (A.D. 618–907) Tomb in Xinjiang, Northwest China

Abstract: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were conducted to identify a birch bark quiver from Ergonghe Reservoir Cemetery (the Tang Dynasty, A.D. 618–907) in Xinjiang, Northwest China. White substance on the bark surface was identified as gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) by FTIR and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The gypsum was probably residual white pigment of colored painting on the birch bark quiver. This is the first time that birch bark has been scientifically identified in China and it also provides the earliest evidence of colored painting on a birch bark artifact in ancient China. The minimally destructive methods are informative and promising for the analysis of ancient samples. Birch species are widely distributed in North China and ancient nomadic people put the bark to use in many aspects of their lives, reflecting the considerable importance of birch exploitation in their local life.

“Lándar,” “Lándra,” “Barlánd” (Bunias erucago L.): a Neglected Crop from the Po Plain (Northern Italy)

Abstract: This paper, through ethnobotanical interviews and the analysis of floristic, linguistic, and culinary literature, both historical and contemporary, identifies for the first time Bunias erucago L. as a Bneglected crop^ in a restricted area of north-western Italy. Here, unlike in other Italian and European regions where this plant is simply harvested from the wild, B. erucago is cultivated on a small scale, as it is a key ingredient of different traditional dishes. Industrialized agriculture, which characterizes most of the Po Plain landscape in Northern Italy, led to a great loss of biodiversity also in terms of dismissal of cultivation of landraces and neglected crops, and of gathering of wild food plants (Barthel et al. 2013; Pieroni et al. 2016). Nevertheless, in several rural areas of Europe, landraces, neglected crops, and wild food plants are still employed in local food production (Cornara et al. 2009; Menendez-Baceta et al. 2012; Negri 2003). The ethnobotanical characterization of these plant genetic resources and their usage is of crucial importance to have a clearer view of the interactions between human societies, food, and their environments in order to improve food security and food sovereignty, to safeguard cultural diversity, and to achieve a more sustainable agricultural system (Pieroni et al. 2016). Bunias erucago (Italian: cascellore comune, eruche, casselle) (Fig. 1a–c) and Raphanus raphanistrum L. subsp. landra (Moretti ex DC.) Bonnier & Layens (Italian: ravanello selvatico, ramolaccio) are two therophytes belonging to the cabbage family (Bras s i caceae ) and nat ive to the EuroMediterranean area. They share habitat requirements (wastelands and cultivated fields, mostly on alluvial soils) and are quite similar in gross morphology, being characterized by lyrate to pinnatifid basal leaves and yellow flowers. However, they are readily discernible by their fruit morphology: 4-winged and verrucose silicles for B. erucago (Fig. 1b) and segmented (heteroarthrocarpous) and smooth siliques for R. raphanistrum subsp. landra. Throughout the Italian peninsula and islands and in various southeastern European regions (e.g., Greece, Dalmatia, Herzegovina), the basal leaves of these species, which are harvested from the wild before flowering, are consumed. These are either boiled and then dressed with oil or butter, or served raw in salads (Arietti 1977; Hammer et al. 1999; Lattanzi 2012; Łuczaj et al. 2013; Łuczaj and Pieroni 2016; Rosati 2005). In some areas of the north-western Italy, and specifically in the centralwestern Po Plain, both plants are vernacularly known as Blándar,^ Blándra,^ and Bbarlánd^ (Ferrari 2016). Their usage is associated with more defined recipes and possible cultivation on a small scale; yet, most of the available contemporary literature (e.g., Accademia Italiana della Cucina 2014; Corbetta 2005; Ferrari 2016; Pirola 2016) appears to be unclear, and to some extent conflicting as to whether one or both of the species are currently used in local culinary tradition and cultivated. The aims of the present study are (a) to define the current taxonomic identity of Blándar^/Blándra^/ Bbarlánd^ in the central-western Po Plain, (b) to investigate its uses in local culinary tradition, and (c) to understand if it can be considered a vegetable crop in the study area or just a leaf vegetable collected from the wild.

Antimalarial Use of Malagasy Plants is Poorly Correlated with Performance in Antimalarial Bioassays.

Abstract: Bioassay screening of plant extracts can identify unique lead compounds for drug development, but the "hit rate" from random screening is very low. Targeted screening of medicinal plants has been repeatedly reported to increase the percentage of samples displaying bioactivity. Contrarily, Maranz (2012) suggested that African antimalarial plants were unsuitable sources of antimalarial drugs because high prevalence of malaria would result in rapid evolution of resistance to active compounds that directly targeted the parasite. As malaria is highly prevalent in much of Madagascar, it was of interest to determine whether Malagasy antimalarial plants would outperform randomly selected plants in conventional antimalarial assays being conducted as part of a discovery program. Of 1294 plant samples screened for antimalarial activity, 39.6% had an IC50 <50 μg/ml and 21.1% had an IC50 <20 μg/ml (the minimum to qualify as a first-pass "hit"). Ethnobotanical uses were coded at both the generic and the species level, as neither samples nor use reports in literature were always identifiable to species level. The 526 samples belonging to genera having reported uses for malaria were slightly more likely than average to display activity (44.3% with IC50 <50 μg/ml, p < .01; 23.2% with IC50 <20 μg/ml). Of these, 67 samples from individual species with documented use were still more likely to be modestly active (49.3% with IC50 <50 μg/ml), yet less likely to be highly active (17.9% with IC50 <20 μg/ml). Thus, in this specific context, ethnobotanically directed screening would not have substantially improved screening efficiency, and would have missed most of the potential hits.

Commercialization of Andean Wild Yam Species ( Dioscorea L.) for Medicinal Use in Bogotá, D.C., Colombia

Abstract: Commercial exploitation of wild yams (Dioscorea spp.) was once a pillar of the Mexican economy and is currently practiced in the USA and Asia. However, no such activity has yet been reported in South America, the continent richest in Dioscorea species. Upon discovery of wild Dioscorea tubers in marketplaces in Bogota, Colombia, we sought to (1) identify the species being sold, (2) document the medicinal properties attributed to them, and (3) conduct a preliminary characterization of the market for this product in the capital. During the years 2010, 2012, and 2013, 226 semi-structured interviews were conducted with vendors in 82 medicinal plant stalls distributed in marketplaces throughout Bogota. Tubers of four native species were identified, all wild-harvested: D ioscorea coriacea, Dioscorea lehmannii, Dioscorea meridensis, and Dioscorea polygonoides; all were sold under the generic name zarzaparrilla, with D. coriacea being the most prevalent species. All vendors interviewed recommended Dioscorea spp. for treating “ailments of the blood,” with “blood cleanser,” and lowering triglycerides and cholesterol as the most often-cited specific uses. Total estimates of sales of wild yams over the study period averaged 488 kg/week, extrapolated to over 25,000 kg/year, with yearly sales varying between 5% and 6% around the mean. This is the first report of raw tubers of any Dioscorea species being commercialized for the treatment of blood or metabolic disorders in Latin America, and the data suggest there is a robust market established in Bogota. In the interest of public health, pharmacological studies should be undertaken to test the biological activity of these species and to rule out toxicity. We especially recommend population studies of D. coriacea to provide baseline data for sustainable management of this non-timber forest product.

The Plants Leaves Used to Wrap Tamales in the Mexican State of Veracruz

Abstract: Red Ambiente y Sustentabilidad, Instituto de Ecología, A. C., Carretera antigua a Coatepec No. 351. El Haya, 91070, Xalapa, Veracruz, México Centro de Investigaciones Tropicales, Universidad Veracruzana, José María Morelos 44 y 7 46, Zona Centro, 91000, Xalapa, Veracruz, México Herbario XAL, Instituto de Ecología, A. C., Carretera antigua a Coatepec 351. El Haya, 91070, Xalapa, Veracruz, México Independent professional, Xalapa, Veracruz, México *Corresponding author; e-mail: maite.lascurain@inecol.mx