Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 1998"

Advocating for Better Futures for All Students: A New Vision for School Counselors

Abstract: This article describes how the role of counselors must change to include social advocacy as a primary component. Counselors must work as change agents and advocates for the elimination of systemic barriers that impede academic success for all students. The primary role of school counselors who serve as assertive advocates is to create opportunities for all students to define, nurture and accomplish high aspirations. Thus, school counselors become catalysts and leaders focused on removing the institutional barriers that continue to result in an achievement gap between poor and minority youth and their more advantaged peers. This article presents a new social advocacy role for school counselors based on the belief that they must be proactive leaders and advocates for student success in schools. This means working to help all students gain access to rigorous academic preparation and support for success in these programs. Educational equity in a democratic society requires that all children--especially poor and minority youth who have traditionally been the least served by schools--be better prepared for the future. Closing the achievement gap between poor and minority children and their more advantaged peers becomes the primary goal of every school counselor in this new approach. The importance of this focus is clear; our global society and our status as a world leader are increasingly dependent on the development and better use of all of our human resources. The need to influence and raise academic achievement in our schools is paramount. The achievement gap exists because we systematically expect less of minority and low-income children (American Association for Higher Education [AAHE], 1992). As one African-American high school senior recently stated: We are not only given the short end of the stick in terms of facilities and resources; but inner-city students aren't expected to excel. We are sometimes granted honors for completing only part of a task, while students in more affluent areas are expected to do more to get the same recognition. We are pitied by outsiders who sometimes try to help by giving us undeserved praise. Thus, we often don't expect much more of our own selves. We aren't pushed hard enough. We are babied by our teachers for too long. (Swasey, 1997, p. 4) A social advocacy approach is based on the belief that individual and/or collective action must be taken to right injustices or to improve conditions for the benefit of an individual or group. This kind of social action means that counselors have to actively intervene in the decision making process of the students and in the social context affecting them (Lee, 1997). For school counselors, social advocacy is based on the belief that virtually all students can achieve at high levels, and that counselors must be proactive leaders in closing the existing achievement gap in schools. We propose a model of activism where counselors function as leaders, change agents, and as people willing to take risks. We believe that if counselors adopt an advocacy role they help students become prepared to work in today's world and move toward becoming active, involved citizens. School counselors working from this model stand for social, economic, and political justice and advocate for students not being served well by school systems. Changes in Schools Through diverse educational reform efforts, many schools are working toward greater equity and improved achievement for all students. Supporters of standards-based education have been working diligently to transform many K-12 functions including curriculum, teacher preparation, and continuing professional development for teachers. To date, major school reform efforts have focused on setting more rigorous academic standards, building new assessment strategies and restructuring pre-service and in-service experiences for teachers and administrators. …

Storytelling as a Pedagogical Tool in Higher Education

Abstract: Introduction In the earliest of times, prior to the advent of writing, storytelling was the only tool available by which individuals within their communities could preserve and share their heritage. Stories not only explained life and preserved history, but also ensured the continuity of experiences from one generation to the next. Civilizations survived because of storytelling. The earliest reference to storytelling dates to 4000 B.C. and the Egyptian tales entitled "The Tales of the Magicians" (Sawyer, 1942). Stories were also utilized by the Romans, as well as the Gypsies, whose nomadic existence carried the tales far and wide. During the Medieval period, stories were related by troubadours who were welcomed in the courts and were in great demand at inns, where storytelling was used as a means of bringing together the lives of people, thus creating a sense of community and shared understanding. After the invention of the printing press in 1450, stories became more available in print. In the 19th century, Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm collected folk stories, researching ancient manuscripts and gathering stories from peasant storytellers. Followers of this tradition included Peter Christian Asbjornsen, Jorgen Moe, Joseph Jacobs, Andrew Lang, and Hans Christian Andersen (Baker, 1979). In his article entitled "Memory, Imagination, and Learning: Connected by the Story", Kieran Egan (1989) points to the power of storytelling as the link to more meaningful learning, placing it within the historical context of oral cultures who couldn't write, but who could remember and repeat their stories. Egan writes: "If one could code the knowledge to be passed on and embed it in a story form, then it could be made more faithfully memorable than by any other means (p. 456). In addition, Lucien Levi-Bruhl (1985) believes that memory in oral cultures is extremely accurate and emotional, thus the permeation of events with emotion makes them more memorable. The technique developed in oral cultures for orienting emotions with events was the story. There is little doubt that the Story is a technical tool that has provided a measure of order and stability to human societies for countless millennia. It appears through a review of the literature that the story is one of the most important inventions of humankind (Egan, 1989). Cognitive Processing in Storytelling Oliver Wendell Holmes once said, "No generalization is worth a damn, including this one." Nothing could be more to the point when it comes to storytelling than the impact of specificity based on experience and the relating of those experiences to others in the form of storytelling. Understanding and explaining the world are critical aspects of intelligence which are deeply rooted in the comprehension of past events as they contribute to, and make understandable, the comprehension of new events. This is basically the essence of learning from the beginning of time to the present, whether in a formal or informal setting. Storytelling is an important technique in the process of learning and understanding. Individuals gain a better understanding of one another through the use of concrete examples rather than through vague abstractions and generalizations which have no relationship to life's experiences, since the sharing of experiences through the device of storytelling enables individuals to build the bridge of understanding between one another. This facilitates commonality and the shared resonance of experiences. The story provides the framework and context for individuals to better understand others by providing the key to their own vast index of experiences. Thus, the listener is able to relate in a meaningful way to the teller's point of context by working through personal experiences that result in a more profound and lasting understanding than would have been possible with a generalization. The teller and the listener come together on a cognitive and emotional level that allows the listener to relate to the teller from his or her own personal framework and thus grasp the teller's perception of the content at the same time. …

Affective Responses before and after Fraudulent Excuses by Academic Procrastinators

Abstract: Approximately 70% of U.S. college students engage in frequent academic procrastination (Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Hill, Hill, Chabot, & Barrall, 1978), the purposive delay in beginning or completing academically-related tasks. Studies indicate that fear of failure and aversiveness of the task may be primary motives for academic procrastination (Milgram, Batori, & Mowrer, 1993; Schouwenburg, 1995: Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). College students reported procrastinating more often when writing a term paper than when reading an assignment, studying for an exam, or attending to academic and administrative tasks (Rothblum, Solomon, & Murakami, 1986; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). Frequent academic procrastination has been found across racial categories and regardless of student gender (Ferrari, Johnson, & McCown, 1995). Academic procrastination also is associated with missing deadlines for submitting assignments, delaying the taking of self-paced quizzes, claiming test anxiety, obtaining low course and semester grades, and low cumulative GPA (Beswick, Rothblum, & Mann, 1988; Clark & Hill, 1994; Lay & Burns, 1991; Rothblum et al., 1986; Wolfe & Johnson, 1995). In sum, it seems that academic procrastination may be a way to escape immediate (perceived) aversive tasks or consequences, but seems to have negative consequences for the person (Ferrari, et al., 1995). The present study sought to investigate the "affective experiences of fibbing" by academic procrastinators. Specifically, college students stated their positive or negative affect when phony reasons or excuses for delaying academic related tasks. This information may contribute to an understanding of the relationship between affect and forms of procrastination (Lay, 1995; Lay & Silverman, 1996). Furthermore, it may provide useful information for educational personnel who design intervention programs for college students. Few studies have investigated the desire by students to avoid academic tasks by generating academic excuses. In an unpublished master's thesis, Beck (1985) reported that 60% of college students reported using a false excuse to avoid taking a scheduled test or turning in an assignment on time. Keene, Levine, and Ferrari (1995) replicated this study by comparing students from colleges with selective or nonselective admission standards. In that study greater than 65% of students across settings self-reported that they used phony excuses. Caron, Krauss-Whitbourne, and Halgin (1992) found that while 68% of college students reported using fraudulent excuses, over 90% of the time instructors fail to ask for evidence or "proof" for the proposed excuses. To the extent that procrastination is a purposive avoidance strategy, it follows that academic procrastinators exceed nonprocrastinators in generating excuses for not completing academic tasks. In addition, research has found that negative affect was related to chronic, everyday procrastination (Lay, 1995). From four experimental studies, Lay (1995) concluded that chronic procrastinators compared to nonprocrastinators more often experienced dejection-related emotions (depression) when faced with academically-related tasks. Dejection emotions were reported by trait procrastinators when simply asked to indicate how they felt during the past week or at the moment, and when rating how they felt about ongoing projects involving deadlines or study behaviors prior to an exam. Agitation-related emotions (e.g., anxiety) were unrelated to the academic set of tasks. Lay and Silverman (1996) reported that agitation among chronic procrastinators played a minor (at best) role in predicting dilatory behavior either at pre-examination or exam-day. Studies found that chronic, everyday procrastination and situational academic procrastination are related, but not identical concepts (see Ferrari et al., 1995). Despite the association between chronic procrastination and affect, it is unclear how procrastination in academic situations may be related to their emotional responses to phony excuses. …

Teachers Improving Learning Using Metacognition with Self-Monitoring Learning Strategies

Abstract: The current educational system is in dire need of modification in order to keep pace with the current technological advancement of society. As educators, we must consider the research and create an educational system that will meet the needs of a progressive society. This paper will first consider the components in the literature which would facilitate the educational process and then reflect on possible implications of the literature and procedures for enhancement of the current educational system. John Dewey (1990)I believe, had this same objective in mind when he authored The School and Society in the beginning of the 19th century. He spoke of education as "methods of living and learning, not distinct studies" (p. 14). His theme in this book was to incorporate as much of current society in to the educational process as possible in order to facilitate learning, which would then enhance society as a whole. If individuals were provided with an enriched environment that contained personal meaning and relevance, personal interest would be increased and learning would follow. Learning that occurs in a natural way, creates what Dewey calls "the intimate connection between knowing and doing" (p.106) which will enhance each individual, thus improving society as a whole. There are a multitude of ideas in the literature that address the issue of the classroom learning process. This paper contains a synopsis of the prevalent ideas regarding effective use of strategies within the classroom and teacher education. In order to create an enriched learning environment which will meet individual needs, instructors must be able to assess the current abilities of their students. The most common assessment tool is a standardized test of one form or another. If a student is exhibiting difficulty learning, often an IQ test is administered to determine at what age level the individual is processing information. In fact, when Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon designed their intelligence test in 1905 they were focusing on "objectively diagnosing degrees of mental retardation, and assessment of mental ability" (Sattler, 1992, p. 40). Since the inception of that instrument, the question of intelligence, where it is located, and if it can be measured has remained an ardent subject among professionals in all fields. Sternberg puts forth a model of intelligence which consists of three components and is known as the triarchic theory of intelligence. The components which form the "mental building blocks are: metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components" (Sternberg, & Davidson, 1989, p. 23). Sternberg in a compilation of theories provides many definitions of intelligence and shows how each is relevant to the context in which it is used. If education is going to continue to use the "intelligence quotient" which results from a standardized test as a means to understand student ability (regardless of where the score falls), various frameworks of intelligence must be given consideration. Many theories of intelligence address the interactions between intelligence and the individual, intelligence and the environment, and the interaction within the individual and the environment (Sternberg, 19XX, p. 3). Tishman (1994) suggests that looking at the process of thinking may be more efficient than a static test score when addressing the issue of education. Tishman uses the term "thinking dispositions" which addresses not only ability, but also the inclination toward a particular behavior and the sensitivity, or ability to know when the behavior is appropriate (p. 3). This model offers more to the educational setting than a static number. It provides the instructor with a step like procedure to help the students engage and improve their own critical thinking skills. Tishman, Perkins, and Jay (1995) describe in their book titled The Thinking Classroom, the process of teaching students how to develop effective thinking skills. …

Dispositions and Portfolio Development: Is There a Connection?

Abstract: As Is The Teacher, So Is The School Horace Mann long ago made the following important point: as is the teacher so is the school. By implication then, teacher characteristics, attitudes, concepts of self, and intellectual and interpersonal dispositions in large measure determine both the formal and the informal curriculum of the classroom. The formal curriculum is represented by materials, lesson plans, and objectives, but the informal curriculum is the atmosphere, or climate in the classroom, as indicated by important teacher characteristics (Sprinthall, Reiman, Thies-Sprinthall, 1996). Characteristics of effective teachers which evolve from their dispositions are the impetus for successful teaching and learning. Those characteristics focus on attributes such as being an encourager, possessing a caring attitude, being open-minded, and a listener. As teacher educators we should be concerned not only with teaching methodology, classroom management/discipline, lesson design and assessment, but the teacher as a person. There needs to be concern for the person, not only people in the abstract, not only theories about traits, learning styles and cultural background; teachers meet persons in their classrooms. Teachers prepared in teacher education programs encounter uniquely formed individuals, each different from any other person in the world, a person with his or her own particular story. The person who teaches is not a mere cog in a machine or someone who blindly follows the formulas of textbook writers, exam makers, or administrators (Huebner, 1996). Teachers are professional educators who expect to transform young people, to inspire them to think, to feel, and to take social action as citizens in a democratic society (Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993). These professionals declare their teaching purpose with broad goals that target information processing and problem solving rather than narrow objectives that specify the degree to which discrete skills and bits of information must be mastered. Their teaching demonstrates a conviction that children should become more virtuous people for having the opportunity to learn (Fenstermacher, 1990). As they take classroom action, these professionals regularly display concern for young people's present and future welfare. In order for teachers to be more than "mere" cogs they must possess the dispositions to teach the person. When veteran or preservice teachers are asked to list desired dispositions for today's classroom teachers, responses often include these traits: caring individual, listener, lifelong learner, and compassionate. Given the dynamics of today's public school classrooms and the call for improved teacher preparation, how can teacher educators help preservice teachers realize their beliefs about teaching and desired dispositions and internalize them as their own? The purpose for this manuscript is to generate thought for teacher educators and encourage them to reflect on the practice of preparing teachers. Within this paper the reader will find definitions for dispositions and descriptions of how teacher education programs may or may not help preservice teachers recognize desired dispositions. Additionally, there will be discussion of how portfolio development may be one avenue to assist preservice teachers in realizing their beliefs about teaching and the dispositions desired for effective teaching. Dispositions Defined The search for a definition of teaching dispositions provided varied interpretations which led the author to believe that usage of the term disposition is inconsistent at best. From the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1973, disposition is defined as the following: 1. One's customary manner of emotional response; temperament "She has a lively, playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous." (Jane Austen) 2. A tendency or inclination, especially when habitual: "A disposition to drink and aversion to humdrum toil was no novelty in early Kenya. …

The Cooperating Teacher Role and Career Development

Abstract: This study focuses on how cooperating teachers reflect on their own work and professional development. Survey techniques were used to collect data from 302 cooperating teachers working with four teacher training institutions in Wisconsin. Participants represented K-12 regular and special education and other academic areas. Likert scales were used to explore their perceptions about preparation of student teachers, support from university supervisors, preparation to serve as a cooperating teacher and personal satisfaction with the role. Respondents completed three open-ended statements: 1) A cooperating teacher is someone who ..., 2) As a cooperating teacher I look forward to ..., and 3) As a cooperating teacher I am unsure about.... Findings include agreement among respondents that they feel adequately prepared and find their role satisfying. Three major themes for the role that emerged are modeling, guiding, and facilitating. Cooperating teachers look forward to professional growth through helping beginning teachers and receiving new ideas and assistance. Their concerns focused on preparation of student teachers and support from universities. Both universities and public schools should cooperate to find new opportunities and roles for classroom teachers that go beyond traditional service as cooperating teachers. Student teaching has been a central feature of teacher preparation for most of the twentieth century (Ganser, 1996; Griffin, 1986; Guyton & McIntyre, 1990). The perceived value of providing teacher education students with an extended period of time working in a classroom under the guidance of a veteran teacher is evident. For example, Watts (1987) reports that practicing teachers identify student teaching as "the most valuable and helpful component of their total preparation program" (p. 151). He also notes that student teaching is required for certification in all 50 states. Given student teaching's central place in teacher training and in teacher licensing requirements, it is ironic that there has been relatively little systematic investigation into the effectiveness of student teaching in preparing teachers in recent years. Another irony is that there has been little study about the influence on the person serving as a college or university supervisor (Metcalf, 1991) or as a cooperating teacher (Tannehill, 1989). Teachers readily admit to benefits for themselves in serving as cooperating teachers, many of which mirror those reported by mentors of beginning teachers (Ganser, 1993). Working closely with student teachers can validate veteran teachers by giving them "opportunities to think about their knowledge they had acquired through the years" (Koerner, 1992, p. 53). Cooperating teachers report that student teachers can heighten their awareness of innovative instructional and management techniques which they subsequently incorporate into their own practice (Bowers, 1994). In this sense, student teachers provide experienced teachers with access to "ideas or people whose thinking is slightly ahead of one's own" (Burden, 1990, p. 320). Student teachers can also boost their cooperating teachers' enthusiasm toward children and teaching (Tannehill, 1989). Perhaps the most important benefits reported by cooperating teachers are those that emerge out of self-reflection on their work as teachers. As a participant in an alternative teacher education program, Kennard (1993) suggests that close association with teacher education students allowed her "to understand the need to dismantle old ways of acting in my own teaching practice" (p. 164). Similarly, Black (1993) views as an important outcome of her work with student teachers "a restorying of past practicum experiences, in my work as a student teacher, a cooperating teacher, and a practicum advisor" (p. 151). For many, serving as a cooperating teacher is a powerful experience, both positive and negative, personal and professional. …

Dealing with the Stress of Teachers

Abstract: Introduction Stress is an adaptive response in which a person's body prepares, or adjusts, to a threatening situation (Skillern, Richardson, Wallman, Prickett, & Marion, 1990) Stress is the cause of deteriorating health, lack of productivity, and depression Furthermore, stress seems to strike those in the helping professions, such as teaching, disproportionately to other workers Today, more than ever before, students and teachers experience a great deal of stress (Amen & Reglin, 1994; Amen & Reglin, 1992) For teachers who are vulnerable, because of bad habits, their stress gets worse and usually leads to burnout This study investigated the vulnerability of teachers to stress by exploring the question: Do teachers have habits which make their stress worse? Major sources of stress are: public school violence, dealing with youth and gangs, and teacher overload (Byrne, 1992) Rob Jones, president of the Virginia Educational Association, contends that violence is a societal problem which comes to schools, and our increasingly violent schools are reflective of an increasingly violent society (New York Times, 1993) Recently, in Rochester, New York, teachers placed a higher priority on security than on salary in their contract negotiations (Haberman, 1994) According to the National Education Association, in 1992, there were approximately 70,000 assaults on teachers, a low estimate given that many incidents go unreported (Haberman, 1994) The National Association of School Psychologists cited 1991 statistics which indicate that 900 teachers were threatened each hour during the school day and that 40 were assaulted each hour on school property (New York Times, 1993) Teachers are terrified of gangs Gang members carry guns and knives and deal in drugs Goldstein and Huff (1993) define a gang as a closely or loosely organized association of individuals who express their identification through private language, symbolic behavior, and the wearing of colors and who commonly claim territory in a neighborhood School incidents are considered to be gang related when they are directed by gang leadership or consensus by the members; the behavior benefits the gang, gang motivation is present (displaying of colors, shouting gang phrases, displaying gang's symbols during the act); or the incident is in response to another gang's activity or threat (Goldstein & Huff, 1993) Why do students join gangs? The most commonly cited reasons by gang members for joining a gang include protection, status, identity, access to friends, a feeling of family, protection of the neighborhood, and access to girls (Goldstein & Huff, 1993) Hopelessness, negative role models, and poor self-esteem are contributing factors for gang involvement Teacher overload is a teacher accepting too many tasks for the time allowed to accomplish the tasks If left unchecked, overload leads to stress According to the current literature, when teachers have established their priorities and organized their professional lives, they function more effectively - even under strenuous circumstances (Seldman & Zager, 1988) Questions such as the following can help teachers reduce the stress caused by overload: * Have you identified and prioritized the important tasks that you want to accomplish? * Have you organized a time schedule for accomplishing your objectives? If so, is the schedule a reasonable one for doing a good job? * Have you established adequate resources to assist you in achieving your objectives? * How will you evaluate your effectiveness in accomplishing your objectives? Theoretical Perspective The research and theories related to coping processes form the theoretical perspective for this study The concept of coping processes is a central aspect of contemporary theories of stress (Gaziel, 1993) Coping is a stabilizing factor that may help these teachers maintain psycho-social adaptation during stressful periods …

Defining and Measuring the Dimensions of Teacher Empowerment in Restructuring Public Schools

Abstract: The focus of the Venture Capital Schools in Ohio is on restructuring education with the local school building as the unit of analysis. Advocates of this new focus of school reform (e.g., Comer 1988; Elmore 1990; Griffin, 1991; The Holmes Group, 1986, 1990; Levin 1986, 1991; Liberman & Miller, 1990; Sizer, 1992) noted that such restructuring will not improve schools if undertaken solely from an administrative or management point of view. Sarason (1992) stated: ..there must be change in the power structure. Teachers must be an integral part of the decision making if changes are to be truly effective, since it is up to the teachers to be the main implementors of change in our schools (p. 4). Fullan (1.993) emphasized "Teachers as change agents are the sine qua non (italics in the original) of getting anywhere" (p. 18). Further, the building level is the smallest unit where meaningful and lasting changes occur and have consistent impact upon a large group of students. With this philosophical base, the Ohio State Legislature created a context for school restructuring by offering Venture Capital Grants of $25,000 per school per year to individual schools to spark internal restructuring. Local school districts were asked to nominate schools for the Venture Capital Grants. Following the district's nomination, proposals were submitted by the individual schools. Eight planning elements were identified by the Ohio State Department of Education (July, 1993) as being essential to continuous school improvement and were used as evaluative criteria for the proposals. These elements were extracted from the literature on educational change and were generated as a synthesis of key planning elements necessary to achieve and sustain significant educational improvement. These elements were: 1. Evidence of community readiness and willingness to develop and implement new school improvement ideas and to anticipate change and reshape thinking and behavior. 2. School improvement strategies collaboratively designed by the community and integrated into the school's structure demonstrating that all children can learn. 3. Planned changes that are systematic and wide-ranging. 4. Evidence that community agencies and groups are thoughtfully and purposefully involved. 5. School improvement strategies that focus on learning. 6. Evidence that teachers are given expanded roles in planning and implementing change. 7. Policies and practices that contribute to the success of all students. 8. School improvement plans that leverage existing dollars and resources and identify new monies and resources for the support of improvement efforts (p. 10) Using these elements to evaluate the proposals from individual schools selected by their districts, 307 Venture School were funded in Autumn 1994 and Winter 1995. The Venture Schools were chosen in part because a minimum of 80% of the school staff, principal, and district superintendent committed to supporting the initiative (The Venture Capital Assessment Team, October, 1994). (The 307 schools comprise approximately 10% of all schools in the state). Purpose The purpose of this study was to identify theoretical dimensions of teacher empowerment (often defined in the literature in terms of "new roles" for classroom teachers) and to measure them in the population of classroom teachers working in the 307 Venture Capital Schools. The study was planned to return the collected data (aggregated at the building level) to the individual school planning teams to be used to help them define and facilitate teacher empowerment within their schools. Further, the study was designed to explore dimensional measures of teacher empowerment in schools designing their own restructuring initiatives; no similar studies were identified in the literature. Review of Literature Rappaport (1987) described the construct of empowerment as "a joining of personal competencies and abilities to environments that provide opportunities for choice and autonomy in demonstrating those competencies" (1987, p. …

Reflective Practice Groups in Teacher Induction: Building Professional Community Via Experiential Knowledge

Abstract: Introduction Historically, the reality of classroom teaching in American schools has involved a single teacher placed in a classroom full of students. The teacher's job has been to move students through the curriculum and, to the highest extent possible, practice rugged individualism as challenges developed in that environment. When American education was a system largely based on one-room school houses spread across the countryside, no doubt other options were lacking. The unspoken culture of instruction, which is the legacy delivered from such a system, has for years viewed it as a sign of weakness for a teacher to step outside of that classroom for assistance. This system has forced a long line of teachers to face, totally alone, a swarm of perplexing classroom episodes and incidents. Educators who have been a part of this tradition can relate that sometimes these classroom episodes linger in practitioners' minds. These struggles force teachers to assimilate and accommodate as they seek more effective classroom strategies. When teachers are successful in their classroom settings, they gain new experiential insights that build their professional knowledge base. When incidents are unresolved, they persist in the mind of the educator. During such experiences, teachers question their pedagogic abilities and efficacy. If honest, all teachers would admit that they have had such episodes. These unsettling attempts might involve an unruly student, an intimidating parent, or systemic challenges. The catalysts that confront professional confidence and efficacy are endless. For years neither time nor the work culture promoted the group processing of such teaching events. New Expectations for Schools and Teachers Teachers are no longer, with few exceptions, marms and masters isolated in their teaching practice. Now most work in expansive buildings with dozens of colleagues. The changing American culture, demographics, politics, and economics are creating a different type of school. Coupled with these changes, an expanding science of teaching and learning, a movement to elevate teaching to a true profession, and a growing demand for teacher accountability and assessment by national standards have combined to bring about new expectations for the postmodern educator. Today, even beginning teachers are expected to come to the classroom with knowledge, dispositions, and performance capabilities enabling them to reflect on their instructional strategies and interactions with students. One significant component of the changes for professional educators is the heightened expectations for and emphasis on teacher reflection. The standard grows out of a body of literature that emerged during the 1980s and which describes the needs for, approaches to, and benefits from reflective practice. Reviews of this literature can be found in the work of Schon (1983, 1987), Tom (1985), Smyth (1988), Grimmet et al (1990), Richardson (1990), Sparks-Langer & Colton (1991), Wellington (1991) and Wilcox (1996). Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) and Pathwise[TM] teacher performance assessments formalize the expectations for teacher reflection. Teacher reflection in a collaborative environment enhances professional development and planning. Teachers gain insight from the experiential knowledge of their colleagues as their practice is confirmed and honed. Professional community develops in a process of non-threatening, non-evaluative communication. Educational service to students is improved through higher level teacher effectiveness and increased teacher efficacy. The implementation of this standard leads to the professionalization of the educator's role. Organizing Reflective Practice Groups This article shares an experience with a first-year teacher induction research and development project. The Minnesota Board of Teaching funded seven pilot projects to investigate a variety of effective approaches for supporting first-year teachers. …

Designing a Mentoring Program

Abstract: Among educators, widespread concern at all levels about the quality of schools in our nation has led to renewed interest in the areas of teacher preparation and teacher induction. During the 1980's, the induction movement gained momentum throughout the country as a result of educational reforms and state mandates. One definition of teacher induction is the period of transition from student to professional. Educational researchers refer to the period of transition for beginning teachers as a period of induction (Brooks, 1987). According to Huling-Austin (1990), teacher induction should be considered as part of the teacher education continuum, that is, preservice, induction, and inservice. One goal of teacher induction is to provide ongoing assistance to teachers entering the profession through mentoring programs in order to enhance their effectiveness as teachers and increase their retention in the profession (Huling-Austin, 1990). Mentoring programs are designed for beginning teachers who have completed teacher education programs and who need supervision and support during their entry year. They enter the profession at different stages of development: some returning after a number of year absence; some beginning a second career at mid-life; and others starting their first job. A mentoring program can begin at any one of these points. State legislatures, including New Jersey's, have mandated mentoring programs as part of the teacher certification and licensing process in order to provide excellent teachers for educating their constituents. The goal of a mentoring program whether implemented at the state or local level is to offer intervention that orients new and returning teachers to the school and community and to provide instructional and interpersonal support that fosters professional development and retention as teachers. To design a mentoring program for a local school district, there are a number of suggestions for a mentor team to consider. A review of the research literature identities teacher educators, first year teachers, school administrators, and experienced teachers who offer advice, recollections, personal opinions, and descriptions of mentoring programs. (See the Bibliography for journals with themed issues on teacher induction and mentoring). Research on beginning teachers includes an examination of their problems and concerns. The major concerns of new teachers are discipline and classroom management (Elias, Fisher, & Simon, 1980; Veenman, 1984). Ryan et al (1980) identified personal life adjustment and the teaching assignment itself as two key areas of difficulty for beginning teachers. Veenman (1984) cited other perceived problems of beginning teachers including motivating students, planning lessons, and dealing with individual differences. Elias, Fisher & Simon (1980) also reported problems in finding and using appropriate materials. It seems that the more problems beginning teachers encounter, the more likely they will leave the profession (Veenman, 1984). Second, individual teachers' needs must be ascertained. Beginning teachers with fewer than three years of professional teaching experience from urban, suburban, and rural school districts were asked to respond to the question, "Based on your knowledge and understanding as new teachers, describe your ideas for a successful mentoring program." According to the interviewees, a successful mentoring program should be reactive to teachers' needs and reflective of positive educational strategies. …

Alleviating Stress in Pre-Service Teachers during Field Experiences

Abstract: Preservice teachers often experience extreme stress during field experiences which can make them less effective and stunt professional growth. Through talking with students, reading their journals, noting comments on professor evaluations, and constant experimentation, the authors have developed diverse strategies that have been successful in alleviating undue anxiety. Described strategies include reflective and dialogue journals, visits by former students, collaborative teaching, observations of and interviews with supervising teachers, simple classroom management techniques, simulation lessons, debriefing sessions, non-threatening evaluation procedures, and avoidance of transmission of professors' stress. Readers may adapt these techniques to fit their own unique situations or develop similar strategies of their own. Introduction Teaching is an occupation with a high degree of work-related stress (Brissie, Hoover-Dempsey, & Bassler, 1988; Hipps & Halpin, 1992; Hollingsworth, 1990; Stamaman & Miller, 1992). According to Greer and Greer (1992), the highest risk for stress and burn-out may come at the beginning of an educator's career during preservice field experiences. Even though, preservice teachers may have high academic achievements in core university classes, success as a teacher in a school setting is not automatic, thus leading to anxiety and distress (Bowers, Eicher, & Sacks, 1983). Various researchers have studied factors associated with stress levels during student teaching. Much of the research has been qualitative based on observations and professional judgments. The findings of Bowers, Eicher, and Sacks (1983) indicate that preservice teachers are primarily concerned with affective matters (e.g., maintaining discipline, gaining respect of pupils, and developing appropriate relationships with pupils, parents, and other teachers) and instructional matters (e.g., knowledge of subject matter, use of strategies for instruction, utilizing child behavior principles, and providing for differences). Greet and Greer (1992) suggest that the personality traits of individuals attracted to teaching may make them predisposed to unrealistic expectations and idealism which may contribute to preservice stress. Sinclair and Nicoll (1980) state that student teachers perceive preservice experiences to be a test of not only their adequacy as teachers but as human beings as well. Jelinek (1986) proposes that stress can erode confidence in knowledge of content and as a professional in the classroom; however, it can also motivate a careless preservice teacher to perform more effectively. Cole and Knowles (1995) report that preservice teachers often experience emotional trauma and confusion regarding university supervisors' roles during field experiences. Numerous recommendations have been made to help ameliorate detrimental preservice stress levels. Greer and Greer (1992) suggest that the development of realistic expectations, the encouragement of detached concern, a better understanding of classroom successes/failures, and an introduction to various stress reduction techniques would be helpful in assisting future teachers in dealing more effectively with the stresses of teaching. They go on to advocate the utilization of mentoring by veteran teachers to reduce stress. Bowers, Eicher, and Sacks (1983) propose earlier field experiences and workshops for cooperating teachers to develop non-threatening supervisory and evaluation skills. They also advocate training for university supervisors to develop support systems for preservice teachers. In addition, preservice teachers need to learn to set realistic goals and practice techniques for self-evaluation/criticism as well as develop human relation skills. Furthermore, conferences with cooperating teachers well in advance of actual preservice teaching are beneficial to preservice teachers. Other authors have made additional suggestions. …

Towards the Multicultural Validation of a Western Model of Student Approaches to Learning

Abstract: The reliability and validity of the Study Process Questionnaire is investigated for 750 South African undergraduates. The concepts involved in the SPQ are relevant to the South African students and the SPQ scales and subscales were found to be adequate internal consistency reliability for research purposes. This conclusion was further enhanced by the meaningful factor structure of responses to the SPQ subscales found for the South African sample. However, doubt is cast as to the metric equivalence of SPQ scales across cultures making it difficult to interpret direct cross-cultural comparisons of mean scale scores Keywords: Learning, Culture, Study process, South Africa Introduction Psychological and educational theories of learning have often been criticized as being inadequate to explain level cognitive processes required for academic learning. Research into student learning especially in the developing countries such as South Africa should start with the context in which learning takes place. Educational theorists generally believe that learning is not a unitary process that happens inside an individual, but is a construction that takes place as a result of the individual interacting with a content, which usually contains other individuals. We sometimes assume learning takes place in a vacuum (Akande, 1997a, 1997b; Biggs & Watkins, 1993; Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983; Watkins & Akande, 1994; Wedekind, Lubisi, Harley & Gultig, 1996). For many years, the role of cross-cultural differences has been overlooked in discussions of approaches to learning. Most findings on approaches to learning have been overwhelmingly focused on the teacher's and researcher's point of view. Educational change will not occur until new educational system in postapartheid South Africa can root the analysis and practice of education and care-giving of students in the context of their culture. Other research confirms that there is a need to devise educational strategies that integrate the African culture in all its diversity into a creative interrelated learning environment (see Hale-Benson, 1996). Knowledge of how students go about their learning can be useful information for psychologists, teachers, counselors and researchers. This article investigates aspects of the reliability of one of the most widely used questionnaire in this area, the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ; Biggs, 1987), for use with urban South African students. Theoretical Model The SPQ has been developed within the framework of a well articulated model of learning: the Presage, Process, Product (3P) model (Biggs, 1985; 1987; 1988; 1989). The 3P Model involves the interrelationships between the personal characteristics of students; the situational constraints in which they find themselves; their approaches to learning; and the outcomes of that learning (see Figure 1). The components of this model tend to be in equilibrium but changes to any component affect the whole system. Thus, change in the teaching context may well result in a change in approach to learning and ultimately to the learning outcome itself. [Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Passage Variables Passage factors involve two categories of variables: those which are characteristics of the individual students and those which are a function of the situation. Amongst the personological variables. Biggs (1987) included both general ability and information processing abilities; personality characteristics; age and previous learning experiences. Biggs further emphasizes those factors which influence meta-cognition, the degree to which students are aware of and can control their own learning processes. Important for this purpose are a relatively high degree of self-confidence and an internal locus of control (McCombs, 1986; Watkins, 1987; Watkins & Akande, 1992). Situational factors include the mode of teaching, the difficulty and nature of the task, the method of assessment, student satisfaction with the learning environment, and the opportunity students are given to learn independently (Biggs, 1987; Hattie & Watkins, 1988). …

Techniques in the Supervision of Teachers: Preservice and Inservice Applications

Abstract: Perhaps one of the most important responsibilities of a principal is the supervision of instruction (Lunenburg, 1995). Instructional supervision has as its goal the professional development of teachers, with an emphasis on improving teachers' classroom performance. What does this mean to the teacher? Unfortunately in many cases the teacher is given little direction on how to overcome specific weaknesses and improve her performance. It seems that if she is to improve as a teacher, this improvement must be self-directed. In the absence, then, of help from the principal, it becomes obvious that by default the teacher may develop a very restricted range of instructional strategies. These often become the career pattern of instruction for many teachers. In this situation, the teacher has few resources for improvement other than his own trial-and error experience, a type of learning that can lead to excellence or disaster. Teaching, because it is an extremely complex process dealing with many variables, has been difficult to analyze. Research on teaching and learning accumulated during the last three decades has provided a variety of teaching techniques that may be utilized effectively by teachers as they interact with, facilitate, and direct students within their educational settings (Allen et al., 1969; Hunter, 1984; Hunter & Russell, 1990; Lunenburg & Ornstein, 1996; Wiles & Bondi, 1996). Listed below are a half-dozen durable instructional strategies designed to help teachers improve their classroom performance. Knowledge of these six teaching techniques may be of help to the principal in her role as supervisor of instruction. Reinforcement Research has indicated that if teachers reinforce students both verbally and non verbally when they participate both in large- and small-group classroom discussions, irrespective of the correctness of their responses, students will participate more often and more actively in classroom discussions (Brophy, 1981; Harmin, 1994; Hamachek, 1995; Smead, 1995; Slavin, 1989; Stallings, 1975). If teachers wish to get students to participate more often and more actively in class, they should discover what is reinforcing for particular students and then reinforce the students when they do participate in class. It would seem that the more techniques a teacher has at his disposal for reinforcing students, the better his chance for getting good pupil participation. For example, when a student makes a particularly good response, the teacher might say, "That's exactly it," and nod her head affirmatively as she moves toward the student. In this case, she combines one positive verbal reinforcer with two positive nonverbal reinforcers. Such a combination produces a cumulative effect. Examples of positive non-verbal reinforcement include the following: The teacher nods and smiles; the teacher moves toward the pupil; the teacher keeps her eyes on the pupil; and the teacher writes the pupil's response on the blackboard. Positive verbal reinforcement include the use of words and phrases such as "Good," "Fine" "Excellent," "Correct," etc., or otherwise verbally indicating pleasure at the pupil's response. Teacher actions and responses which act as negative reinforcement tend to decease pupil participation and should be avoided. Examples follow: The teacher scowls or frowns; the teacher moves away from the pupil; the teacher fails to maintain eye contact with the pupil; the teacher responds with "No," "Wrong," and "That's not it"; the teacher manifests expressions of annoyance or impatience. Recognizing Attending Behavior Related literature on pupil attending behavior indicates that pupil behavior can be classified as either work oriented or non-work oriented behavior and that these pupil behaviors can be distinguished from each other. Two important variables which are dimensions of total teacher behavior were reported in the literature as instructional technique and the immediate effect of technique on pupil attending behavior (Brophy, 1986; Good & Brophy, 1989). …

Developing Empathy through Children's Literature.

Abstract: Seven-year-old Joshua returns to class after being absent for two weeks with the flu. Although normally he comes to school happy, today he stands close to his mother at the door, eyes filled with tears as he looks into the room. One of the other children comes over and says, "it's okay, you're just sad because it's hard to leave home after you've been out for so long. That happens to me too." How do children learn to empathize in this way? Is there a way teachers can support the development of empathy in the classroom? In the past few years, writers such as Robert Coles (1997), in his book The Moral Intelligence of Children and Daniel Goleman (1995), in his book Emotional Intelligence, have argued that schooling is not just for cognitive development but must also include affective instruction. If, then, we are going to develop a quality primary education program we must look at the social and emotional domains of the classroom. Katz and McClellan (1992) suggest that the best predictor of later social adjustment is the ability of a child to get along with peers. Given this far reaching consequence, the importance of establishing social competence in young children is critical. One way in which students can become socially competent is through developing empathetic responses. If empathy is so important in social adjustment, how can a teacher assist in its development? The focus of this paper is to present a rationale for encouraging the use of empathy related literature and to provide teachers with a children's literature resource of realistic picture books whose stories evoke feelings of empathy. The use of stories is supported by Coles (1989) who states, as an individual reflects on stories, "one remembers, one notices, then one makes connections--engaging the thinking mind as well as what is called the emotional side" (p. 128). Empathy Empathy is viewed as both a cognitive and affective process and is defined in a number of ways. Empathy is sometimes referred to as a cognitive process, which involves cognitive role taking or perspective taking as critical attributes of the definition (Deutsch & Madle, 1975). Feshback (1975) refers to empathy as an affective process in which a person is able to "share an emotional response with another as well as the ability to discriminate the other's perspective and role" (p. 145). Hoffman (1984) defines empathy as "an affective response more appropriate to someone else's situation than to one's own." Eisenberg and Strayer (1990) identify empathy as "an emotional response that stems from another's emotional state or condition and is congruent with the other's emotional state or situation" (p.5). For the purpose of the present paper, empathy is viewed as both a cognitive and affective process. Hoffman(1984) describes four developmental levels of empathy children progress through. Infants are not able to separate self from others, but as a precursor to empathy they might cry when they hear the cry of other infants. The second level develops as the child is able to physically differentiate self from others. At two to three-years of age the third level begins to develop. Children become aware that others might have feelings which are different from their own based on the other person's needs. As children develop a sense of self and others the ability to empathize becomes stronger. As language develops children begin to empathize with a wide range of emotions. In the primary education years children develop the ability to empathize with a person who is not present. At this point perspective-taking is a part of the process. The fourth, more advanced level, develops in late childhood. At this point children become able to empathize not only with what happens in the present and in a person's absence, but also with chronic problems of a person, a group of people, or society as a whole. Based on Hoffman's (1984) work, as children develop a sense of self and others the ability to empathize becomes stronger. …

International Students Have Statistics Anxiety Too

Abstract: Background International students often have much better preparation in mathematics, often having had calculus in high school. It has been the belief that taking more mathematics has been the reason for their better, though not significantly better, scores in statistics and POM courses (Bell, 1997). Does this stronger background lead to lower statistics anxiety as measured by the Statistical Anxiety Rating Scale (STARS)? The two groups were not different when considering their learning styles. The Learning Style Inventory was administered at the beginning of the course, resulting in three groups according to learning style; visual, auditory, and tactile (Learning Style Inventory, 1996). The Kolmogorov Smirnov Goodness-of-fit was used to check for differences in the two groups classified according to their respective learning style (Lapin, 1990). Method Participants in this study were ten international and fifty-one domestic business students enrolled in an introductory Production and Operations Management (POM) course at a state university. POM is a junior-level course with a pre-requisite of a course in statistics and a course in finite mathematics along with a course :in college algebra. A t-test (unequal variances) was administered to the two groups on each of the six factors identified by STARS. Instrument STARS consists of two parts. The first part presents twenty-eight situations often associated with statistics anxiety. These items are scored on a Likert-type scale from one to five, with a "one" indicating no anxiety with that situation while a "five" indicates considerable anxiety. The second part: consists of twenty-eight statements dealing with statistics, with responses recorded on a Likert-type scale from one (no anxiety) to five (considerable anxiety). Hence, the lower the score, the lower the anxiety level. Six factors are revealed in STARS: worth of statistics, interpretation anxiety, test and class anxiety, computation self-concept, fear of asking for help, and fear of statistics teachers (Cruise, 1985). Factor 1 - Worth of Statistics - This factor deals with a student's perception of the value of a statistics course. A person scoring high on this factor sees little or no value in a statistics course. A student scoring high on this factor also feels that statistics does not "fit" their personality, thus indicating a negative attitude toward statistics. The t-test found a significant difference (t = -1.369, p = .097) with international students having significantly higher scores, meaning more anxiety. The mean score of international students is at the 98th percentile when compared to all undergraduate students (Cruise, 1985). Factor 2 - Interpretation Anxiety - This factor is concerned with anxiety rising from interpreting statistical data. This could arise from deciding which statistical test to use or what to do with the null hypothesis. International students also scored significantly higher than domestic students on this factor (t = -2.654, p = .011). The mean score of international students is at the 83rd percentile (Cruise, 1985). Factor 3 - Test and Class Anxiety - The factor deals with anxiety related to taking a statistics course or examination. The student that scores high on this factor experiences anxiety when enrolling in or taking a statistics course, solving statistical problems, or taking an actual statistics test. No significant difference between the two groups was found when considering this factor (Cruise, 1985). Factor 4 - Computation Self-concept - This factor reveals anxiety associated with actual mathematical computations, thus relating to classical mathematics anxiety. The student that scores high on this factor experiences anxiety because it involves mathematical calculations and the student feels inadequate when comprehending statistics. International students scored significantly higher than domestic students (t = -1. …

Restructuring Universities and Colleges: The Student-Focused Paradigm

Abstract: Rising costs in education, accompanied by declining performance and productivity, indicate a need for a change. This article suggests a new focus to create higher education institutions that are more responsive to students' needs. A new organizational culture intent on providing the best education and services for students will help ensure that all students receive maximum quality services while, at the same time, institutional spending is decreased. To maximize provision of services to students, increase student satisfaction, and minimize costs for the institution, the authors recommend formation of student-focused learning teams. A student-focused management program will help institutions of higher education achieve maximum flexibility, greater efficiency, and increased productivity. This paper is an attempt to start a process that will lead to greater efficiency in the utilization of university resources while concurrently improving the quality of learning for students. The concepts described are applied from a similar effort to improve the quality of health care utilized in Restructuring Health Care: The Patient Focused Paradigm (Lathrop, 1993). Lathrop calls for a paradigm shift to liberate the health care system from rising costs and declining performance and productivity. The purpose of the new vision of health care reform is to create healthier communities by engaging leaders in building new visions and models of care (p. xi). In analyzing the costs, Lathrop found that less than one-fifth of every dollar spent involved direct patient care. For every dollar spent on something visible to the patient, three to four dollars are spent on infrastructure costs. The idea of liberating the system from rising costs and declining performance and productivity are transferable to higher education. Colleges and universities involve multiple academic disciplines serving individuals with a variety of needs. The college and university institutions, like medical institutions, are extraordinarily slow to change in the face of new realities that make change necessary for their continued survival. The new paradigm that we are suggesting re-focuses service recipient roles from the student to that of the customer. This focus shift will create higher education institutions that are more responsive to students. Nature of the Problem St. John (1994) examined three states (California, Louisiana, and Maine) that had major reductions in state appropriations for higher education. These state budgets were influenced by two factors: neo-conservative ideology that believed public college and university expenditures were excessive, and by troubled economies. Issues of cost management were not explicitly addressed in the state appropriations for higher education and issues of productivity by these institutions were not discussed. St. John believes that until these issues are addressed, neo-conservatives will probably continue to argue persuasively that expenditures for higher education are excessive and need to be reduced. As a consequence of the Industrial Revolution and its emphasis on specialization, many organizations, including higher education, developed strict departments that contained specialized functions. This organizational philosophy, known as departmentalization, was perceived as a way to enhance the accumulation and dissemination of knowledge. This organizational structure often leads to rigidity, rising costs, and declining performance. The fragmentation which has occurred as a result of departmentalization can be seen when examining a typical undergraduate education program. In examining departmentalization, a student will take courses from as many as twenty different departments while completing an undergraduate degree. This results in a program of study without a unified core. This means of organization frequently provides the student with disjointed and fragmented knowledge. The typical departmentalized organization found in higher education might be termed compartmentalization. …

Situated Cognition versus Traditional Cognitive Theories of Learning

Abstract: This paper reviews a variety of perspectives in reference to recent cognitive and situative theories as they relate to the process of becoming a learner. The context of this inquiry is seen as a creative tension between concepts of individual versus community initiatives, prerogatives, and responsibilities in learning. Dewey describes a saturation with the "spirit of service" coupled with "instruments of effective self-direction" (Dewey, 1956/1990, p. 29) as goals of education, thus targeting a supremely rational center from which the discourse today pulses asymmetrically. The center holds, however enriched by varying degrees of individual agency and social definition in the conflict between cognitive and situative theories of learning. Provocative implications concerning the direction--and possible misdirection--of emphases in theory are noted. In the nearly indissoluble relationship between theories of cognition and attempts to understand the processes of learning there is an easy assimilation into the fray over sovereignty. Who controls knowledge? Is knowledge `beat into our heads' or are we led to discoveries? Does learning occur as a consequence of intention, or is it serendipitously assimilated in our experience? What are the goals of individual versus social theory in relation to the learner? Is the aim of the learning experience to develop more pragmatic returns, or to nurture the abstract and symbolic mind? These questions revolve on a fundamental division between ideologies that alternately place either the individual or the community as primary agents and beneficiaries of cognitive development and learning. The dialogue of dichotomies between cognitive and situative theory--individual versus community, reductionistic versus systems approaches, inductive versus deductive--lends prima facie weight to the dialectical foundation of situative theory. Is it fruitful to have the dialectic stop with situative theory, short of the fundamental rift? Is our effort to understand learning doomed to take a back seat as we battle over territorial nomenclature? Why not continue the dialogue through a more complete synthesis? Dewey's pragmatic preoccupation with citizenship and his insistence on the context of quotidian reality to develop that citizenship are balanced by his acclamation of subjective imagination, and of voluntary and reflective attention in achieving from external custom and suggestion (Dewey, 1956/1990, pp. 144-146). Dewey values learning as a participatory and sustaining function within the society, while recognizing the individual essence and vitality of a learner's cognition. Recent theory flows from Dewey's moderate expression of social dominion through more individualistic perspectives into a Marxist view of local and global culture as integral to the very possibility of individual knowledge and identify (Lave and Wenger, 1991, p. 98-115). Conceptions of ability Traditional interpretations consider ability as a function of intelligence, a faculty peculiar to individuals. A 1921 consensus (Snyderman and Rothman, 1988), contemporary with Dewey's work, describes a (then) commonly accepted definition of intelligence "as mental adaptation to changing environmental stimuli ... sometimes called the capacity to learn" (p.43). The schism between cognitive and situative theories evolves as each attempts to confiscate a portion of that definition and declare it complete. It is reminiscent of the blind men and the elephant; no one of them can see the whole thing, yet each gropes about and adamantly asserts to know `what it is.' None surmises the truth. Cognitive theory tends to assess ability where traditional psychological theory has always begun, noting it originates in individual mental processes. It is primarily Piagetian, inductive, and anchored to biology. Situative theory is more Vygotskian, deductive, and genetic; emergent through the developing relationships in which individuals play a part. …

Student Enjoyment of Physical Education Class in Three Teaching Style Environments

Abstract: Physical education class has its unique contribution to student well being To have fun is always one of the top priorities of students who attend physical education class Enjoyment of class is the positive attribute of student emotion as well as the key factor that relates to teaching effectiveness Since enjoyment involves a state of pleasure and satisfaction, its onset in the teaching learning context leads a student attention focusing on the learning content and a great deal of effort being made toward a leaning goal However, student enjoyment in the classroom could be influenced by many factors The method a teacher adopted could be a major factor that influence this variable The feedback of student evaluation of teacher performance indicated that instructional method is among the top ranks that considered enhance enjoyment of learning Teaching style (Mosston & Ashworth, 1994) was one of the valuable aspects to the pedagogical inquiry Its theoretical construct and operational design of diverse teaching strategies provide physical education teachers with dynamic opportunities to make teaching more effective Research on teaching style has reported valuable information about instructional strategies, especially in the domain of student psychomotor acquisition (Pettigrew & Heikkinen, 1985; Dougherty, 1970) But it also seems to be true that previous research has often focused exclusively on physical development and ignored the social, emotional, and cognitive dimensions, despite their importance in learning (Beckett, 1990) Mosston's Teaching styles (Mosston & Ashworth, 1994) are differentiated based on the behavioral elements included in the three decision-making sets: pre-impact set, which includes all the decisions that must be made prior to the face-to-face transaction, like setting objective, selecting teaching subject matter and methods Impact set, which includes decisions related to the actual transaction and the performance of the tasks Post-impact set, which includes decisions concerning the evaluation of the performance during the impact set and the congruity between the pre-impact and the impact sets In command style, the teacher makes all impact decisions and the learners follow these decisions The essence of the command style is the direct and immediate relationship between the teacher's stimulus and the learner's response In reciprocal style, the social relationships between peers and the conditions for immediate feedback are emphasized in such a way that the students study in pairs and provide feedback to each other The students make the decisions in the impact (execution and performance) set In inclusion style, students have the opportunity to decide what task difficult level to work on according to the teacher's design of the task Students participation is individualized Self-monitoring and judgment are placed on the students The learners make the decisions in the impact and the post-impact sets For both the reciprocal and inclusion styles, students need to use the teacher designed task sheets to critique and record their performance The relationship in relation to enjoyment and teaching style was indicated in the literature A study of youth soccer enjoyment revealed that boys soccer enjoyment was significantly related to perceived coach and parental behaviors (Ommundsen & Vaglum, 1991) This result also led to the suggestion that leadership behaviors which characterized by individualized instruction and open ended questioning tended to enhance students' interest toward the subject Wankel (1985) studied personal and situational factors affecting exercise involvement from fifty-one participants and sixty-one dropouts of an employee fitness program Results indicated that enjoyment of physical activity was related to the factors within the program It further pointed out that the nature of the activity and leadership were important factors affecting enjoyment and continued involvement …

Career Ladders: Modifying Teachers' Work to Sustain Motivation

Abstract: Educational administrators must concern themselves with how a high level of teacher motivation can be aroused, directed, and sustained. Modifying teachers' work through career ladders, may make more meaningful incentives available to them, throughout their years of service. This article defines career ladders for teachers. It reviews literature on the background of theory and practice on the topic. It considers the potential that career ladders have to motivate teachers and to encourage teachers to facilitate organizational goals. Career ladders may create a more mutually beneficial relationship between teachers and their schools. Teachers may experience new opportunities to experience professional growth and other work-related incentives, while schools benefit from more capable teachers making school wide-contributions through programs such as mentoring and instructional development. Educational administrators need to concern themselves with how a high level of teacher motivation can be aroused, directed and sustained. Administrators must design and use practices which encourage teachers to try new things, to take on new challenges, and which inspire teachers to achieve excellence. It is of primary importance that administrators foster the individual and collective best efforts and contributions of teachers in order to accomplish school goals and improve student learning. Career ladders have been implemented in some schools across our country to improve teacher motivation and to expand teachers' contributions to the effectiveness of their schools. They restructure teaching jobs so that status ranks are more formalized, teachers' tasks are matched to abilities, and responsibilities for school and staff improvement are distributed among the professional staff (Malen and Hart, 1987; English, 1992; Hart, 1992). Teachers are evaluated according to defined competencies and teacher roles may be modified according to the level of evaluation. Professional development needs, as determined by individual assessment, can be addressed. More capable teachers assume responsibilities as peer coaches or mentors for those with less experience or less competence. In recognition of these new responsibilities, teachers receive additional compensation over and above their scheduled salary, which is usually based on years of experience and educational preparation. Background in Practice. Career ladder plans have become popular over the past twelve years. In 1984 the United States Education Department awarded over a million dollars to fifty-one school districts, agencies and institutions for the purpose of developing and implementing pay incentive plans. By 1988, twenty-five states had career ladders or incentive programs with state-funding or assistance. Nine other programs were planned or under development. (Cornett, 1992). The design of career ladder plans varies among the states. Florida, Texas, Tennessee and Alabama had state-wide criteria to define their career ladders. Other states, such as Utah, allowed almost complete local autonomy. (Hart, 1992). The California Mentor Program allowed districts to develop plans locally, including how to select teachers and how to utilize mentors in the district. Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina's plans included a career ladder for administrators. A commonality among states was that most plans were part of negotiated contracts with teachers. Theoretical Background Incentives can be offered to teachers to encourage individual contributions to organizational goals and to increase teacher motivation. Johnson (1986) clarifies the terms "incentive" and "reward". The term "incentive" should not be used to refer to all benefits of work, but to contemplated rewards that lead workers to modify their behavior. An incentive is a stimulant, an inducement for further effort, or a catalyst which influences or motivates a person to action. …

Need for Lesson Analysis in Effective Lesson Planning

Abstract: In the instructional process the lesson is the primary organizing structure. While developing and presenting a lesson, a classroom teacher confronts many pedagogical issues and makes choices directed toward assisting students to acquire knowledge, apply new information to practical activities, and construct beliefs. We view a contemporary lesson as a complex, dynamic system, and its analysis regulates and correlates interconnections and continuously improves the entire educational process. The use of the descriptor "dynamic" indicates our intent that analyses of lessons produce continuous change in the practice of teaching by an individual. By "complex" we intend to convey the idea that the totality of the lesson is greater than the sum of its parts. Achieving quality in lessons depends not only upon the teacher's ability to present material but also to analyze learning outcomes and assess the pedagogical communication. Since the nature of the lesson is complex, it can be analyzed from different positions. The methodological perspective includes an analysis of approaches, teaching techniques, and methods. The psychological analysis considers the development of the student's cognitive structure and personality. In order to achieve a high degree of professionalism, a teacher must know how to observe lessons and be able to analyze the methodology in light of the developmental level and academic potential of the students. The teacher must be able to identify the factors that determine the success of the pedagogical activity. The development of preservice teachers' ability to construct, conduct and analyze a lesson is an essential component in their professional training. In order for aspiring teachers to be able to critically evaluate the pedagogical work of others and themselves, they must study lesson observation and analysis and acquire a knowledge base that is systematic and clearly differentiated. To become flexible, dynamic teachers, they must think independently and develop abilities of reflection in order to make decisions about pedagogical situations in future lessons. In this paper, we consider the psychological and methodological aspects of lesson observation and analysis. Analysis of Psychological Factors Theoretical knowledge from educational psychology and sociology of the classroom merges into a theory of teaching that is woven together with the discipline content. Current theories of teaching and learning embody (a) cognitive psychology, in acknowledging prior learning, accepting the active nature of learning, and recognizing that learners construct their understanding; (b) philosophy, in the unity of thought and action; (c) developmental psychology, in asserting that the mind develops through activity; (d) educational methodology, through inclusion of exactness and accessibility of the content, systematic presentation approach, and appropriate use of concrete manipulative materials and visual aids; and (e) leading theories related to content. The teacher, aware that the student who is learning content is also engaged in the dynamic process of personal development, cannot allow the content of the lesson to be an end in itself. The observation and analysis of a lesson from the aspect of students' psychological development must be based on theories related to development. Observers note first, whether the formation of the lesson's objectives exhibits the teacher's understanding of learning in terms of scope and sequence of the material and second, whether the interaction of the teacher and students reflects an understanding of students' personal development, including effects of teacher methods and actions on student development. Observers look for evidence in the lesson that the teacher reflects on students' activity and evidence that students are provided with an opportunity to look at and analyze their own involvement and learning. Ideally, the teacher's interaction with students, evident to observers through verbal comments, reflects understanding of students' relationship to the learning, their difficulties, their feelings of accomplishment, and even their discontent. …

Assessing Student's Knowledge of the Aging Process

Abstract: Of the 260 million people comprising the population of the United States in 1995, approximately 13%, or 33.5 million, were 65 years of age or older (Atchley, 1997). Everyday during 1995, 5,575 people celebrated their 65th birthday (AARP, 1996). In addition to the 65 and over population, another 13% of the American population was between the ages of 50-64 (Atchley, 1997). Thus, more than one-quarter of the American population was over the age of 50 in 1995. While the demographics are impressive, the impact of the "baby-boom generation" reaching retirement age has yet to be felt. Thirteen years from now, the first of the "baby-boom generation" will reach what is now considered to be retirement age. By the year 2030, the entire "baby-boom" cohort will have passed what is now considered to be the traditional age of retirement (AARP, 1996). In light of these demographic shifts, academicians have gradually been developing curriculum designed to prepare individuals to respond to the aging of the American population. In 1957, only 57 institutions offered courses in gerontology (Donohue, 1960). By the late 1980s, however, the number of U.S. institutions offering courses in gerontology had grown to approximately 1,155 (Peterson, Douglass, Connelly, & Bergestone, 1987). Today, it is estimated that more than 1,600 institutions offer courses in gerontology (Peterson, Wendt, & Douglass, 1994). While the increase in the number of gerontology programs in American colleges and universities is to be expected based on the demographic shifts in the population, an enduring question that accompanies the growth centers around the effectiveness of the ever-expanding gerontology curriculum. Thus, the primary purpose of this study is to assess the instructional effectiveness of a gerontology course using Palmore's Facts on Aging Quiz I (FAQ I) and Facts on Aging Quiz II (FAQ II). Specifically, the impact of a one-semester course in gerontology on student's knowledge of the aging process and their biases toward the elderly will be examined. Previous Uses of FAQ I and FAQ II Since their initial appearance in the empirical literature (Palmore, 1977; 1981), FAQ I and FAQ II have been widely used. The reasons for the popularity of the quizzes are numerous. The quizzes are short (25 true or false items in each quiz), designed to cover the basic physical, mental, and social facts about aging, have been empirically documented, and have been tested for validity and reliability (Duerson, Thomas, Chang, and Stevens, 1992; Palmore, 1977; 1980). In addition, the results of the quizzes can be used in a variety of ways including stimulating group discussion, identifying misconceptions about aging, indirectly measuring bias toward the aged, and evaluating the effectiveness of training in gerontology (Palmore, 1981). The results of several studies using the quizzes have been reported with samples including social workers (Barresi & Brubaker, 1979), retirees (Miller & Acuff, 1982), adolescents (Doka, 1985-86), and medical students (Duerson et al., 1992). In addition, numerous samples of undergraduate students have been studied (Courtenay & Weidemann, 1985; Luszcz, 1982; Miller & Dodder, 1980; Palmore, 1977; 1981). As a general rule, individuals with training in gerontology have scored higher on the quizzes (Palmore, 1980). Citing several studies that employed a pre-test, post-test format, Palmore (1980) concluded that individuals who received training in gerontology consistently scored higher on the post-test then they did on the pre-test. While both quizzes have remained virtually the same since their first appearance in the empirical literature, various scholars have attempted to build upon and improve FAQ I and FAQ II. For instance, hypothesizing that FAQ I was characterized by serious theoretical problems due to vague terminology, Miller and Dodder (1980) developed a revised version of the instrument. …

Learning from Asian lessons

Abstract: This paper discusses learning in Asian kindergarten and primary schools, mainly with reference to China, but also drawing on examples from Taiwan and Singapore. The paper seeks to show that culture and talk are inextricably linked so that the assumption that practice seen in Asian classrooms can readily be translated into English ones may not hold. The paper concludes with the suggestion that we might better learn from Asian classrooms by studying learners' behaviour within our own multi-cultural setting.

A Systems Approach to Self-Efficacy and Achievement in Rural Schools

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to review the unique qualities of rural communities and define the problems facing their students, such as poverty, low achievement, and poor self-efficacy. A number of promising systemic interventions are summarized and reviewed. The role of the school psychologist as facilitator of these interventions is discussed. When developing strategies for addressing school problems, it is necessary to consider the type of population one is serving. Often the community values and needs are perceived to differ in rural settings as compared to urban areas. But exactly what is a rural community? Do rural communities differ from urban areas in their problems and needs? If so, in what ways? And how may these needs best be addressed? The purpose of this article is to describe unique characteristics of rural schools, to discuss the role of school psychology services in rural schools, and to discuss several systems level strategies developed to address problems in rural areas. Further, implications for research and practice will be suggested. Rural Communities But first, what is a rural community? A number of definitions have been proposed. One of the early definitions was presented by Helge (1981): A district is considered rural when the number of inhabitants is fewer than 150 per square mile or when located in counties with 60% or more of the population living in communities no larger than 5,000 inhabitants. Districts with more than 10,000 students and those within a standard metropolitan statistical area, as determined by the U.S. Census Bureau, are not considered rural (Helge, 1985a, p.3). A less precise, but perhaps more easily understood, definition was presented by Jacob-Timm (1995), in which rural schools are described as existing "in communities outside of a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area, distant/remote from a large city, and in counties where the population density is low" (p. 301). For the purposes of this article, this more general definition will be used. In reality, rural communities vary widely in composition and reflect the diversity of our American culture (Hobbs, 1983), and any attempt to fit a particular community into a typology may be as likely to fail as not. Communities may vary on such variables as racial composition, religion, socioeconomic status (SES), and sources of livelihood, to name a few. For example, one community may have a balanced racial mixture with employment provided almost entirely by factories, while a nearby community of similar size may harbor a regional university along with its well-educated professors, have high unemployment among the local people, and little racial diversity. It is important, then, to meet the specific needs of a community rather than any particular "typology" which may or may not be an accurate reflection of that community. This was emphasized by Benson and Petty (1990), who stated that, "Rural school initiatives must be diverse and must reflect the different values and socioeconomic characteristics of the rural community served" (p. 640). What, then, do rural communities have in common, other than simply being less densely populated? And how do they differ from urban communities? There are numerous popular conceptions about rural communities, some of which have validity, others do not. Rural communities are reputed to have a lower crime rate, and have long been attractive to people seeking to raise their families in a "safe" environment. Gangs and drugs are almost unheard of in rural areas, according to popular notions. In the rural school setting, high staff turnover, lack of specialized services in the school and community, the geography of the area, heavy caseload for school psychologists, and low salaries have all been described (Helge, 1981, 1985). What is the reality? Indeed, rural communities do have a lower crime rate than urban communities. …

Promoting Personal Investment in Systemic Approaches to School Violence

Abstract: As citizens in a democracy, the media headlines have riveted our attention on the pain and disbelief that children could be so violent in supposedly safe places such as schools: "THREE STUDENTS KILLED, FIVE WOUNDED IN SHOOTING" Paducah, Kentucky makes unwanted headlines as one young person kills others at the start of a school day (Malone, 1997). "OREGON TEEN THREATENED REVENGE: ONE DEAD, 23 HURT IN SHOOTING AT HIGH SCHOOL" Springfield, Oregon is not immune to peer-on-peer violence (Ritter, 1998). "TWO ARE SHOT AT SCHOOL IN RICHMOND" Richmond, Virginia feels the pain of school killings by students (Baker & Hsu, 1998). An examination of these articles shocks us with the fact that these actions do not involve poverty-stricken inner cities, diagnosed psychopaths, adult convicts or gang warfare. Instead, the events touch us so strongly because they are about children hurting children in what we believe to be safe schools and communities. The news shakes our confidence in the ability of a well-developed system of schools, communities, and society to protect our children, not just from outsiders, but from themselves. Many minorities in our country and from around the world are already well aware of this loss in confidence of protection by main stream society. Inner city minorities, in particular, have long been forced to deal with higher rates of violence on a daily basis (D'Augelli & Dark 1994; Hammond and Yung, 1994; Sheley, McGee, & Wright, 1992). These are not the groups who are surprised. It is people who have lived with expectations of continuous safety who feel most threatened and exposed. Headlines and stories continue to focus on the loss of individual human lives, but the larger loss may be our faith in the community system of support that we have counted on to protect children from violence by other children. Cases of children killing other children at school are extreme, but not unique. Peer-on-peer abuse has a long history in schools even if it has received little professional recognition until the past ten years. Most often this abuse was termed "bullying" or "harassment," but it has always been difficult to separate these from behaviors we term "teasing" or "just kids being kids" (Hoover, Oliver, & Hazler 1992; Olweus, 1996). The difficulty in recognizing the differences between problem behaviors and harmless play have often caused the minimization of direct attention to these developmental issues whose roots begin in early childhood and which can result in headlines of school violence. Young people have a myriad of models from sports, television, media, politics, movies and more to demonstrate how people can abuse others to get their way. Schools need to be the places where supportive and non-abusive behaviors are modeled, not just by some, but by everyone. The only way to create such a non-violent school model is to do it systematically with the involvement of everyone connected to the school. Reducing all forms of violence cannot happen without increasing cooperation, caring, and concern for everyone and every group. Interest and concern for our youth have put increasing pressure on government, schools, and parents to find or create actions and programs to combat the problem of violence. This pressure has led us to the recognition that there is no simple vaccine to be administered by a handful of people. There is no one step cure for this complex issue which can have biological, environmental, and/or psychological origins (Hazler, 1996). This article will help educators better understand the developmental nature of peer-on-peer violence, its relation to overall school violence problems and why a systemic model for dealing with these issues is essential. The characteristics of successful systemic models and examples of where they have been employed offer a basis upon which to build a local program. …

The Educational Reforms in the Cultural Revolution in China: A Postmodern Critique

Abstract: Like many Chinese educators and students whose teaching and schooling experiences happened to coincide with the period of the Cultural Revolution, the author personally experienced the educational reforms that came along with this political movement. People in China have always been bewildered by what happened in that period, why it had such a devastating impact on education in China, and why the reform failed its promises to people. Many questions remain unanswered. This article is a critical analysis of the educational reforms and the drastic curriculum changes that took place in China during its Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)in light of postmodern curriculum theories. It is hoped that by taking a postmodern perspective, this analysis will shed some light on why the educational reforms in the Cultural Revolution failed. The Cultural Revolution, together with the educational reforms that took place along with it in China, was an experiment on the largest scale in the world and influenced the life of a whole generation of young people in China. An attempt to understand this experience may have relevance and implications for other countries, which face similar problems and seek alternatives to the conventional ways of educational development. Related Studies Although the Cultural Revolution ended some twenty years ago, the memory and impact of it still linger fresh among people in China. Several insightful observations of the influence of Mao and the Cultural Revolution on the development of contemporary Chinese education exist, but little effort has been made to examine Mao's educational thought and the educational reforms during the Cultural Revolution in the context of postmodern curriculum theories. Singer (1971) does a comprehensive review on the involvement and roles played by young people in the Cultural Revolution and the impact of it on these young people. Singer (1971) recalls, "Mao asked the educated youth to be `vanguards' of the revolution which involved awakening the masses to the need for revolutionary changes and destroying the elements of bourgeois" (p.80). Educational reforms were conducted to consider the complaints made by students from poor peasant and worker families that they had been discriminated against by the bourgeois-oriented educational system (Singer, 1971). Sheringham (1984) describes measures that were taken to popularize education during three decades under the Communist Party's control (from 1950s to 1970s). He also discusses policies which gave priority to students of working-class background, adapted courses to their needs, and which aimed at narrowing the gap between social strata, between town and countryside and between formal and non-formal education during the Cultural Revolution. Unger (1984) discusses the attempt, during China's Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), to sever links between school performance and student career. It often depended on social class and admission to higher education for resulting upward mobility. Most students then felt it useless to study because success or failure at school had no bearing on their future. Zhou (1988) offers historical observations on Chinese educational reforms during the transition from traditionalism to republicanism, which began in the late Qing dynasty and continued through the Republican Revolution of 1911 to the early years of the People's Republic. Zhou also deals with the socio-economic, political and cultural contexts for educational reforms in post Mao period. Sautman (1991) discusses the radical policy that resulted in a hyperpolicization of education in China during the mid 1970s. A member of the Gang of Four is quoted saying "We'd rather read a couple books less than allow the bourgeoisie to influence our younger generation. I prefer workers without culture to exploiters and spiritual aristocrats with culture" (Sautman, 1991, p.670), indicating a willingness to sacrifice academic standards in favor of class struggle and revolution. …

Special Education Students' Perceptions of Their Mainstreamed Classes

Abstract: Especially since the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142), the placement of special education students into regular classrooms has become an important issue in education. This and subsequent laws have required states to provide free and appropriate education to children with disabilities. Appropriateness has to do with the individual needs of the child, with preference going to the least restrictive environment. In terms of restrictiveness, the regular classroom is considered the least restrictive, and residential placement the most restrictive placement. Placement decisions are supposed to consider social/emotional and vocational factors as well as purely educational ones. Given that many more students with disabilities are being included in regular classrooms than in the past, it is important to consider the perceptions these students have of their classroom experience. That is, even if the regular classroom is technically least restrictive, are there aspects of a regular classroom which may still restrict the special needs student's ability to succeed? Concerns have been expressed, for example, about possible rejection, unpopularity, and special learning needs (Sabornie & Kauffman, 1987). The concept of classroom environment has often been used in education, and it seems reasonable to ask if mainstreamed students have the same perceptions of a given classroom as their regular education peers. Do both groups perceive the classroom environment similarly? Differences in perception could point to aspects of the classroom which may restrict the ability of special needs students to be successful. This study was designed to compare perceptions of classroom environment between mainstreamed and regular education students in the same classrooms. The term mainstreaming was used in this study instead of the terms inclusion or integration because the situation at the school where the study was conducted most closely matched the usual definition of mainstreaming: that students with disabilities are included in the regular classroom if they can meet regular student expectations without requiring great additional assistance (Friend & Bursuck, 1996). This school, however, has made a strong effort to assist those students who are mainstreamed. Most classes were team taught with the regular classroom teacher and a special education teacher. Background Based on the literature, there is reason to believe that how a student perceives the school experience is related to what learning takes place. Fraser, Anderson, and Walberg (1982) found the literature supported a positive relationship between learning and classroom climate factors such as class cohesiveness, establishment of formal rules, goal directives, and satisfaction with class relationships. On the negative side, they also found that factors such as perceived friction in the classroom, lack of association with class activities, and class disorganization were inversely related to learning. In addition, potential specific difficulties for mainstreamed students have been identified, including greater possibilities of rejection and unpopularity, and special learning needs which teachers may lack training for or for which they have limited time and energy to respond (Sabornie & Kauffman, 1987). Taking these together, it could be important for the success of mainstreamed students to know if they are seeing the classroom as a positive experience where their needs are being met, or as a negative place where they feel put down and unwelcomed. Perceptions of classroom environment have been measured in a variety of ways. One widely used instrument is the Classroom Environment Scale (Moos & Trickett, 1987) which measures student perceptions of classroom environment using nine subscales grouped into three major dimensions. The dimensions are based on classroom research. The categories are named and briefly described below. …

Choices must be made: The case of education in taiwan

Abstract: Taiwan's economic and educational performance have lately been the subject of international attention, admiration and envy Taiwan's economic success has been attributed in large part to its education system This paper examines that education system and the cultural context within which it operates It looks at the recent history of education in Taiwan and notes that, while results have been outstanding, the system has not been without its critics This has led to a series of reforms It is interesting, if not ironic, that this system, which has attracted so much Western interest and acclaim, is criticised from within for its rigidity, its emphasis on rote learning, the intense competitiveness it promotes, the enormous sacrifice and stress it places on students and its failure to promote many of the values which Western educators take for granted Finally, the paper considers the outlook for education in Taiwan

The Effects of Curriculum Practices on First Graders' Attitudes, Activity Preference, and Achievements in Mathematics

Abstract: This study was a collaborative effort of a classroom teacher, a special education teacher, and a professor from the local university involved in a professional development school project. Because previous studies indicated that improvement of attitudes in mathematics influence student learning, a survey to assess attitudes toward mathematics and activity preferences was designed and administered to all first grade students in the Spearfish Public Schools in Spearfish, South Dakota. The results were compiled and examined to determine attitudes and activity preferences across four areas: * Are the attitudes of first grade students toward mathematics positive? * Does curriculum used in teaching mathematics affect attitudes differently? * Do positive attitudes reflect higher achievement in mathematics? * What are learning activity preferences of first graders when studying mathematics? Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of curriculum practices on activities, attitudes, and achievement scores on first grade students in mathematics. The curriculum practices included Mathematics Their Way, Silver Burdett & Ginn Mathematics, or a combination approach used in a rural midwestern school district serving approximately 2800 students, preschool through twelfth grades. Need for Study Shaughnessy, Halandyna, and Shaughnessy (1983) reported that in order to improve attitudes in mathematics, teachers should routinely give attitude assessments. By doing so, educators can change the factors that appear to predict positive attitudes by altering the instructional techniques, learning environments, or curriculum used. Greene (1995) reported, "When devising curriculum today, we need to consciously create conditions that stir learners to reach out from their own vantage points into spaces where they can attain some reciprocity" (p. 139). Greene goes on to say that, "Educators must create situations where dialogue is encouraged ..." (p. 139). Airasian (1996) states that rarely do teachers formally assess affective characteristics. If teachers are to make mathematics meaningful to young students, assessing attitudes must be an important part of the development of the mathematics curriculum. Warnock (as cited in Greene, 1995) "believes boredom and a sense of futility are among the worst enemies of education" (p. 141). Literature Review Jensen (1993) reports the primary intent of teaching math is to aid students in developing the idea that they can be successful at mathematics. The learning of mathematics for students appear to be related to beliefs, feelings, and perceptions. These are: " ... confidence in learning mathematics, mathematics anxiety, perceptions of the cause of success and failure in school, and learned helplessness" (p. 24-25). Teachers and other mathematics educators generally believe that children learn more effectively when they are interested in what they learn and that they will achieve better in mathematics if they like mathematics. Therefore, continual attention should be directed towards creating, developing, maintaining and reinforcing positive attitudes. (Schofield, 1982, p. 45) Many factors contribute to the formation of attitudes towards mathematics. Some of these include peer relationships, learning styles, previous mathematical experiences, and student self-concept. Another important factor to be considered is teachers' enthusiasm and instructional style (Suydam, 1984). Attitudes may be helpful or harmful for students. Positive attitudes lead to satisfaction and enjoyment. Harmful attitudes may lead to forms of behaviors that are self-destructive and negative (Wlodkowski, 1986). When students like what they're learning, the classroom is filled with the two-isms of motivation-optimism and enthusiasm. The students are hopeful, cheerful, and confident. …