Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 1997"

Examining the Validity Structure of Qualitative Research

Abstract: Discussions of the term "validity" have traditionally been attached to the quantitative research tradition. Not surprisingly, reactions by qualitative researchers have been mixed regarding whether or not this concept should be applied to qualitative research. At the extreme, some qualitative researchers have suggested that the traditional quantitative criteria of reliability and validity are not relevant to qualitative research (e.g., Smith, 1984). Smith contends that the basic epistemological and ontological assumptions of quantitative and qualitative research are incompatible, and, therefore, the concepts of reliability and validity should be abandoned. Most qualitative researchers, however, probably hold a more moderate viewpoint. Most qualitative researchers argue that some qualitative research studies are better than others, and they frequently use the term validity to refer to this difference. When qualitative researchers speak of research validity, they are usually referring to qualitative research that is plausible, credible, trustworthy, and, therefore, defensible. We believe it is important to think about the issue of validity in qualitative research and to examine some strategies that have been developed to maximize validity (Kirk & Miller, 1986; LeCompte & Preissle, 1993; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Maxwell, 1996). A list of these strategies is provided in Table 1. Table 1 Strategies Used to Promote Qualitive Research Validity Strategy Description Researcher as "Detective" A metaphor characterizing the qualitive researcher as he or she searches for evidence about causes and effects. The researcher develops an understanding of the data through careful consideration of potential causes and effects and by systematically eliminating "rival" explanations or hypotheses until the final "case" is made "beyond a reasonable doubt." The "detective" can utilize any of the strategies listed here. Extended fieldwork When possible, qualitive researchers should collect data in the field over an extended period of time. Low inference descriptors The use of description phrased very close to the participants' accounts and researchers' field notes. Verbatims (i.e., direct quotations) are a commonly used type of low inference descriptors. Triangulation "Cross-checking" information and conclusions through the use of multiple procedures of sources. When the different procedures or sources are in agreement you have "corroboration." Data triangulation The use of multiple data sources to help understand a phenomenon. Methods triangulation The use of multiple research methods to study a phenomenon. Investigator triangulation The use of multiple investigators (i.e., multiple researchers) in collecting and interpreting the data. Theory triangulation The use of multiple theories and perspectives to help interpret and explain the data. Participant feedback The feedback and discussion of the researcher's interpretations and conclusions with the actual participants and other members of the participant community for verification and insight. …

Achievement Motivation and College Satisfaction in Traditional and Nontraditional Students

Abstract: It has been proposed that there are many factors that promote or hinder the success of students in post-secondary educational institutions (lamport, 1993). Among these factors, achievement motivation and satisfaction with the college experience have been linked to student attrition and performance (Hatcher, Kryter, Prus & Fitzgerald, 1992; Klein, 1990; Lamport, 1993). Specifically, Spanard (1990) indicated that persisting students have more motivation than nonpersisting students and nonpersisting students are less involved in college life and activities. Attrition has been an important topic of discussion and research as it has been shown that between 40% to 50% of higher education students do not complete their degrees (Hatcher, Kryter, Prus, & Fitzgerald, 1992). Although substantial research has been completed on achievement motivation (Apler, 1974; Friis & Knox, 1972; Helmreich & Spence, 1978) and satisfaction with the college experience (Lamport, 1993), the results have been inconsistent as researchers have used various operational definitions as a basis of investigation. Also, in examining the issue of academic performance and attrition, achievement motivation and satisfaction with college need to be considered as they relate t the nontraditional student (Lamport, 1993; Nunn, 1994). Sheehan, McMenamin and McDevitt (1992) reported that, according to the College Board, the nontraditional college student population (25 years old and greater) has greatly increased and is almost equal to the traditional student population. Due to the general life experiences and life differences of these students, there may be differences in their achievement motivation, satisfaction with the college experience and reasons for pursuing an education. Since older students are prevalent in higher education, it would be beneficial to take a closer look at their learning experiences in order to help facilitate the creation of an environment that best meets their educational needs and goals (Nunn, 1944; Sheehan, McMenamin, & McDevitt, 1992; Spanard, 1990; Yarbrough & Schaffer, 1990). Achievement Motivation and Satisfaction with the College Experience In the research focused on the development of objective measures of achievement motivation, there is a general consensus that motivation is made up of multiple dimensions, but there is not a general agreement regarding the specific makeup of those dimensions. In general, there is a support for the idea that achievement motivation is the product of interdependent variables such as the locus of control (Duke & Nowicki, 1974), the need for affiliation, impulsiveness, planfulness (Friis & Knox, 1972), personal achievement, social achievement, academic achievement (Piedmont, 1989), mastery, work orientation, competitiveness and personal unconcern (Helmreich & Spence, 1978). It is assumed that these factors may vary according to individuals' experiences and characteristics (Helmreich & Spence, 1978; Piedmont, 1989; Reid & Boothroyd, 1973). Therefore, it has been recommended that consideration of individual characteristics such as gender and social roles be included when analyzing various dimensions of achievement motivation (Alper, T. G., 1974; Helmreich & Spence, 1978; Piedmont, 1989; Reid & Boothroyd, 1973). It has been suggested that students' perceptions of the college experience have both negative and positive effects on student attrition and persistence (Hatcher, Kryter, Prus & Fitzgerald, 1992; Klein, 1990; Lamport, 1993). Specifically, it has been theoretically argued that student satisfaction is necessary for continued motivation (Klein, 1990). Furthermore, Bean and Bradley (1986, p. 403) demonstrated that "satisfaction had a greater influence on performance than performance had on satisfaction" indicating that satisfaction with college can be a predictor of academic success. Also, Edwards and Waters (1982) tested freshmen college students and upon a two-year follow-up found that first quarter grade point average and general satisfaction with college combined to predict attrition. …

Male Elementary School Teachers' Ratings of Job Satisfaction by Years of Teaching Experience.

Abstract: Teaching in American public schools in grades K-12 is largely a female pursuit. Discussions of the diversification of the American teaching force, have generally focused on two areas: (1) the under-representation of people of color in the teaching force and (2) the under-representation of females in administrative positions (Montecinos & Nielsen, 1997). Few researchers have chosen to focus on the need for more males in the teaching force. The scarcity of male teachers as student role models is a subject of concern at all levels, but it is of particular concern in the early grades (Wood and Hoag, 1993). National statistics of teacher demographics indicate that the national teaching population is 72% female and 28% male. However, the gender statistics are even more disproportionate at the elementary level. Fewer than 2% of pre-K/Kindergarten and 14.6% of elementary teachers are male (Snyder & Hoffman, & Geddes, 1996). This lack of male role models in the early years of schooling may be a limiting factor in recruiting more males into the profession. Mancus (1992) found that male elementary teaching candidates reported that male more than female teachers influenced their views of teaching as a profession. The percentage of male elementary preservice candidates seemed to be rising in the 1970's (Schalock, 1979), however, this proved to be a very temporary trend. In 1991, the percentage of male teachers was at its lowest point since the National Educational Association first measured the male-female ratio in 1961 (Feistritzer, 1991, cited in Gamble & Wilkins, 1997). Gamble and Wilkins (1997) asked administrators of 62 teacher education programs in New York State why there were a disproportional number of male students in preservice elementary education programs. These researchers reported: In general, the comments made by professionals at the college level indicated that because elementary education is a traditionally female occupation, accompanied by low salary and low prestige, men are deterred from elementary teaching. This means that changes must be made to the perception of elementary education as a "female" profession (p. 191). Is elementary school teaching a satisfying career for men? There have been very few studies looking at job satisfaction of male elementary teachers beyond the preservice and entry levels. In a study with a sample of 2225 recent graduates from 12 teacher education programs who were employed as teachers, Loadman and Klecker (1993) found that ,when asked about plans for "five years from now" male teachers were more likely than females to be planning a career move to school administration (14% of male respondents; 3% of female respondents). Brookhart and Loadman (1996) compared the ratings job satisfaction of 1,098 recent graduates of teacher education programs. They found that among four comparison groups (1) female elementary teachers; (2) female high school teachers, (3) male elementary teachers, and (4) male high school teachers that female high school teachers rated their job satisfaction the highest and male elementary teachers rated their job satisfaction the lowest. The Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to extend the research on male elementary school teachers beyond preservice and first years of teaching. Research questions that drove the study were: 1. What aspects of teaching do elementary school teachers find the most and the least satisfying? 2. Are there gender differences in job satisfaction ratings of male and female elementary teachers? 3. Are there differences in male elementary school teachers ratings of job satisfaction across years of teaching experience? Method This was a descriptive, cohort group, research study using mailed survey questionnaires. Sample. The sample for the study was 4,428 elementary teachers working in 129 Venture Capital schools. …

Determining the Negative Effect of Teacher Attendance on Student Achievement

Abstract: Criticism of education by the American public has been reflected in an increased number of studies on school performance conducted since 1982. Student test scores are one of the primary targets of this criticism. By the mid-1970s, academic indicators began to reveal a steady nationwide test score downturn. For example, the number and proportion of students who received high scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test dropped dramatically. Not only college entrance examination scores, but other tests taken by students in junior and senior year of high school, have shown a marked decline. (Ravitch, 1986) The now famous report, A Nation at Risk (1983), has documented a number of problems with the U.S. educational performance. For example, in comparison to other industrial nations, the United States has never finished first or second in student achievement test scores, but has finished last in seven of 19 tests. Further indicators suggesting the decline of the quality of American education are that 20 million American adults are illiterate and 13 percent of all 17 year-olds in the U.S. are considered functionally uilliterate. (A Nation at Risk, 1983) Recently, Gerald Bracey (1992, 1995) has suggested that the crisis has been blown out of proportion by critics of education. While his comments have some merit and that many of the comparisons which are made are not appropriate, his observation should not, however, be interpreted to suggest that there are no problems in education and that certain procedures and systems could not be improved. More recently concerns about the American educational system have focused on educational expenditures. State legislatures and local school boards have had to deal with escalating health insurance costs, increased demands for student services, increased lawsuits with attendant attorney fees, and teacher demands for increased salary and fringe benefits. Teacher absenteeism as a financial cost is one particular area which has been the focus of research. (Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg, and Rees, 1991) In a recent analysis of substitute teacher pay cost, three individual school districts in northern Indiana were surveyed. The results showed that nearly 1% of the total operating budget for these school districts was consumed by substitute teacher costs. (Woods, 1996) In this era of increased educational costs, dollars spent due to employee absences for salaries and fringe benefits needs closer examination. While the financial costs associated with teacher absenteeism are significant, they do not reflect the possible cost of teacher absenteeism on student achievement. The learning model of education in the United States is based on Student-Teacher interaction. (Elliott, 1979) When the student or teacher is absent, a violation of one of the model's assumptions occurs. Lewis (1981), for example reported in his article that, nationally, 75,000,000 student-teacher contact hours are lost annually due to teacher absenteeism. The time lost to teacher absenteeism is a national problem, but it is more significant in large urban school districts which have disproportionately higher teacher absence rates. Detroit Public Schools had more than 120,000 teacher days lost to absences in 1980-81. These absences cost more than 6.2 million dollars. A Nation At Risk (1983) offered some insight into the public's renewed concern for public schools. Increased state demands upon the public schools, such as increasing the number of credits required for graduation from high school, increasing the number of student-teacher contact hours weekly, and eliminating some school activities that previously pulled students out of the classroom are evidence of the public's growing concern for student achievement scores on tests. These demands are based on the assumption of the effectiveness of student-teacher interaction. (Elliott, 1979) Should concern exist for the impact of teacher absences on student academic successes when substitute teachers are hired to replace absent teachers? …

Gender Issues in the Classroom: A Comparison of Mathematics Anxiety

Abstract: The underachievement of females in society cannot be measured by grades in school because female academic performance is consistent with that predicted by standardized ability tests (Stockard & Wood, 1984). Female underachievement is evident, nevertheless, in talent development, occupational attainment, and self concept as adults. According to Reis (1987), this phenomenon is apparent in intelligent women "who do not achieve similar professional accomplishments as their male counterparts" (p. 84) and is reflected in "what a person believes can be attained or accomplished in life" (p. 84). The present status of women in the workforce provides the best evidence that "many gifted women are functioning as underachieving adults" (Davis & Rimm, 1989, p. 337). Despite the increasing trend of women entering predominantly male-dominated careers, the fact remains that women still occupy stereotypical roles (Davis & Rimm, 1989). A 1985 report by the Women's Bureau of the United States Department of Labor (Fuller, 1990) indicated that the top ten jobs for women are secretary, cashier, bookkeeper, registered nurse, waitress, elementary school teacher, nursing aide, sales supervisor, and typist. A recent report by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1994) indicates that the 1993 status of females, although slightly altered, has remained basically the same. Dembart (1984) reported that, although female scientists and engineers increased 200% between 1972 and 1982, women still represent only 3.5% of the 2 million American engineers and only 12% of the 225,000 physical scientists. A more recent report by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1994) indicates that in 1993, although female scientists and engineers increased 250% between 1982 and 1993, women still represent only 8.6% of all engineers and 30% of all physical scientists. The 1982 figures from the National Center for Educational Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, reported a dramatic increase in the number of females receiving bachelors' and professional degrees in male-dominated fields. With the exception of health professions, however, the percentage of females is still much lower than that of male (Davis & Rimm, 1989). Sells (1973) called mathematics the critical filter which bars females from the higher paying, more prestigious occupations. As Rekdal (1984) pointed out, "Mathematics is a major key necessary in unlocking a majority of important career opportunities available for our most intelligent and academically able students" (p. 11). The theory that males are innately superior in mathematical ability began a controversy that has been waged for years (Mccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Benbow & Stanley, 1980, 1982, 1983). The importance of the math differences hypothesis is related to the professional development of females because "male-dominated fields that convey high status and good financial rewards ... require skill in mathematics" (Davis & Rimm, 1989, p. 353, emphasis in original). Many studies on gender differences in quantitative abilities have emerged since the Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) text on sex differences. Benbow and Stanley's (1982) study of adolescents in the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY) concluded that males significantly outperformed females on the College Board's Scholastic Aptitude Test in the mathematical part (SAT-M). More recent studies concerning gender differences in quantitative performance are mixed. Many reported that the gender gap is narrowing (Brophy, 1985; Freidman, 1989; Marsh, 1989; Hayes & Slate, 1993), while others reported not only that males consistently outperform females at the highest end of the mathematics ability continuum (Feingold, 1988), but also that males and females approach mathematical problem solving differently (Mills, Ablard, & Stumpf, 1993; Low & Over, 1993). Gallagher and DeLisi (1994) studied males and females who had scored at least 670 on the math portion of the SAT. …

Stress and the College Student

Abstract: Stress is a part of everyone's life. A certain amount of stress is to be expected in daily life, but too much stress may be harmful. A great deal of research has examined the effects of stress on variables such as adaptational outcomes (e.g. Lazarus, DeLongis, Folkman, & Gruen, 1985). The authors questioned a new theory that stress should be measured independent of psychological response variables such as appraisals or perceptions. In particular, they suggested that an individual's perceptions of a situation is a critical mediating variable. Further, the authors stated that self perceptions may have a role in the relation between stress and psychological well being. Thus, Lazarus et. al. (1985) concluded that appraisal process (i.e. personal perceptions of the events) should not be removed in the measurement of psychological stress. This idea has been supported by Varni, Katz, Colegrove & Dolgin (1994). They state that the meaning derived from the stressful event, not necessarily the event itself, may result in the perception of the event as being stressful. Maio-Esteves (1990) in related work, found that self perceptions mediated the effects of stress on perceived health status. Using path analysis, the author found a significant negative relationship between stress as it relates to perceived health status through the variables of introspection and problem-focused behavior. Specifically, when stress increased, problem-focused coping ability decreased while emotion-focused coping ability increased. The author also found a significant direct effect of introspectiveness on perceived health status. In other words, the more one focuses on a problem, the more it affects one's health. The path analysis also indicated that the more the participants felt they were able to handle the everyday problems they faced, the better they felt physically. Maio-Esteves (1990) findings support earlier work done by Lazarus in 1966. Lazarus (1966) proposed that the appraisal processes, such as introspection and coping are intermediary in the relationship between stress and specific outcomes (e.g. well-being, social functioning, and somatic health). Thus, although Maio-Esteves' (1990) work does not directly examine the relation between stress, self esteem and self concept, it does support the importance of self perceptions in mediating the effects of stress. Stress and Self Esteem Although changes in self esteem among college students has received some empirical attention, no work has specifically examined the relation between stress and self esteem. However, there is some indirect work. Loeb & Magee (1992) reported on college students during the first two years of school and on the changes associated with the transition to the new roles associated with being a college student. The authors found self esteem declined in the first year, then recovered during the second year. The aspects of self that recovered by late in the second year included: self esteem, self confidence-importance, seeing oneself as not being average, being energetic, being reliable, and viewing oneself as intelligent. The aspects that did not rebound were those of interpersonal relations, being friendly and trusting. Likewise, past research has concluded that students developed a more positive self image over time, specifically, a greater sense of intellectual ability (Astin, 1977). In other research, Waterman (1982) found that the college years were of utmost importance for the development of a positive identity. Finally, other studies have concluded that the during the college years, students become more introspective and independent, (Corbin-Sicoli, as cited in Loeb & Magee, 1992) and exhibit greater autonomy, impulse expression, and personal integration (Chickering, 1974). The results of these studies suggests that perhaps as students acclimate to college and experience less stress, they have more positive self perceptions (Loeb & Magee, 1992), although no one has specifically examined this relation. …

Teacher Participation in Decision-Making - Its Relationship to Staff Morale and Student Achievement

Abstract: "No one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of Government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." -- Winston Churchill, 1947 (cited in Platt, 1992, p. 83) Educational administrators have, of late, been asked to change the way they operate. Noting the lack of follow-through that frequently results from state mandates, policymakers have taken a different tack. Like managers in the corporate world, educators are now being asked to flatten organizational structures, reduce central office directives and permit employees the opportunity to take ownership for institutional decision-making. This initiative, it is argued, will tap the expertise of those employees most closely associated with the instructional process while making schools more responsive to institutional stockholders. Although intuitively appealing, the effort has thus far had mixed results. Reasons for this situation are as numerous as the number of different decision-making models now being used across the country. Organizational theorists such as Argyris, McGregor, Herzberg, Likert, and Ouchie have all suggested that participatory decision-making (PDM) would lead to more effective organizations and higher staff morale. The Human Relations School of Management of the 1930s-40s promulgated the notion that institutions might be more successful if managers would begin to consider the employee's individual and social needs. Abraham Maslow's 1943 theory of motivation pointed to the human need for self-actualization. Allowing employees a voice in decision-making is perhaps the most logical method for allowing this to occur. In a similar vein, Chris Argyris (1957) saw bureaucracies as imposing restraints on individuals by refusing to treat them as mature actors capable of self-direction. Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y (1960) focused on management's assumptions about employees. Managers who view subordinates as willing, cooperative, and responsible (Theory Y) treat them differently from managers who take the opposite viewpoint (Theory X). Since Theory Y managers have different expectations, they structure the work environment to provide employees opportunities to take on more responsibility. PDM would certainly allow this to happen. Frederick Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory (1987) went even farther, positing that workers were not motivated by extrinsic factors such as salary, working conditions, and job security but by intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility. PDM would contribute to any or all three of these. Rensis Likert's model (1967) dealt more with organizational climate, hypothesizing four types along a continuum from an authoritarian, control-oriented climate on one end to a very trusting, delegating, communicative climate on the other. Likert recommended moving organizations as closely as possible toward the latter. Finally, taking it impetus from the Japanese style of management, William Ouchi's Theory Z (1981) saw collective decision-making and egalitarianism as vital ingredients in everyday operations. Still, not all theorists agree. Decision-making models by Victor Vroom (1973), Tannebaum and Schmidt (1957), Hersey and Blanchard (1972), and Fiedler (1967) all imply a contingent style of management such that some situations call for subordinate participation while some do not. According to these models, managers should consider such factors as employee maturity, skill level, willingness to be involved, leader personality and the type of problem when using PDM techniques. Research Research on PDM is mixed. Vroom's 1964 review of 5 correlational studies and 3 field experiments found on balance that PDM had a positive impact on both production and job satisfaction. …

Gaming Serves as a Model for Improving Learning

Abstract: It may be that universal history is the history of the different intonations given a handful of metaphors. (Borges, 1964, p.192) Rhetoric and education suffer a shared plight. In attempting to establish themselves as "legitimate" among disciplines with recognizable canons (e.g., literature) or specific objects of research (e.g., history or the natural sciences), educators and rhetoricians have resorted to borrowing. Rhetoric's attempt to climb beyond the status of an illegitimate stepchild to philosophy and drama is not new. Among Plato's litany of indictments against rhetoric appears one criticism than seems especially damning in an era where quantity--or at least quantitativeness--can substitute for quality. Plato claimed that rhetoric, comprising the techniques of persuasion, cannot be a science (an "art" or techne in ancient Greek parlance) because it had no method. Without a clear-cut procedure to deliver results, rhetoric was reduced to a knack analogous to cooking (Gorgias, 462d-463a). In a similar attempt to secure academic respectability, educators have wed to describe what they do metaphorically. This resort to metaphors is quite understandable. Education, like rhetoric, has no particular subject matter (Dewey, 1929, p. 48). Indeed, no subject has educational value until it is adapted to the learner (Dewey, 1938, p. 44 Adaptability lies at the core of education and of rhetoric. Education adapts the subject to the learner rhetoric adapts the message to the audience. But this malleability makes education and rhetoric ephemeral. Metaphors offer a way to make the educational process more concrete and comprehensible. While no single metaphor can capture all aspects of education, a carefully chosen metaphor can highlight important components of the educational process. One popular metaphoric rendering of education frames the process in the language of business, portraying students as customers in a satisfaction-based endeavor. The choice of metaphors, however, is normative as well as descriptive. Aside from their explanatory power, metaphors can shape perceptions and expectations of what they describe. This essay suggests that the concept of gaming offers an accurate and appropriate description of the educational process. Furthermore, placing education within a gaming framework encourages cooperation, emphasizes excellence, and fosters values that a business-driven view of education omits or downplays. A Declaration of Intellectual Independence The idea that educators served as surrogate parents shaped much American educational policy and practice until the early 1960s (Masters, 1995). The decline of in low parentis marks the need for a less parental way of conceptualizing education. As educators, we must go beyond maternal nurturing to encourage students to think and act independently. Ironically, this declaration of intellectual independence comes at a time when educational institutions are de facto reassuming many parental duties. Inculcation of values, discipline, cultivation of manners, and myriad other tasks have been foisted upon schools as parental presence and influence at home have dwindled. Despite the parental functions educational institutions have acquired, a central task of education remains: to wean students of their intellectual dependencies. In this sense, "teaching is not an agglutinative principle but a separating, a detaching principle" (Barzun, 1959, p. 133) Similarly, we must overcome the paternalistic mindset that equates education with trained obedience, thus rendering education the equivalent of training a pet to heel and sit on command--with the negative sanction of punishment for disobeying. The disintegration of the family in America might signal a return to more structured educational relationships As educational institutions from elementary to post-secondary levels are called on to provide what parents no longer can or will (sex education morals, positive role models, basic functional skills, an appreciation for arts and culture), the in loco parentis doctrine might be due for resurrection. …

An Examination of the Admission Criteria for the MBA Programs: A Case Study

Abstract: The current admissions process at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (UTC) like that of many other AACSB accredited graduate business programs, relies heavily on Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) scores as predictor of success. To be admitted into the MBA program at UTC, prospective students must complete standard admission forms and submit their GMAT scores. Students are admitted into the MBA program by one of two methods, the index system or the petition process. In the index system of acceptance, a point index for each prospective student is computed. To calculate the index, the applicant's undergraduate GPA (based on a 4.0 scale) is multiplied by a factor of 200. This number is added to the applicant' GMAT score producing a total index score. All applicants meeting the minimum score of 950 are admitted. A second index is calculated if the prospective student's score is less than 950. This second index is based on the GPA of the last 60 undergraduate credit hours (typically representing major business courses). This 60 hour based GPA is then multiplied by 200 and added to the GMAT score. If the total index is at least 1000 points the applicant is admitted. If the prospective student meets neither requirement, he or she may appeal the admissions process by petitioning the Graduate Council. The Graduate Council, at their discretion, accepts or denies the petition. Only a very small percentage (less than 10%) are admitted to the program through petition. The benefits of this study will allow the directors of MBA programs to reassess their admission requirements and make policy changes if necessary. By improving admission criteria and standards, more promising candidates will be admitted to the program, leading to a higher quality of MBA graduates. Background of Standardized Testing Standardized testing has been utilized for over a century. Providing many functions, testing can be used to sort people into groups, classify and rank employees, or admit students into educational programs. Tests can be designed to measure aptitude, personality, achievement, or even competency. There are many advantages to standardized testing; however, standardized testing does have drawbacks. Some business schools accept the Miller's Analogies Test (MAT). In a Pepperdine study, Graham (1991) found a significant relationship between MAT scores and graduate GPA, but the correlation was not as strong as that found between GMAT scores and graduate GPA, particularly when these scores were combined with undergraduate GPA. The Graduate Management Admission Test was first administered in 1954 by the Educational Testing Service in conjunction with the Graduate Management Admission Council. The GMAT scores range from 200 to 800 points, with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. The GMAT and MBA Admission The GMAT is designed to measure the ability and knowledge of the student. The test is all multiple-choice questions covering two sections, verbal and quantitative. The score a prospective student earns usually determines whether he or she is admitted into a school or university. Other factors such as grade point average may also be considered. Each school or university has its own policy and requirements. In a study (Edwards, 1990) done to gather information concerning MBA programs, 657 accredited institutions were surveyed. Out of the 333 responses received, all but one of the responding schools used some sort of pre-admission testing. Johns Hopkins does not require candidates to submit a pre-admission test score such as GMAT. Some other graduate programs including Standford, Boston College, and University of Indiana at Bloomington require submission of GMAT score for consideration, but do not mandate a minimum acceptable score. The most popular decision method for most MBA programs is an index system based on GMAT scores and undergraduate GPA's. From the responding schools, 177 respondents used an index, 81 imposed a minimum test score in addition to applying an index, and the rest used a minimum test score without applying an index. …

Shared Decision Making in Schools: Effect on Teacher Efficacy

Abstract: The Call for Reform There is a widespread public concern regarding the status of American schooling Media reports daily chronicle these various concerns: violence in schools; lack of parental input; falling SAT/ACT scores; failure to adequately compete with foreign countries; lack of professionalism and ability of teachers; and decreasing graduation rates, especially in the urban centers of the country If these reports are true, it would seem that everyone and everything is at the heart of the demise of public education Although there is little disagreement that the above conditions prevail in today's schools, no reform movement thus far has had any significant lasting effect Perhaps we are not making progress because we have not truly identified the goal of education in America as we approach the year 2000 We just keep trying "flavor of the month" innovations in a desperate search for a solution Wagner (1993) discussed this lack of systemic reflection, which he deemed fundamental to long-term improvement, as resultant from not having any real incentive to change from the status quo He asserts that there are five essential areas that must be examined regarding school improvement initiatives: vision and core values, the schools' strengths and weaknesses, priorities and strategies for change, goals, and needed skills and resources Before undertaking another reform, we need to know what we want from schooling and systemically reflect on the process for change Since the early 1970's American education has been at the forefront of public policy analysis In the ensuing decades, we have witnessed a parade of panels, task forces and commissions, each pressing for reform of education Subsequently, these groups promulgated a spate of critical documents in the 1980's followed with more than 200 state commissions and task forces reporting the demise of public education in the United States The rhetoric of these reports was often accusatory and strident One of the major reports, A Nation At Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, (Commission for Excellence in Education, 1983) discussed education in terms of war and surrender It is not surprising, nor is it inappropriate, that the educational enterprise is a major target for public scrutiny The very heart of our democratic form of government rests on the maintainance of an educated and informed citizenry Policy analysts at the federal and state level continually assert that the schools are no longer producing the type of educated students needed to sustain our country and, therefore, that the nation is in peril The current demands for school choice, charters and privatization lend credence to the assertion that there is a lack of support for the public system of education This unrest has been bubbling for many years and is now at a critical watershed In an effort to respond to the reports detailing the failure of schooling in America, educational reform was initiated with great energy and determination The first wave of restructuring efforts to increase the quality and effectiveness of the educational enterprise was comprised of public policy mandates and inducements This wave was characterized by adherence to the Industrial Age classical model of management (Taylor, 1911) This turn of the century Scientific Management model became the widely used standard for the development of now obsolete "factory" schools Wave one was authoritarian, teacher centered, competitive, it stressed uniform minimum standards, accountability and was single pathed and linear (Sergiovanni, 1993) In the quest for excellence, we measured, standardized, and narrowed the curriculum Monitoring both teacher and student output was the hallmark of this period, little attention was paid to critical thinking or reasoning, instead focusing on measurable minimum standards These coercive initiatives did little to change either the functioning or the public perception of the status of American schools …

Interdisciplinarity and Integrative Learning: An Imperative for Adult Education

Abstract: "Education is not merely an appeal to the abstract intelligence. Purposeful activity, intellectual activity and the immediate sense of worthwhile achievement should be conjoined in a unity of experience. ... My own experience, ... has convinced me that the sharp distinction between institutions devoted to abstract knowledge and those devoted to application and to handicrafts is a mistake." Alfred North Whitehead (1948-, p. 121). Introduction Experiential learning is integrative, and non disciplinary: it is a basis for interdisciplinary studies. In the Fall of 1992, a young Scottish business man committed suicide. In addition to his grieving widow, Alison, he left a five-year-old daughter and a baby girl, aged just 14 months. Alison's emotions ran the gamut of disbelief, grief, anger and eventually resignation. As she went through her own emotional turmoil, her elder daughter fretted inconsolably for her daddy. Alison was unable to explain either to her daughter, or herself, why James had "gone away." After the funeral was over and the inevitable inquest had taken place, Alison addressed the task of both a changed present, and a future vastly different from the one for which she and her husband had planned. Gone was the financial stability that James's job provided: the insurance policies that would normally have met Alison's immediate financial needs were rendered invalid by his suicide. Shortly after, she decided to move from their current home to another one that would permit her to open a bed and breakfast - as a means to support herself and her two children. She began the task of raising her children as a single parent. The true story just described is characteristic of the way in which much adult learning takes place. There is no institution, no classroom, no teacher, and no curriculum, but it is valid learning, nonetheless. In a traditional, discipline-based, formal learning environment, Alison would find herself enrolling in a whole string of courses in order to address the content matter of her experience. If she were embarking upon those studies in order to help her come to terms with the complexities of the situation in which she now found herself, she would have to sift and filter much of the information in order to glean the nuggets that would be helpful to her. How would that string of courses meet Alison's immediate needs? How much more valuable to her is an interdisciplinary course called "Death and Bereavement" that touches on aspects of sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, household finance, law, and much else besides. It is hard to conceive of this course material being covered in a traditional, disciplinary curriculum, or that a pre-adult student would attain the same learning outcomes as the adult learner who is a able to integrate classroom learning with insights gained from personal experience. While adults and pre-adults engage in learning activities for different reasons (Maslow, 1970; Knowleds, 1990) interdisciplinary studies (IDS) can be invaluable to both constituencies. Discipline-based education emerged in the nineteenth century (Klein, 1990; Kockelmans, 1979). As time passed, discipline-based course provided a more convenient and cost-effective method of educating in the ever-changing and increasingly complex world of scientific and technological activity. In the latter part of the twentieth century, however, communications nd information technologies, as well as new areas of research, have made it both easy and imperative for people talk to, and understand, those who work in other fields. Most educators have learned in a formal disciplinary way, and value those kinds of learning that require working in isolation.The working world demands that people be able to work on their own, but the ability to work in multi-disciplinary teams is increasingly valued, as is the ability (Plomer, in Peter, 1977, p. 123) to "perceive the relations between thoughts, or things, or forms that may seem utterly different, and to be able to combine them into some new forms. …

Locus of Control and Reflective Thinking in Preservice Teachers

Abstract: During the past two decades demographic changes have altered the profiles of countless families, the educational needs of their children, and the school and community environments (Ogle, 1991). Equipped with repertoires of specific teaching skills, many teachers have been unprepared to adapt their instructional behaviors and materials to meet the challenges of today's diverse student populations (Hyun & Marshall, 1996). Low student achievement and pervasive teacher frustration are logical consequences of this incongruity between teacher and context. Teacher education programs simply cannot address every student and every situation a prospective teacher will encounter. Rather, they must provide preservice teachers with a general knowledge base of pedagogical principles and practices and a strategy for adapting these principles and practices. For many teacher educators John Dewey's model of reflective practice is that strategy of adaptation (Hillkirk & Dupuis, 1989; Smith, 1994). Reflective practice is a disciplined inquiry into the motives, methods, materials, and consequences of educational practice. It enables practitioners to thoughtfully examine conditions and attitudes which impede or enhance student achievement. Reflective teachers (1) are responsive to the unique educational and emotional needs of individual students; (2) question personal aims and actions; and (3) constantly review instructional goals, methods, and materials (Pollard & Tann, 1987). The paradigm of reflective practice is hardly a new one. In his seminal work, How We Think, published in 1909, John Dewey explained the concepts of reflective thinking and teaching. Reflective thinking, Dewey wrote, emphasizes the consequences of ideas and implies future physical action; it is not merely an exercise in theoretical manipulation or intellectual entertainment (Dewey, 1909/1933). Using methods of rational, systematic inquiry, the reflective person is able to confront and solve a variety of personal and professional obstacles; to be a proactive force in his/her environment. In nurturing and sustaining habits of reflective thought, Dewey advocated the cultivation of three attitudes: Openmindedness, whole-heartedness, and intellectual responsibility. "Openmindedness" (Dewey, 1909/1933, p. 30), the first of these desired attitudes, implies an intellectual respectiveness, a willingness to dispassionately consider multiple and novel ideas. Such openmindedness is accompanied by a sense of convergent attention or "whole-heartedness" (Dewey, 1909/1933, p. 31). All of the individual's mental, emotional, and physical resources are committed to the resolution of the problem. Ultimately, though, these admirable qualities of openmindedness and whole-heartedness are dangerous if not tempered by notions of "intellectual responsibility" (Dewey, 1909/1933, p. 32). Intellectual responsibility insists the reflective thinker consider the consequences of any proposed plan, the short-term and long-term effects of suggested behaviors. Donald Schon, among others, has corroborated and expanded Dewey's philosophies and observations on reflective thinking in his books, The Reflective Practitioner and Educating the Reflective Practitioner (Schon, 1983, 1987). The truly effective, reflective practitioner, Schon argues, must augment technical expertise with personal insights and artistry (Schon, 1983, 1987). Situations, despite seeming similarities, are unique problems which the practitioner must face. Solutions to these problems often lie outside the realm of existing professional knowledge; thus, the necessity for problem solving artistry or reflective practice. The importance of this study lies in its attempt to promote reflective thinking and teaching strategies in programs of teacher education. Specifically, this study examined reflective thinking in preservice teachers as it related to locus of control. …

Beginning Teacher Fears

Abstract: Today's society and schools are in a constant state of flux and are very different than they were a few years ago. With immigration and people moving from one part of the country to another the composition of the schools are different than they were in the past with regards to race, ethnicity, and social economic status. These changes have brought fears and anxiety to beginning teachers. New teachers worry that they may not be adequately prepared to meet the needs of students from diverse backgrounds. Other problems creating fears such as school violence and discipline have been exacerbated by the media, while fears such as talking to parents, doing lesson plans, or an assignment to an undesired level, campus, or mentor can be traumatic. Many of the fears are xenophobic in nature. Most people are afraid of the unknown. New teachers who have not had contact with racial groups different than themselves, or who have had little contact with school age children are frightened. A sample of education students at the Rio Grande College of Sul Ross State University identified their fears as future teachers. This paper presents an elaboration of their fears and suggests possible resolutions. Assignment/Mentor Apprehension Being assigned to a mentor can be apprehensive on the part of the new teacher as well as the mentor. A mentorship should work like clinical supervision where the mentor and teacher plan together, the supervisor/mentor observes the new teacher in action, and a follow-up conference takes place. This relationship of mentor to teacher calculated to help a teacher improve often does not exist. Usually an experienced teacher is assigned with a new teacher without any training in the process of mentoring. The pair may do lesson plans together for a time, but the mentor seldom has the opportunity to observe the new teacher teaching and give feedback and suggestions for improvement. The new teacher often views the mentor as an evaluator who will report problems, if there are any, to the principal. Assignment Fears Assignments effecting the neophyte teacher often cause fear and special concern. One such dread, especially in the urban community, is possible assignment to a school located in the inner city where there frequently exists high rates of crime and violence. Other causes of personal alarm include uneasiness over the caliber of students, the possibility of a multiple level and differential course assignment, being assigned to teach courses in which the beginning teacher has little or no preparation, and finally, the dread of being assigned a group of students who have little or no command of the English language. Several things can be done to alleviate or reduce the anxiousness caused by the prospects of these apprehensive assignments. In the case of inner city school work environment it would help if the candidate made an effort to visit several inner city schools, investigate protective and security practices evinced on and about prospective campuses, become familiar with the racial and cultural composition of the school population, plan well and utilize learning techniques appropriate to the learners; and project genuineness and sincere concern for the students being served. Newly assigned teachers can effectively overcome the uneasiness of mind relating to the caliber of students by simply recognizing that individual differences exist. A vital consideration based on manifold educational philosophic logic is that the teacher accept the student as is, and do everything within pedagogical reason to improve the academic growth of the individual. This concept should be applied across the board in regards to caliber, quality, and academic potential of the student. The possibility of multiple level and different course assignments does exist in a number of schools throughout the nation. The rookie teacher who fears such an occurrence should better prepare self by developing a positive mind set regarding such a possibility, establishing a time schedule which allows for various preparations, investigate and utilize methods of inculcating appropriate interdisciplinary data; and consult with an assigned mentor or a helpful colleague to obtain suggestions and ideas. …

Using Graphic Organizers To Teach Vocabulary: How Does Available Research Inform Mathematics Instruction?.

Abstract: The need for rich and meaningful vocabulary knowledge in developing concepts in content areas is documented by research and is generally accepted by classroom teachers (Monroe & Panchyshyn, 1995-1996). Mathematics is recognized as the most difficult content area reading material, "with more concepts per word, per sentence, and per paragraph than any other area" (Schell, 1982, p. 544). Because vocabulary represents and provides access to concepts, instruction in the vocabulary of mathematics cannot be incidental. It requires careful attention within the school curriculum (Gawned, 1990). Teachers need assistance in knowing how to provide meaningful vocabulary instruction in mathematics. In an ongoing effort to find effective ways to teach the vocabulary of mathematics, the author conducted a review of the literature on graphic organizers. Although only limited research was found on the use of graphic organizers in mathematics instruction (Monroe & Pendergrass, 1997), there was evidence of their effectiveness in helping students learn vocabulary in informational text. In this paper the author summarizes available research on the use of graphic organizers in vocabulary instruction and makes recommendations for research on their use in developing mathematics vocabulary. Graphic Organizers in Vocabulary Instruction "Words are labels--nothing more, nothing less for concepts. A single concept, however, represents much more than the meaning of a single word" (Vacca & Vacca, 1996, p. 137). Although the use of context and the use of definitions are widely accepted as methods for helping students learn new words, neither method is sufficient for developing the relational knowledge necessary for in-depth understanding of concepts (e.g., Blachowicz & Fisher, 1996; Irvin, 1990). To develop conceptual understanding, vocabulary instruction should involve students in deep processing of words (e.g., McKeown & Beck, 1988; Irvin, 1990). Effective use of graphic organizers appears to meet both of these conditions exceptionally well. Briefly stated, graphic organizers are two-dimensional visual arrays showing relationships among concepts (Rice, 1994). Their use is usually explained in terms of schema theory, which asserts that the human brain naturally organizes information into categories determined by past experience. New knowledge must be integrated with ideas in existing schema, or, in other words, with prior knowledge (e.g., Dunston, 1992; Rumelhart, 1982). Although the connection between schema theory and graphic organizers is not explicitly stated in the existing research, the implication is that key vocabulary terms or concepts from a learning task that are graphically displayed can activate prior knowledge more instantaneously and completely than abstract prose .... Graphic organizers... organize information to be learned, connect it to what is known, and allow the reader to interact with the text. (Dunston, 1992, p. 59) Graphic organizers serve as retrieval cues for information (Dunston, 1992); they also facilitate higher level thinking (Clarke, 1991). Learner maturity may be a factor in their effectiveness (Moore & Readence, 1984); because they deal with relationships among concepts, they are probably more appropriate for use with students who have sufficient cognitive development to engage in abstract thinking. Although graphic organizers were originally designed to be used as "teacher-directed, prereading, instructional activities" (Dunston, 1992, p. 59), Moore and Readenee (1984) indicated that they may be more effective in post-reading situations. Naughton (1993-94) emphasized the need for discussion in conjunction with their use. Student-constructed graphic organizers appear to be more beneficial than those constructed by teachers (e. …

The Play of Metaphors

Abstract: As I read Professor Schwatzman's provocative essay, I found myself ready both to cheer and to argue. The game metaphor for the educational process is certainly not new; indeed, it has a respectable antiquity. Certainly it was "in play" in the progrmnasmata and other school exercises of the Greek and Roman teachers of rhetoric (Clark, 1957). After all, to give a speech of advice to Helen or Paris must surely have involved considerable gamesmanship, replete with audience cheers or derision over clever or awkward verbal "moves." Similarly, the contest speeches of the Second Sophistic were public amusements for adults, and the dialogues of Plato adumbrate an even earlier period of spirited dialectical encounters, conducted among the contending intellects of Athens before admiring and critical audiences who appreciated their sportive as well as their serious elements. Therefore, Schwartman's essay should be read not as discovery but as significant recovery. But the selection of any master metaphor for the educational process may run counter to what Lyotard (1984) has described as a postmodern reluctance to accept grand narratives. Metaphor is, as George Campbell first notes, "an allegory in miniature" (1776, 1.7ii). Metaphors resonate with moral lessons and implied stories waiting to be told. Perhaps we should first determine which transdisciplinary values we wish to inculcate -- like fairness, respect for others, intellectual growth, etc. -- then determine metaphors appropriate to the given field or specific educational context that might best incubate those values. Thus master metaphors might differ in history, psychology, etc. Perhaps even the values themselves are field-specific. Thus, while the gaming metaphor might have wide applicability, it would be more or less useful in the given field, and in some disciplines might even be counterproductive (as in the "game" of ethics, art, or religious education). These thoughts might suggest that we pursue more the "play of metaphors" than the "metaphors of play." Certainly the gaming metaphor can be quite useful in communication education, where, as Schwarztman notes, students often approach the basic performance classes with fear and loathing. Refraining these courses according to the game metaphor might well mitigate some of the terror and negativism that complicate both learning and teaching. But other metaphors can also enhance the learning potential in such courses. Combining these metaphors i a strategic array of figures, a calculated "play of metaphors," can be quite useful. This year as we worked through revisions for the fourth edition of Public Speaking (1997), my colleague and I detected a basic pattern in the manuscript that had somehow eluded us before: the many skills and sensitivities we try to cultivate in the public speaking course come together in three fundamental metaphors that may reflect deep tendencies in what we teach. These basic metaphors emerged as we discussed three subjects: organizing ideas into cohesive, effective patterns, combining symbols and persuasive elements into convincing presentations, and overcoming the personal challenges of communicating. The metaphor that emerged as we discussed organizing and constructing ideas was the student as builder. The motive it expresses is to shape the world to our needs and purposes -- to impose order and purpose upon the chaos that surrounds us. This deep human impulse creates an instructional imperative as well: we need to give our students the gift of a sense of form. The arts of designing and building speeches, of learning the nature and range of supporting materials and what they can best support, the strategies of outlining -- all are central to this gift. Understanding the orderly development of ideas is surely central to that awareness we call a liberal education. A second metaphor to emerge in our manuscript was the student as weaver. Our students practice the art of weaving symbols into the fabric of a speech and evidence and proof into the tapestry of powerful arguments. …

Teachers and other adults as talk partners for pupils in nursery and reception classes

Abstract: (1997). Teachers and other adults as talk partners for pupils in nursery and reception classes. Education 3-13: Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 3-7.

Boredom Proneness in African-American College Students: A Factor Analytic Perspective

Abstract: A review of the research literature points to the unavoidable fact that the majority of African-American college/university students perceive their experience during higher education negatively (Berry & Asamen, 1989; Gardner, Keller, & Piotrowski, 1996; Keller, Piotrowski, & Sherry, 1982). In terms of adjustment these investigations concluded that African-American students perceive greater racial tensions and hostility, express lower levels of satisfaction, experience greater levels of isolation, and feel less identified with institutions of higher education than do their White counterparts (see Thompson & Fretz, 1991 for a review). The problem of adjustment to college/university life for African-American students is frequently attributed to extrinsic factors (e.g., racism, Anglo-European values, poor academic advising.) To date, however, little attention has been given to intrinsic personality factors that may contribute to adaptive capacity in the psychosocial and academic environment of higher education. One personality construct that may shed some light on the poor adjustment of African-American students to college life is boredom proneness. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of research on the relationship of race and boredom proneness, although earlier studies have reported that African-Americans scored lower on the Boredom Susceptibility subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1979). More recently, Watt and Vodanovich (1992a) found that African-Americans possessed significantly higher scores on the Boredom Proneness Scale (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986). Greater boredom levels have also been reported among females, younger individuals, and those from less industrialized countries (e.g., Polly, Vodanovich, Watt, & Blanchard, 1993; Sundberg, Latkin, Farmer, & Saoud, 1991; Vodanovich & Kass, 1990b). In essence, researchers speculate that individuals from impoverished or restrictive environments may experience greater boredom. Review of the Boredom Construct Boredom has been identified as a contributing factor in a myriad of health and social problems. For instance, it has been associated with substance abuse (Johnston & O'Malley, 1986; Paulson, Coombs, & Richardson, 1990), eating disorders (e.g., Ganley, 1989), poor academic and work performance, (e.g., Drory, 1982; Maroldo, 1986; O'Hanlon, 1981; Robinson, 1975), and a variety of negative affective states (e.g., Farmer & Sundberg, 1986; Vodanovich, Verner, & Gilbride, 1991; Watt & Vodanovich, 1992b). Despite the above review, limited research has been devoted to the measurement of boredom. Studies that have been conducted in this area have traditionally measured boredom as a unidimensional construct. For instance, the widely used Boredom Susceptibility subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1979), and the more recent Boredom Proneness Scale (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986) both yield a single score that is indicative of the tendency to experience boredom. Singular boredom scores are also provided by instruments that assess specific aspects of the construct such as job boredom (e.g., Grubb, 1975; Lee, 1986) and boredom coping (Hamilton, Haier, & Buchsbaum, 1984). The assessment of boredom as a unitary construct is discrepant with the literature that has described boredom in multidimensional terms (e.g., Drory, 1982; Geiwitz, 1966; Hill & Perkins, 1985). In addition, earlier factor analytic work suggests that boredom, and the BPS in particular, may be multidimensional in nature. For instance, Ahmed (1990) factor analyzed the scores of 154 Canadian undergraduate students on the BPS, and found evidence for the existence of two factors which he labeled "Apathy" and "Inattention." Another factor analysis of the BPS conducted on responses from a sample of American undergraduate students (N = 385) revealed the existence of at least five factors (Vodanovich & Kass, 1990a). …

The Impact of Recycling Education on the Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors of Grade School Children

Abstract: A number of school systems have instituted environmental education programs to increase environmental awareness among their students. The primary goals of these programs are to increase environmental knowledge, instill proenvironmental attitudes, and encourage proenvironmental behaviors. Many of these programs operate under the general premise that if one changes global environmental attitudes and beliefs this change will impact a large number of proenvironmental behaviors (Bell, Fisher, Baum & Greene, 1996). Unfortunately, this premise has not always been supported by the research findings (Lipsey, 1977; Fortner & Teates, 1980). While the education programs seem to enhance awareness and change attitude and a specific behavior is weak (Diamond & Loewy, 1991). One of the main reasons for this is the lack of consistency between a general attitude and a specific behavior (Bell, Fisher, Baum & Green, 1996). As a general rule attitude and behavior congruency occurs primarily when a specific attitude is closely linked to a specific behavior (Bell, Fisher, Baum & Greene, 1996). Other issues of interest for environmental educators are the characteristics of the target population and the pedagogical approach of the curriculum. It has been suggested that environmental awareness education is most effective on younger pre adolescent children who do not have well-established environmental habits (Asch & Shore, 1975). It is also possible that a more hands on experiential approach may be more effective in changing attitudes and behaviors than a primarily knowledge based presentation. This study assessed the effectiveness of a short duration recycling education program that attempted to link specific environmental knowledge and attitudes towards paper recycling with the paper recycling behavior of grade school children. It was expected that students would demonstrate improved recycling knowledge, more prorecycling attitudes, and engage in more recycling behaviors after experiencing the education program. Three variables that may have an impact on the effectiveness of the education program were also explored. These variables were type of school (public or private), grade level at time of presentation, and classroom presentation or field trip to a landfill. Method Participants The sample consisted of 349 students in grade three through six attending public and private schools in the city of Cincinnati. The recycling education program was part of an ongoing education effort sponsored by Keeping Cincinnati Beautiful. The program was presented to students in response to an invitation by the school's science curriculum faculty. Two versions of the paper recycling education program were used. The first consisted of a classroom presentation which stressed basic knowledge of how paper is recycled, the need for recycling and some suggestions as to how students can reuse paper. Version two of the program was similar to the classroom presentation but the knowledge portion focused primarily on landfill composition and included a tour of a local landfill. The classroom presentation was administered to 200 students. The landfill program was experienced by 149 students. Materials Two forms of the knowledge measures were developed based on the programs curriculum. One form assessed knowledge of paper production and recycling and the other form assessed knowledge of landfill composition and recycling. The attitude questionnaire consisted of 6 statements pertaining to paper recycling. Students indicated their level of agreement with each statement by placing a mark on a five-point Likert scale with alternatives ranging strongly agree to strongly disagree. The most prorecycling answers were worth five points and the least prorecycling answers were valued at one point. The behavioral measure consisted of a self-report account of prorecycling behaviors that the student engaged in during the past week. …

Academic Staff Turnover in Nigerian Universities (1990-1997)

Abstract: Background of the Study University education, in contemporary times the world over, is becoming an exceedingly complex enterprise. This complexity requires a high degree of competence and proven scholarship from the university academic staff in particular and the entire staff in general. This is so because universities, by their unique nature are expected to be a repository of the most specialized and skilled intellectuals. They serve as storehouses of knowledge for nurturing the manpower needs of the nation and hence, for satisfying the aspirations of the people for a good, and humane society. Central to the realisation of the university education goals and objectives are the academic staff whose roles are crucial. Academic staff their number, quality and their effectiveness make the difference in university education production function. The Nigerian University system has been in a high state of anxiety and frequent crises of different types and intensity. There are crises of internal governance and control, nepotism, ethnic chauvinism and favouritism, philosophy and mission, under-funding and shortage of facilities and equipment, crises of conditions of service and industrial unrest, brain-drain and staff turnover. Of all the crises, those of scarce resources, under-funding, brain-drain and staff turnover have been identified as most crucial and central. Okunrotifa (1982): NUC (1995). Nwadiani (1999). It would appear, however, that these problems are not peculiar to Nigeria, but general to the African continent. For example, Ekong (1995) in his address at the Association of African Universities conference of Rectors, Vice-Chancellors and Presidents of African Universities expressed deep feelings of apprehension about the on-going state of hostility between governments and the academic communities in many countries of Africa. The (AAU conference of 1995) specifically and heavily censored Nigeria, Kenya and Cote d'Ivorie among other countries where higher education appear to have suffered most due to ... under-funding and subsequent reduction of expenditure on a variety of educational inputs. In Nigeria the problem has been so acute that money and facilities for teaching and research are either not available or are in acute shortage. Nwankwo (1992:207) expressed this when he said that: Human and material resources inadequacy is not a new phenomenon in tertiary education systems management. What is perhaps novel is the persistent incapacity (or reluctance) of such a system, specifically in Nigeria, to respond effectively to the situation. Of all the inputs into the Nigerian university system, the human resource would appear to be worst affected as the university staff are paid salaries which cannot take care of their basic needs. In fact, there is "the despondence and poverty that seem to envelope and which promise to obliterate the committed university teacher" (Alele-Williams 1992). The university teacher, more than anyone else, requires a peaceful and conducive working environment to attain a healthy and efficient mind as the beacon of enlightenment. Regrettably, however, the university system and all agents of society required for university management are unable to provide the Nigerian academic with a conducive working environment and basic facilities. The salaries and general conditions of service are uninspiring and unmotivating while the attainment of the basic necessities of life has become a mirage to the dedicated university teacher (ASUU, 1993, 1994). All efforts to improve the status and conditions of service of the university staff since the Udoji award, through the 1990s, seem not to have yielded the desired results. For instance, the series of commissions set up by governments like the Cookey Commission of 1981 and its salary review (university salary scale--USS) and the elongation of the USS; and the Longe Commission of 1990 did not quite alleviate the poor conditions of the university teacher. …

Improving the School Culture

Abstract: Much is written about the culture of a school in terms of maintenance as well as change. Cultures tend to be stable and yet subject to change. When technology changes rapidly, culture tends to change more quickly. The latest in home appliances, automobiles, houses, and technology, among other items, has made for rapid changes in values, ideals, goals, and culture in general. The Old Order Amish are known for their resistance to change. Horse drawn farm machinery is generally used in farming; carriages or buggies drawn by a horse are used for transportation. Electricity is not used in the home setting. Eighth grade education is terminal in Old Order Amish one room parochial school houses (Ediger, 1992). Plain colors of clothing are worn which distinguishes the Old Order Amish from other people in society. Worship services are held in homes, or barns if the weather is favorable. And yet, culture among the Old Order Amish is changing rather rapidly. No longer do the majority of these people make a living from farming. Recent studies that have been made indicate that about one-third earn their livelihood from living on a a farm and engaging in farm work; one-third do farm related work for others to earn a living; and one-third engage in nonfarm work. With large families and farm land being expensive, it becomes too costly for Amish to live and work on their very own farms. Thus an Old Order Amish man may make furniture for others, make horse collars for sale to other states and abroad, put in storm doors and windows for others, paint buildings, own a feed mill, or operate a small grocery store. Ingenuous ways may be found to have a large number of laying hens, such as 10,000, and yet be somewhat automated without the use of electricity. These large laying houses for egg production are very much like the latest in automation involving large scale farming operations (Ediger, 1995). Culture then does change rapidly, or slowly and surely where there is more resistance to change. Now what about school culture? Are there elements that should remain stable? What about changing certain patterns of behavior in school culture? The Athletic Culture I would like to indicate certain facets of school culture which may be quite prominent. At a basketball game, the bleachers are filled with patrons from the local district. The crowd is waiting for the boys' basketball team to enter the court. Here they come with their flashy, enviable uniforms, ushered in by six cheerleaders and an applauding crowd. Basketball team members truly look impressive with their convincing shots at the basket during warmup and in anticipation of the game. There are continuous cheers lead by the cheerleader and numbers played enthusiastically by the pep band. The crowd cheers lavishly as the referees indicate it is time to start the game. Much applause comes forth when a player scores by sending the basketball through the hoop. Each player on the court receives much adulation and praise, unless a fowl is committed. There may then be occasional booing by a spectator. The booing is made over a call made by a referee which goes against the side favored by the spectator. In the weekly paper of the city involving the local basketball team, there are large pictures of the players who played heroically if they won. There are equally large size pictures in the weekly paper of players of the team who lost in the hard fought game. Students comment much about the players on the local team and value highly the latters contributions to school. They can hardly wait for the next game to come. Pep assemblies are held during the school day prior to each basketball game. Much cheering and introducing of each player on the basketball team is in evidence during the assembly. The pepband also plays a few numbers to spur on efforts in winning the basketball game that same evening. Those on the honor roll pertaining to the academics have a very small write up listing their names only, for a semester, in the local weekly paper with no pictures of the involved students. …

Motivating Students to Learn Better through Own Goal-Setting

Abstract: What is an effective way to motivate students to learn? Should the use of academic expectations be employed to set their learning direction? Or should they be allowed to set their own goals? To begin the search for answers to these questions let's first explain the difference between goal-setting and academic expectations. Goal-setting is the level of achievement that students establish themselves to accomplish; whereas, academic expectation is defined as the level of achievement that students must reach in order to satisfy the standard established by the teacher. Unlike academic expectations, goal-setting is a target to aim for rather than a standard which must be reached. Next let's look at a definition of motivation. Linskie (1977) says that "motivation is generally described as the desire to achieve a goal that has value for the individual." She states that motivation is a process which leads students into experiences in which they can learn, which energizes and activates them, that keeps them focused on a specific task, and which helps fulfill their needs for immediate achievement and a sense of moving toward larger goals. As a result she asserts that students are interested in the things which they plan themselves. They work much harder on self-made goals than they ever would on the expectations of someone else. She states that "successful teachers seem to have a special ability to involve students in goal-setting, in identifying with the learning problem, and in generating a kind of sense of personal excitement for new ideas." Research Findings and Expert Opinion: What Can Be Learned? Now let's learn from the review of salient research and expert opinion how to effectively motivate our students to grow. Schunk (1984) states that goal setting for the learner involves the establishment of an objective to serve as the aim of one's actions. He states that goal properties are (1) specificity, (2) difficulty level, and (3) proximity. Specificity means stating precisely what the learner wants to accomplish, such as spelling 8 out of 10 words correctly rather than doing as good as you can or having no goals at all. Difficulty level for specifically stated goals should be moderate. Too easy a goal is no challenge; too difficult a goal causes discouragement and results in giving up. Proximity aims at helping the learner reach the goal quickly. Cauley, Linder and McMillian (1989) assert that students who feel that they have the self-efficacy (competence or power) to attain a goal show greater effort and persistence than those who lack it. They also state that the need for performance explains that effort and persistence are greater in individuals who have set their own goals than for those who have expectations set by others. Punnett (1986) shares that goals provide a form of motivation to perform well on given tasks. She also suggests that providing rewards for successful completion of goals is also an effective motivational approach. Schunk (1984) states that receipt of a reward also validates self-efficacy because it symbolizes progress. He also asserts that combining performance-contingent rewards with proximal goals leads to higher self-efficacy than either by itself and strengthens goals commitment. Knowing that they are reaching their goals is important in developing self-efficacy, particularly in young children who may not be aware of how well they are performing. Learning about how well the task was completed (feedback) soon after the performance also is effective pedagogy. Rapid feedback in relation to goal achievement may be a form of reward for the student. Bardwell (1984) states that quantitative (concrete) feedback is more effective for children than qualitative comments, such as "you answered all the questions correctly" rather than "you are a great student." Punnett (1986) also says that the perceived ability of the learner to achieve the goal is necessary for successful goal setting. …

21st Century Leadership Practices Needed for Higher Education

Abstract: Introduction The effectiveness and efficiency of the university and college campus is an emerging crisis - a crisis directly related to failed practices in certain areas of leadership. The challenge for academe, more specifically leaders in academe, is to initiate and follow new leadership practices that directly confront unethical, failed and out-of-date methods of campus governance. The purpose of this article is to highlight several areas in which enhanced or new leadership practices are necessary, provide selected examples of egregious incidents of executive wrong-doing, and offer recommended leadership practices for the campus of the 21st Century. Ethical Leadership The New Era Scare (Eddy and Brubacher, 1996) whereby scores of graduate schools, universities, and colleges were fooled by the investment "Polizing Scheme", is but one example of how higher education leaders and officials (Boards of Regents and Trustees, Presidents, Legal Counsels, Vice Presidents, Business Advisors, etc.) need to commit to a higher level of ethics. This tragedy, the worst financial scam ever in higher education finance, occurred in 1995 when it was discovered that the Foundation for New Era Philanthropy pulled off a Charles Ponzi type financial swindle wherein millions of dollars were lost by scores of seminaries, universities, and colleges. Reflectively, Ponzi's scheme was based on the long chanced theme of huge profits in return for large investments. In repeated articles, higher education journals and periodicals, including the Chronicle of Education, relate accounts of "get rich quick" schemes initiated and approved by leaders of academic institutions. Truly, there seems to be an ethical crisis within our campus leaders. Academic leaders of the 21st Century must re-cast their leadership practice to include the following essential aspects of the ethical dimension: (1) Leaders set the tone for the ethical climate of their organizations (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Members of Boards of Regents and Trustees, presidents, vice presidents, deans, and others comprising the academic leadership of the institution must, by deeds, speech, and action, portray their commitment to high ethical standards. (2) A clearly understandable and set of ethical standards that can be adhered to must be devised and articulated by the campus leadership (Eddy, 1993). An unreachable or idealistic ethical code will be breached in day-to-day or routine business - thus, diluting the components that can be lived up to. (3) Ethics violations within the leadership hierarchy should be dealt with swiftly, authoritatively, and affirmatively. The results of inquiries and investigations into ethical lapses should be widely publicized. Team Leadership Leadership unitage, that is, the quantity of leadership within a particular unit of leadership, is significantly improved when all leaders in the institution are empowered to lead their respective unit - teamwork increases productivity (Spaulding & Eddy, 1996). A shift in organizational leadership is underway according to many experts writing on the subject. Charles Handy has indicated that this evolving leadership should be termed "language of politics" - a process of leadership that includes the concepts of "adhocracy, of federalism, of alliances, teams, empowerment, and room for initiative." He identifies the key words as "options not plans, the possible rather than the perfect; and involvement instead of obedience." According to Handy, the title "manager" is being replaced with titles such as lead partner, team leader, facilitator, and project manager (Hesselbein, Goldsmith, & Beckhard, 1996). Critical actions that can be undertaken to improve the institutional climate wherein team leadership can thrive are: (1) Just as the Boards of Regents and Trustees work as a team so should the academe leadership operating entities. No matter what they are called, problems, challenges, opportunities, or issues, organizational activity requiring leader attention should be pursued via a collaborative or shared effort. …

What Characterizes Home Schoolers? A National Study

Abstract: More parents are home schooling their children than ever before. Accurate estimates of the number of home schooled children are hard to obtain. Lines (1991) estimates that between 250,000 and 360,000 children were taught at home in the 1990-1991 school year; Ray (1992a) estimates that 375,000 children were home schooled in 1992 and 450,000 to 800,000 in the 1993-1994 school year. Meighan (1995) puts the figure at over a million. Ray (1992b) also suggests that as many as two percent of the school-age population may be home schooled by the year 2000. A large literature exists on home schooling. Many sources address the practicalities (e.g., Ballmann 1995). Some address the legalities involved (e.g., Zirkel, 1994). Others examine the philosophical and pedagogical backgrounds of home schooling (e.g., Knowles, Muchmore, and Spaulding, 1994). Some address testing problems unique to home schoolers (e.g., Mueller, 1989). The responsibilities of school boards concerns others (e.g., American School Board Journal, 1992). Still others address home schooling in other countries (e.g, Henson, 1996). Research on home schooling is perhaps the most important area in this literature: what do we know about home schoolers, particularly as systematically compared to others? The state of research on home schoolers, particularly as systematically compared to others? The state of research on home schooling is sporadic. Ray (1988) notes the unavailability of reliable data on such characteristics as parental income of home schoolers. Regarding such variables as family size, Ray (1988) observed that the average home school family "probably" includes more children than the average family does, but offers no data. Writing in his introduction to a special journal issue on home schooling, Knowles (1988) notes that the research literature is small. Almost all studies involve small convenience samples of home schoolers willing to share data. Mayberry et al. (1995) discuss various reasons why home schoolers resist participating in research, especially survey research. Perhaps the most definitive study is that by Mayberry et al. (1995). They combined various home school registration lists provided by school districts, home school organizations, and networking groups and sent questionnaires to 6,064 families. But they covered only three states and obtained only a 25 percent response rate. We need more data on a national basis that involve random samples to better understand the nature of home schoolers. National and randomly gathered data are especially important given the strongly self selective nature of most home school samples. This study helps fill that gap. Data The data come from the National Household Education Survey of 1993, a study sponsored by the National Center for Education Statistics. Data were gathered in 1993 via a random digit dial telephone survey of households, including 4,423 parents of preschool children, 2,126 parents of kindergarten children, 4,277 parents of primary school children, and 62 parents of home school children. The overall response rate was 73.6 percent. Blacks and Hispanics were oversampled; weighting was employed in this analysis to adjust for oversampling and other sampling variations. The home schooled children included only the ages of five to seven. Hence, I compare them only with the 6,117 children five to seven years old in the study. Further details on the study design can be found in National Center for Education Statistics (1994). Except for the basic demographic variables, multiple classification analysis was used to examine each variable while controlling for socioeconomic status (SES). SES was measured by dividing the 11-category household income item by two and adding it to the highest parental educational level (five categories); SES was divided by two to give the two items a relatively similar metric. Tests of statistical significance are not reported because even small differences are statistically significant with large samples. …

Beyond the classroom: gender differences in science experiences

Abstract: The importance of environmental influences outside of school has been the focus of numerous studies (Farenga, 1995; Kahle, Parker, Rennie & Riley, 1993; Mason & Kahle, 1989; Majoribanks, 1991; Moos, 1991; Walberg, 1991a; Wolf, 1966). Midwinter (1975) expresses that the home is such a powerful influence that no change is possible without its informed support. Students who come from homes primed with experiences which parallel the schools' curriculum can immediately participate in a productive manner. The aggregated effect that experience provides can form the foundation to subsequent learning. Just as one does not elect calculus without knowing basic mathematical functions, one may not be inclined to pursue the study of physical science without early physical science-related experiences. In response to the research, schools need to identify science-related experience deficits and provide remediation to students prior to middle school. Research of early interest in science (Baker, 1990; Terman, 1954a, 1954b; Walberg, 1991b), out-of-school science-related experiences, Farenga, 1995; Kahle, Parker, Rennie, & Riley, 1993; Mason & Kahle, 1989; Walberg, 1991a), and sex-role stereotyping (Eccles, 1985; Eccles, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982; Reis & Callahan, 1989; Sadker & Sadker, 1985) have all been cited as influential factors of gender differences in science. Home-School Connection Coleman (1987), Lamb (1989), and Walberg (1991a, 1991b) suggest that schools foster the continuance of educational inequalities by capitalizing on experiences present in certain segments of the population. Girls and boys come to school with vastly different science-related experiences. Current curriculum topics may promote unfair competition between the sexes, and young boys may have an unfair experiential advantage. Selected activities, if based on past experiences, may widen the gender gap in science achievement. Walberg (1991a, 1991b) suggests the "Matthew Effect" to explain how past science-related achievement can increase future differences. Farenga (1995) identified a direct relationship between the number of physical science courses selected and the number of reported physical science-related experiences. This finding supports the belief that young students' deficiencies in experiential background appear to affect course selection and future achievement. To address this concern, recent programs such as Project Parity have been designed to heighten parents' awareness of the importance of providing science-related opportunities to their young daughters. The focus of these programs is to "change attitudes about what girls can and cannot do" (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1996, p. 6). The current study examined the relationship between gender and reported out-of-school science-related experiences of young students. Hypotheses 1. Young boys will report significantly more science-related experiences than young girls. 2. Young boys will report significantly more physical science-related experiences than young girls. 3. Young girls will report significantly more life science-related experiences than young boys. Methods Subjects The sample selected for the study consisted of 427 students between the ages of 9 and 13. The students attended two elementary schools in a predominantly white, middle class, suburban community. The sample of 203 males and 224 females was selected from 28 classes, grades four through six. All students in the study were exposed to a laboratory-based science program as part of their regular classroom experience. Instrument To determine the out-of-school science-related experience of the students, a modified version of the Science Experiences Survey (SES; developed by Mason & Kahle, 1989) was administered. Total administration time for the SES was approximately 12 minutes. The SES identifies the number of common scientific materials and activities that students experience outside of the classroom. …

Meeting the Challenges of an Inclusive Classroom of Improving Learning for All Students

Abstract: This article provides a framework for meeting the challenges of an inclusive classroom for children with special needs. The special needs referred to here, are thought to occur as a result of a learning disability, emotional, or social needs, often associated with a learning disability. Students with special needs may also be those who are gifted learners as well as gifted learners with learning disabilities (Renzulli, 1976; Baum, 1988). An inclusive classroom is defined as a classroom which integrates students who have special needs with other students in regular education. Including students in regular education classrooms does not mean doing away with special education; rather, it entails integrating the best that special education has to offer with regular education for the benefit of all students. Traditionally, special education has always been credited with the knowledge and understanding of teaching and learning practices that can enable even students who have learning difficulties, to learn. Despite this, self-contained special education has generally emphasized the acquisition of basic skills, often at the expense of rigorous content. Typically, for students with learning disabilities, the curriculum modifications have consisted of a "parallel curriculum" which is the regular curriculum taught at a simpler level. However, all students including students with learning difficulties have a need to learn more about the world around them and attain a knowledge about the content areas that have been traditionally watered down in special education classrooms, such as mathematics and science. The view that is advocated here is one that emphasizes teaching excellence and a commitment to the idea that when students with special needs are included in the regular classroom, they have to be served in a manner that results in a positive learning outcome for them. If this is not possible in the regular education classroom, then it should be recognized that alternative arrangements, interventions and more restrictive placements may become necessary. More important, the inclusion of children with special needs in the regular classrooms should challenge us to devise effective instructional and curricular practices, thus enhancing the quality of all education, resulting in outcomes that improve teaching and learning for all students. The framework proposed here for meeting the challenges of an inclusive classroom includes the following components: (1) Defining a school philosophy (2) using classroom inquiry and action research (3) Commitment to ongoing teacher education (4) Promoting teaching excellence (5) Professional development for administrators (6) Designing an integrative curriculum (7) Monitoring of student progress (8) using effective assessment procedures (9) Increasing family involvement (10) Emphasizing the development of non-academic skills (11) Introducing students to role models, and (12) Identifying future directions. Defining a School Philosophy on Inclusion A school philosophy on inclusion should be a clearly defined statement that espouses at least two perspectives with respect to curriculum design and education; namely, the knowledge centered and learner centered philosophies. These two philosophies are integral to inclusive classrooms because they emphasize content knowledge and learners learning needs, respectively. When a school defines its philosophy on inclusion, it sets the parameters for determining its approach to curriculum, instruction, planning, teacher support in terms of budgeting for time, materials and communication with parents. A philosophy should also allow for the idea that severity of problems would allow for more restrictive placements and services (Vaughn and Schumm, 1995). Using Classroom Inquiry and Action research: Teachers as Thinkers The classroom inquiry approach to teaching enables teachers to contribute to the knowledge base of developing effective classroom practices for inclusive classrooms by engaging in collaborative inquiry with their peers and participating in a team problem solving approach to generate classroom action. …

E-mail, computer usage and college students: a case study

Abstract: Introduction The explosive growth of the Internet and electronic mail (E-mail) is causing many educators to try integrating electronic materials and communication into their classrooms. Many of these educators are implicitly assuming that all students will use these new electronic resources once they are available. However, research to date has not explicitly tested this assumption. This paper tests this assumption and finds that even when students are given large incentives to use e-mail, over a quarter of the students in one class did not. Educators are interested in the Internet and e-mail because of pressures to improve teaching effectiveness. Teaching is increasingly more difficult because of the pressure to deliver knowledge more cost-effectively (Mingle 1995). The pressure of busier faculty and student lives results in a decreasing amount of time for out-of-class meetings. Lastly, some educators are receiving pressure to integrate academic courses with current computer technology. This research describes and quantifies a very simple one-semester experiment that measured how many college students would use computers without being forced. Students were given the option of having all lecture notes, homework questions and most hand-outs received electronically by simply singing up. Students who did not sign up received nothing. Before the semester's start, this incentive was expected to ensure almost all students learned and continually used computers. Unfortunately, even those strong incentives were not enough to encourage all students to use computers since over a quarter of the class never signed up. To understand why this significant fraction never received any materials electronically, a survey was run at the semester's end. This paper follows a long line of previous researched designed to test if new tools enhance student learning. For example, research has documented ideas such as regular video taping of lectures (Allison 1976; McConnell and Lamphear 1969) and using interactive video (Rhodes and Cerveny 1984). Computer-assisted instruction or CAI (Soper 1974; Smith and Smith 1989; Adams and Kroch 1989) has expanded so greatly that many students now have the choice of buying their textbooks with either Macintosh or PC software. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. The next section first describes how the course was implemented and then describes the survey that quantified students' reactions. The third section describes the costs and benefits of distributing notes electronically. Lastly, a conclusion summarizes the paper, suggests improvements and discusses future directions for research. Implementation and Survey Design The experiment to provide class material electronically was run at Boston University, a large private North East institution, in the spring semester of the 1994-1995 academic year. All students were in a combined undergraduate and graduate labor economics class that met twice a week. Students that signed up were sent all homework questions and lecture notes by e-mail, usually the morning after the lecture. To receive messages students needed a computer account which was free to all registered students. Additionally, a student needed to send the instructor a short message asking for inclusion on the e-mail distribution list.(1) Sending a message showed a basic mastery of e-mail and provided an accurate return address. During the semester the teacher provided no instruction to students on how to use either the campus computer system or e-mail. The only help students received was a general announcement that computer accounts were free to students and where the computer account office was located. While students could sign up any time during the semester, all but two signed up before the first exam. Toward the end of the semester students were required to submit their homework by e-mail. To minimize problems, students worked on homework in small groups that enabled people with weak computer skills to team up with more proficient classmates. …

Intercultural Communication within Multicultural Schools: Educational Management Insights

Abstract: Introduction Most advanced countries comprise various heterogenous and multilingual cultures. * In the United States of America, there are over 180 ethnic groups. According to Klope (1995:3), more than 100 languages are spoken within a school system in cities such as Los Angeles, New York and Chicago. The country has experienced a major transition since the 1960's. Until the mid 1960s the United States bore similarities to the past apartheid system in South Africa, such as primarily segregated education (Scott, 1992: 281). * Canada evidences a history of confrontation between the English speaking and French speaking groups. Furthermore, schools in reservations provide schooling for Native Canadians. * In 1980 the Malaysian population consists of 55,3% Malay, 33,8% Chinese and 10,2% Indian people (Gonzalez, 1988: 846-847). Prior to independence in 1969, four languages, English, Malay, Chinese and Tamil were used as media of instruction in schools. South Africa has at least 20 cultures or subcultures (Smuts, 1996:46) and 11 official languages. At his inauguration, President Nelson Mandela referred to the "rainbow nation of South Africa". In the twilight years of the twentieth century, the new democratic South Africa, well-known for its past system of apartheid, is undergoing radical reform in the sphere of education in particular, and transformation in socio-economic circumstances in general. The country is experiencing a transitional period. During such a period, culture shock or "transition shock", that is the movement from the known to the unknown, may effect individuals in new circumstances so intensely that they may experience "generalized trauma" (Klope 1995: 206; 207). Changing social conditions requires new ways of dealing with people, fresh ways of interacting and communicating with people of other cultures. The above corroborates the view of Sigband and Bell (1994:78) that there has never been a more acute need for effective intercultural communication worldwide than at present. This is also true of schooling in South Africa. In a pluralistic South Africa, few people, and definitely no educational manager, can avoid intercultural interaction. The focus of this article, therefore, is intercultural communication within a multicultural school setting. Aim And Research Methods Educational managers require a better understanding of intercultural communication thereby enhancing interaction between the educational manager on the one hand, and parents and pupils from another culture on the other hand. In this regard, the following questions were formulated: * What is culture? * What is the purpose and nature of communication in general and intercultural communication in multicultural schools and classrooms? * What is the difference between covert and overt messages? * Which obstacles exist in the communication process? * Which guidelines are there for effective intercultural communication in multicultural schools and classrooms? To address these questions, the article has a twofold aim. Firstly, culture and communication in multicultural schools are examined. Secondly, guidelines are provided to enhance intercultural communication which will allow meaningful relationships between people of diverse cultures. These aims have been reached by the following methods. A literature study of recent monographs, journals and research reports concerning intercultural communication in multicultural school situations was undertaken. This was followed by visits to Malaysia (1992) and America and Canada (1994) because these countries have experienced similar educational problems on the area of intercultural communication in multicultural schools and classrooms. Furthermore a case study of intercultural conflict in a South African school, the Potgietersrus debacle (February 1996), was completed. …

Primary children's ideas about cars and the environment

Abstract: (1997). Primary children's ideas about cars and the environment. Education 3-13: Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 25-29.