Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 2000"

Administrators' and Teachers' Perceptions of the Collaborative Efforts of Inclusion in the Elementary Grades

Abstract: Recent efforts at reform in education have engendered considerable debate about the primacy of place in the education of students with disabilities (Deno, 1970; Dorn, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 1996; Dunn, 1968; Kauffman & Smucker, 1995; Keefe & Davis, 1998; Will, 1986). Over the past 30 years, supported by legislation (P.L. 94-142, 1975 and its reauthorizations up to P.L. 105-17, 1997), litigation (c.f., Brown v. Board of Education, 1954; Mills v. Board of Education of District of Columbia, 1972; Oberti v. Clementon, 1993; Parc v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 1972), professional organizations (Council for Exceptional Children, 1993; National Association of State Boards of Education, 1992; National Education Association 1994; National Joint Council on Learning Disabilities, 1993; The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 1992), and advocates (Gartner & Lipskey, 1987; Goodlad, 1984; Stainback, Stainback, & Forest, 1989; Villa & Thousand, 1990), educators have moved, reluctantly or assuredly, away from segregation of students with disabilities in special classes and toward the inclusion of such students in general education classes. The movement toward inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms has raised numerous questions about the roles and responsibilities of school personnel in providing appropriate education for all students enrolled in our public schools. More specifically recent literature on the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education settings has focused on the preparedness of administrators and educators to develop and implement inclusive models of education that address the social and academic needs of all students served in general education classrooms (Barnett & Monda-Amaya, 1998; Brownell & Pajares, 1999; Cook, Semmel, & Gerber, 1999; Semmel, Abernathy, Butera, & Lesar, 1991; Waldron, McLesky, & Pacchiano, 1999). As inclusion requires the collaboration between general and special education, researchers must analyze the phenomenon of classroom teachers' and building administrators' perceptions about including students with disabilities in general education settings. Because building administrators and teachers are responsible for inclusion in schools, it is imperative that their perceptions be recognized by policy makers. School personnel are the ones who make change happen (Greene, 1993; Rankin et al., 1994). Research supports the fact that teacher expectations influence student achievement, behavior, and self-esteem (Brophy & Good, 1974; Conway, 1989; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Norris, 1994; Kornblau and Keogh, 1980). If teacher perceptions of students with disabilities are negative then including such students in general education classrooms may not result in a beneficial experience for the students. It would be important to consider teachers' and building administrators' perceptions as these may have a great impact on the inclusion of students with disabilities. Research has indicated that general education teachers do not always feel prepared to teach students who have special needs, and special and general education teachers often lack the skills in teaming and collaboration needed to teach students with disabilities in the general education classroom (Schuum, Vaughn, Gordon, & Rothlein, 1994). Further, many school systems are not offering continuing inservice to help teachers with these needs. Research also has suggested that administrators' attitudes toward students with disabilities are especially critical for inclusion to succeed due to the administrators' leadership role in developing and operating educational programs in their schools (Ayres & Meyers, 1992; Gameros, 1995). Moreover, Phillips, Alfred, Brulle, and Shank (1990) found that teachers believed that the guidance and positive support of the principal was critical as teachers began to implement inclusion. Bang (1993) stated that building administrators' support was positively related to teachers' use of instructional strategies that resulted in successful inclusion of students with moderate and severe disabilities in the elementary general education classroom. …

Teacher Perceptions of the Incidence and Management of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Abstract: Introduction During the past two decades, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ("ADHD") has become one of the most widely publicized conditions affecting American school-age children. Many researchers agree that approximately five percent of the school-age population has ADHD (Taylor, 1997; Armstrong, 1996; Shelley-Tremblay and Rosen, 1996; Appalachia Educational Laboratory, 1995b). Although this estimate varies slightly among studies, from three to nine percent, ADHD is the most common of all pediatric psychiatric disorders (Taylor, 1997). Based on these figures, a study of teachers' perception of ADHD is warranted, particularly due to the sociological argument that the disorder may often be socially constructed (Conrad, 1975, 1980; Brown, 1995). This study provides empirical evidence that teachers' perception of incidence of ADHD in their classrooms often greatly exceeds the accepted average incidence level of five percent. Furthermore, the study showed that many teachers believe that medication is warranted for the control of the behaviors that are characteristic of ADHD, even when that teacher believes that ADHD is not a biological condition. This empirical support for the social construction hypothesis demonstrates the need for proper education regarding ADHD, so that fewer students will face the stigma that is often associated with this diagnosis. The diagnosis of ADHD is often accompanied with a prescription for medication to control the unwanted behaviors. These behaviors include, but are not limited to, excessive talking and fidgeting, an inability to concentrate on tasks for appropriate lengths of time, impulsiveness, carelessness and disorganization (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Some researchers have argued, however, that environmental factors can play a large role in the diagnosis of ADHD (Conrad, 1975; Appalachia Educational Laboratory, 1995a; Armstrong, 1996). The behaviors manifested by children labeled with ADHD may, in part, be a result of the child's environment rather than a biological difference. The educational environment of the child may lead the child to exhibit negative behaviors that are uncharacteristic of him or her outside the academic setting, and which may disappear given a change in the academic setting (Armstrong, 1996). Literature Review As the number of children diagnosed with the disorder has grown, the subject of ADHD has become the focus of much debate and criticism, particularly among researchers who argue that children are being labeled much too quickly and without the proper testing (Armstrong, 1996; Smelter, et al., 1996). A diagnosis of ADHD may serve as an explanation for unruly behavior, which points the blame at the child rather than at the child's environment (Smelter, et al., 1996). Medical researchers argue that the behaviors that are characteristically defined as "ADHD" are the result of neurological malfunctioning in the brain (Bean, Berry, and Bond, 1996; Shelley-Tremblay and Rosen, 1996; Quinn, 1997; Taylor, 1997). One possible result of this medical diagnosis of ADHD is that it absolves the child and parent of responsibility for the child's social and academic shortcomings (Smelter, et al., 1996). Smelter, et al. argue that parents take their child to a physician, who diagnoses the child with ADHD, and suddenly the child is no longer viewed as having a discipline problem, but as a child that suffers from a medical disorder. The "disorder", not the child, can then be controlled with medication. Although social scientists and educational researchers do not refute the presumption that a neurological or biological difference may exist, they are concerned that the "illness" may often be socially constructed and over-diagnosed. Moreover, among children who may have a genetic predisposition to exhibit behaviors that are characteristic of ADHD, the traditional educational environment may cause these behaviors to become more pronounced. …

Teaching classroom educators how to be more effective and creative teachers

Abstract: What is Teacher Creativity? Today's students live in an ever changing technologically based world where the parameters of knowledge are redefining themselves almost daily. The Internet has given even the youngest of children access to information that at one time they could only acquire within the classroom or in a library. As a result teachers now find themselves competing for student time and attention. The allure of computers and video games is often overwhelming for young minds and many educators find themselves losing an ever escalating battle for their students' interest. As a result teachers are being called upon to develop more creative approaches in order to teach this new generation of students. The old tried and true methods of instruction no longer are by themselves sufficient and effective tools for teaching. The learning process has changed and teachers have been challenged to change as well, or be left behind. This change must involve new and creative approaches to everyday classroom instruction. Are teachers born creative? Do only certain individuals have an innate ability to, motivate and instruct in unique and exciting ways? Is creativity simply a natural outcome of specific personality types? If so, then most educators are doomed to decades of routine classroom interaction. On the other hand, if creativity can be studied and better understood, if its guiding principles can be identified and duplicated, and then taught to others, then all teachers can be given an invaluable tool that will bring their classrooms to life. This would indeed be a gift that would transform the mundane into the exciting. It can be reasonably asserted that certain personality types and individual styles more readily lend themselves naturally to creative outlooks and approaches within the classroom. It is a fact that some teachers are just better at attracting and maintaining students' attention. However, it can also as reasonably be argued that much of what educators do, and how they do it, leaves ample room for modification, refinement, and enhancement. As such creativity then can be seen not as just a natural ability possessed by a chosen few, but a methodological approach that can be mastered by almost all. By simply modify their perspective on what teacher creativity is, educators can open the door to a myriad of possibilities. Contrary to appearance, creativity is hard work. Those teachers who introduce and implement exciting and innovative approaches into their daily lessons do so only after extensive planning and preparation. That is the good news. If creativity is working hard at applying our knowledge, and if it is working consistently to utilize our talents, then creativity can better be understood by looking at what we do in a different light. Teachers who wish to be more creative must first express a willingness to change their approach to teaching. The need for change can best be understood and more readily accomplished by understanding that education by and large lies in "what" educators do in the classroom. If teachers change "what" they do, they change the outcome of the learning process. The key question becomes which "whats" must be evaluated and changed? Examining The Key Whats There are several questions that teachers must ask themselves. This first set of questions should serve the purpose of better clarifying just what goals the teacher wishes to accomplish. As such they would include the following: * What specific knowledge am I trying to impart to my students? * What value will my students gain from mastering this knowledge? * What are my expectations for them as they are learning? * What responses am I looking for from my students? In response to these questions teachers should begin by examining the specific subject materials they are currently teaching. Each school curriculum contains an overwhelming amount of material to be taught. …

Predictors of College Adjustment and Success: Similarities and Differences among Southeast-Asian-American, Hispanic and White Students

Abstract: The last decade has seen significant advances in clarifying the links among the achievement motivational profiles of adolescents from different ethnic backgrounds and their home and school environments. The purpose of the present study was to begin to address the following four questions with respect to college students: (1) To what degree, and by what measures, do Southeast-Asian-American, Hispanic and White college students differ in their academic adjustment and success? (2) To what degree do college students from these backgrounds report differences in their parents' values, beliefs and practices? (3) To what degree do they differ in their comfort level with peers and instructors on campus? and (4) Do the sorts of patterns linking parenting practices and academic adjustment and success observed in studies of adolescents persist in college students from each of these three ethnic groups? Understanding ethnic group differences in college success The literature documenting ethnic group differences among college students in academic adjustment and achievement is extensive. Against a backdrop of changing demographics and large increases in the minority population of most areas of the United States, college entrance, retention and graduation rates for students of color remain low and relatively unchanged (Astin, 1982; Duran, 1994; Irvine, 1990, Justiz, 1994; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Suzuki, 1994; Tinto, 1993). By the end of the 1980's, researchers had compiled a fairly clear picture of the formulas of success for "traditional" college students, that is 18-22 year old non-minority students from middle-class backgrounds whose parents had attended college. This formula included consideration of the adequacy of students' academic preparation, the appropriateness of their educational expectations and career goals, the "anticipatory socialization" (Weidman, 1989) they had received from parents, peers and others prior to entering college, and their assimilation into their new milieu upon matriculation. (See, for example, Pascarella and Terenzini's 1991 encyclopedic volume.) Recently, however, several scholars have called into question the universality of some of these patterns and urged that more research be conducted so as to better understand the dynamics at play among the less "traditional" and more diverse populations now making their way to and through college (Astin, 1998; Kraemer, 1997; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1998; Rendon, 1994; Stage, 1993; Tierney, 1992). The hypotheses they have proposed span the gamut. Some researchers have focused on elements in the broader community backgrounds and experiences of minority youth which place them at a relative educational disadvantage. Such elements include the absence of role models, the perception that educational achievement will not guarantee economic advantage down the road, and financial pressures and family responsibilities that make pursuing college impossible (e.g., Ogbu, 1992; Ogbu & Matute-Bianchi, 1986). Other researchers focus on the more elusive macrosystem values (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) that obtain in different communities. Such values include the degree to which academic education is prioritized (as opposed to moral or religious education, or knowledge of one's cultural heritage), as well as the degree to which community youth are encouraged to pursue formal education (e.g., Goldenberg & Gallimore, 1995). Still others examine family attitudes and daily practices relating to children's education and schoolwork (e.g., Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts & Fraleigh, 1987; and Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts & Dornbusch, 1994). A more recent tac has been to focus on the specific knowledge and resources contained in the social and academic "capital" parents invest in their children (Connor & DeVos, 1989; Cooper, Azmitia, Garcia, Ittel, Lopez, Rivera & Martinez-Chavez, 1994; Duran, 1994; Goldenberg & Gallimore, 1995; Mehan, 1992; and Phelan, Davidson & Cao, 1991). …

Are the Reported Barriers to Internet-Based Instruction Warranteed?: A Synthesis of Recent Research

Abstract: Over the past decade, computer-related instruction has made an indelible impact on how students learn and how instructors teach at colleges and universities both in the United States and abroad. While distance learning and teleconferencing technologies continue to provide a convenient and efficacious means of college-level instruction (e.g., Noam, 1995), it is presently the Internet that is spearheading the new technological paradigm in higher education (Owston, 1997: Roseman, 1992). Indeed. with advances in Internet and World Wide Web capabilities, college and university administrators have been challenged to incorporate computer-based technology as pedagogical tools (Andrews, Gosse, Gaulton, & Maddigan, 1999: Bailey & Colter, 1994; Baker, 1998; Hodes, 19971998. Vodanovich & Piotrowski, 1999a: Witmer 1998). For example, university libraries currently offer multi-database CD-ROM workstations, on-line journals, full-text retrieval, and Internet access. Moreover, many libraries offer off-campus access to library holdings and database searches. With this apparent transformation from "print learning" to "electronic learning," it seems incumbent for both administrators and faculty to harness the Internet as a prominent instructional medium (Hodes, 1997-98). Much of the published literature has focused on the benefits of the Internet for instructional applications. These include quick and remote access to information/instruction, convenience, adaptability to change, speed of communication, the ability to reach large audiences, instant feedback, facilitation of group work, and cost savings (see Eamon, 1999; Hantula, 1998; Koch & Gobell, 1999; Pychyl, Clark, & Abarbanel, 1999: Sherman, 1998; Vodanovich & Piotrowski, 1999b). Despite the excitement and benefits of Internet use for didactic instruction, there have recently appeared some calls for concern from high quarters (Postman, 1995). The American Psychological Association's Monitor May 1999 issue reported on a national survey of 600 higher education institutions where one-third of faculty use Internet resources, to varying degrees, in their teaching; however, many academic psychologists question the expense and time of developing an Internet-based course or program, as well as the potential increment in student learning (see Murray, 1999). Also, the April 9, 1999 issue of the Chronicle of Higher Education highlights some of the inherent difficulties with the practice of "outsourcing" to distance learning companies and the unresolved problems in ownership and copyright of instructor's online courses. Furthermore, in recent years, many authors have anecdotally discussed some of the shortcomings and obstacles of embracing the Internet in higher education settings. Such problems include lack of privacy issues, poor/limited interactions, technological difficulties (e.g., server failure, overloaded circuits, "dead" links), software limitations, increased time commitment (of faculty), limited faculty knowledge, training and support, technological rather than content focus, isolation, and archival/retrieval concerns (e.g., Auter & Hanna, 1996; Daly, 1997-1998: Hantula, 1998: Hardy, 1998; Iseke-Barnes, 1996; Mitra & Hullett. 1997: Sherman, 1998: Vodanovich & Piotrowski, 1999a; Wachter & Gupta, 1997). Daly (1997-1998) identified the five following potential problem areas regarding Web-based instruction: a) the credibility of Web information, b) computer network reliability, c) computer availability for students, d) differences in student technological skill and e) lack of ethical knowledge (of students) regarding use of Web information. However, a systematic review of the scholarly literature in higher education that raises these potential shortcomings is not available to educators. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to provide a summary of empirical research findings on implementing the Internet for instructional purposes. …

A Clear Link between School and Teacher Characteristics, Student Demographics, and Student Achievement

Abstract: Introduction With the growing national interest in educational accountability, educational reform and improved students' achievement, it is important to conduct a study that can provide information about the relationship between educational resources, student demographics and student achievement. Policy makers, educational leaders, and community groups are beginning to realize that student achievement is a function of variables other than per-pupil allocations of funds, and they are searching for variables that can predict and therefore impact the levels of achievement of students in public schools. The goal of current education reform according to Odden and Clune (1995) is to produce higher student achievement. The movement to reform schools is motivated in large measures by economic issues (Hanushek, 1997). Concerns over the strength of the economy, the incomes of the citizens, and the gap between standards of living for different racial groups are forcefully grounded in questions about the quality of public schools, and the quality of graduates. The State of North Carolina is currently undergoing educational reform known as the ABCs' of public education. The ABC program focuses on strong accountability with emphasis on high educational standards, teaching the basics, and maximum local control (N.C. State Department of Instruction, 1997). Some specific features of the ABC plan are : to provide achievement standards measured on a school-by-school basis, to provide maximum flexibility in the use of resources, to provide incentive funding for staffs at schools achieving at high levels, to provide assistance teams to schools identified as low performing schools, to provide procedures for the State Board to dismiss administrators and teachers in low performing schools, and to ensure renewed emphasis on reading, writing and mathematics. Researchers have identified the need to focus on the internal allocation of resources among school buildings within a school district, and other micro-level analysis (Monk, 1990; monk & Underwood, 1988; Odden, 1988). This purpose of this research was to examine the impact of selected educational resources and student/family demographics on the achievement scores of fourth-grade students in public elementary schools during the 1995-96 school year. The key questions that guided the structure of this study were: 1. Is there a significant relationship between selected school characteristics and students' reading and mathematics achievement scores? 2. Is there a significant relationship between selected teachers characteristics and students' reading and mathematics achievement scores? 3. Is there a significant relationship between selected student/family demographics and students' reading and mathematics achievement scores? Research Question One The first research question addressed the relationship between selected school characteristics and mathematics and reading achievement of fourth-grade students in selected county's public elementary schools. Fourth-grade class size and school size were the two variables used to answer this question. Class size is an important educational resource because it indicates the availability of teachers that interact with students. A decade of research on the relationship between class size and student achievement have failed to produce conclusive results. The sentiment that smaller is better is well established sentiment among teachers of all grade level in elementary school according to a survey of over 1,000 teachers by New York State United Teachers Organization in 1974. About 80% of the teachers surveyed stated that smaller class size was extremely important in improving student achievement. Glass and Smith (1982) found that small classrooms offer friendly environment and climate that is more conducing to learning. Greenwald, Hedges and Laine (1996) emphasized that many educators believe that class size is a critical variable in student learning, but according to Hallinan and Sorensen (1985), the relationship between class size and student achievement had produced remarkably inconsistent results. …

An Ethic of Caring in Teaching Culturally Diverse Students

Abstract: I just sat in my classroom and didn't understand anything My teachers never called on me or talked to me I think they either forgot I was there or else wish I wasn't (Olsen, 1988, p 49) In classrooms where teachers subscribe to what Nel Noddings (1988) calls "an ethic of caring," this student's experience would be an all together different one In this classroom, students from culturally diverse backgrounds would feel good about being in this class, believe that they would learn something valuable, and know that they are cared for as persons and as learners What does caring mean? According to Irme (1982), "caring means that the other person matters, that the other person makes a difference not only to the person directly affected but also to others who care" (p 114) An ethic of care is not based on love as we do not need love in order to care It represents a core concern for the well being of students both as persons and as learners One researcher has attempted to describe caring systematically In an article entitled "Showing Them That I Want Them To Learn and That I Care About Who They Are," Dillon (1989) described her year in a rural secondary school in which she focused on a Mr Appleby, who was considered to be an outstanding teacher In an attempt to understand this teacher's effectiveness, Dillon asked Mr Appleby to describe his philosophy of teaching His description was as follows: They need to know when they walk into your classroom that you'll say something nice to them or that they can talk to you if things are bad `cause there's nobody else they can go to Kids need to feel they can open up and share some of their feelings which they may not ever do, because they may be in a family situation where they get slapped for it or put down for it (p 238) Why is teacher caring important? Teacher caring is important because it encourages student commitment to school and their engagement in learning It can be a source of motivation for all students, but especially for culturally diverse student who may be at risk of failing or who may be disengaged from schooling A lack of connection is often a consequence of feeling "invisible" or anonymous in the school setting For many culturally diverse students, this lack of belonging or personal connection in school is mirrored in their out-of-school lives, thus amplifying the importance of a personal, caring relationship with teachers in school (McLaughlin, Talbert, Kahne & Powell, 1990) Teacher caring is also important because student perceptions of whether the teacher cares for them have a significant effect on their academic performance and behavior As noted by Brunner (as cited in Hall, 1982), it appears that "caring and demanding school environments make students work hard and learn" (p 576) In a study by Rutter, Maughan, Morimore, Ouston, and Smith (1982), when students perceived that a caring atmosphere existed, they responded with regular attendance, better behavior, and higher academic achievement Another study reported that it was the teacher characterized as the "warm demander" who was most successful with culturally diverse learners (Kleinfield, 1975) Vasquez (1988) makes the point that culturally diverse students have a tendency not to separate A as a person from A as a teacher as clearly as other students These students are unable to say things like: "Mr Smith is a real bummer, isn't he? But he's a great English teacher" For this reason, culturally diverse students need a relationship with their teachers that is mutually caring and respectful if they are to learn In other words, they not only need to like their teachers, but also must sense that their teacher cares for them as well Student comments in the study by Dillon revealed the importance of teacher caring Mr Appleby's students, mostly black and in remedial reading classes, reported that his caring, personal actions were important to them, contributing to their learning and attitude toward reading …

The Classroom Impact of High-Stress Testing

Abstract: Introduction Since the early 1980s, much of the conversation about reform in American education has been driven by a conservative political agenda, a major part of which has been to frame the debate in terms of how to safeguard the nation's economic power (e.g., A Nation at Risk, 1983). To this end, a number of eloquent spokespersons have misstated or misinterpreted statistics and even suppressed government-sponsored research which demonstrated that the premise of poor achievement in public schools is at least arguable (Berliner & Biddle, 1995). Nevertheless, the presentation of this ideology has been very successful, and most of the 50 states have moved toward implementation of high-stakes testing. It is not uncommon these days for individual schools within a district to be publicly labeled as "exemplary" or "low-performing", and there are rewards and sanctions that follow such designations. In some states, the "best" schools are given cash awards that may be distributed to teachers as bonus pay. The "poorest" schools face not only public approbation, in some cases the local administration may be replaced by agents of the state. Thus, the concept of "educational bankruptcy" which was once associated with a few urban districts in New Jersey is now becoming a routine policy for school reform throughout the United States. Part of the Ideology Triumphant is the notion that teachers are ill-prepared for their jobs, that they are deficient in quality and need more rigorous preparation. On the job, teachers should be held strictly accountable for student achievement, which is almost universally described as functional proficiency in basic skill areas. The result has been a dramatic increase in what Wise (1979) called "legislated learning," an attempt to teacherproof curriculum by establishing tight links between instruction and testing. Such an approach contradicts research on effective school reform which, as Kirst notes, shows that real improvement takes place "when those responsible for each school are given more responsibility rather than less" (Sunday Express News, 1984). Darling-Hammond and Wise (1983) maintain that highly standardized prescriptions lead to dissatisfied professionals, those who would feel, in DeCharms' (1968) terminology, more like "pawns" than "origins." On the other hand, Foucault (1988) would argue that the state has an inherent interest in leading its citizens to define their interests as coterminous with those of the state, i.e., to raise the level of the state's prosperity along with the prosperity of individual members of the state. It has been unclear to what extent teachers see themselves and their principals as being controlled by the state's authority or to what extent they themselves have embraced the ideology of authority. Methodology The purpose of this study was to interview teachers specifically about the felt impact of state testing upon their classroom, as well as the legitimacy of the state's purpose in imposing such a program. Focus groups were selected from volunteers at two kinds of schools in the same state - those highly successful on mandated tests, and those quite unsuccessful. Each of the eight groups consisted of seven to nine members; as is typical of the teaching force in American public schools, the majority of the members were white and female. Teachers were assured of anonymity, and the discussions were taped, transcribed, and analyzed for emergent themes. Findings The first theme that emerged was that the pressure of the state testing program, whether direct or indirect, was always present. "The first thing they told us this year was when the testing would be done. We were told to put those dates in our plan books and work back from there," said one veteran teacher. Another added that she had thought about changing schools to work at one where a friend had become principal, but all she could talk about was test scores and how they had to do better this year. …

Using Action Research to Open the Door to Life-Long Professional Learning

Abstract: This paper describes a research study conducted at Nipissing University with preservice teacher candidates. The study explored effective means within a one-year, post-degree B.Ed. program to enable student teachers to begin to use action research. The findings describe benefits and constraints of using action research within the preservice context. The paper then explores the depth, direction, and orientation of individual studies and concludes with a set of standards of practice on action research for beginning teachers. In Ontario, in response to calls to recognize the importance of the individual teacher in the change process (Hargreaves, 1994), increasing numbers of practicing teachers are using action research for the purpose of professional growth (Black, 1998: Delong & Wideman, 1998). However, demographic changes will mean that many of these teachers will retire from the profession over the next ten years (Smith, Herry, Levesque, & Marshall, 1993; Smith & McIntyre, 1996). To ensure that the beginning teachers who will replace retirees are able to use action research, it is important for faculties of education to investigate how to include action research in their Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) programs. The Ontario College of Teachers (1999) has developed standards of practice for the teaching profession organized around the following five themes: commitment to students and student learning; professional knowledge; teaching practice; leadership and community; and ongoing professional learning. These standards, however, are general in nature and do not address the specific needs of beginning teachers in regard to action research. In the context of increased accountability in education, the purpose of professional growth is to improve the quality of teaching and learning within the classroom, so that all students can achieve required learning expectations (Delong & Wideman, 1996). Action research is an approach to school improvement that honours teachers' professionalism and that has been used increasingly to address the relative ineffectiveness of traditional approaches to professional development in terms of affecting teaching practice (Bierly & Berliner, 1982). As reflective professionals, teachers use action research methods to investigate questions about their practice and to develop workable solutions that improve learning by all. They collect data to discover the impact of those changes. They record their studies and share the results with others (McNiff, Lomax, & Whitehead, 1996). Methodology In September 1997, forty-two elementary and secondary teacher candidates volunteered for the project and began to explore possible research questions. Each participant identified an action research question and individual projects were pursued in the autumn and winter practice teaching blocks. In early March, 1998, participants presented their studies, findings, and conclusions to other participants in small group settings. The study was exploratory and, consequently, the general methodological approach was grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) with theory being generated directly from the data. A wide variety of data was collected with all group meetings and individual participant interviews being tape recorded. In addition, each participant kept a journal and submitted a written account of his/her study at its conclusion. Triangulation and discussion with participants and colleagues were used during the analysis process to verify the findings. Findings The findings of the study focused primarily on the benefits and constraints of participating in action research and the depth, direction, and orientation of individual studies. Benefits and Constraints Table 1 presents a summary of participants' questionnaire responses regarding the benefits of engaging in action research in the B.Ed. year. Action research provided a powerful means for improving professional practice by enhancing participants' sense of autonomy. …

The Voices of Preservice Teachers on the Meaning and Value of Their Service-Learning

Abstract: Service-leaming (S-L) is being promoted as an empowering pedagogy in teacher education that engages teachers and learners in putting their educational pursuits to work on behalf of the community (Swick & Rowls, 1999) Quality service-leaming requires the participants to: assess and determine community needs in partnership with the people they are serving; design service activities that meaningfully respond to these needs; carry out the identified service; and reflect and synthesize the pertinent outcomes of the effort for future work (Erickson & Anderson, 1997) Learners integrate the entire S-L process into their academic learning, thus creating the potential for a transformational relationship between the learner and the community (Waterman, 1997) In effect, service-learning should empower future teachers to function dynamically in their educational and leadership roles, thus strengthening children, young people, and their families in their efforts to achieve educational and life success (Swick & Rowls, 1999) The Service-Learning and Teacher Education Project (USC - SLATE) at the University of South Carolina integrated the S-L paradigm into several facets of its teacher education program This integration process is ongoing with individual faculty experimenting with S-L in their courses, the inclusion of S-L in selected courses in the education minor program, and the carrying out of research and development activities by faculty and students The emphasis in this report is on describing three facets of the USC SLATE project: 1) providing a brief description of the kinds of service-leaming that teacher education students accomplish; 2) reporting on students' reflections on the meaning and value of their service-leaming; and 3) putting forth implications of the students' views of S-L for creating truly empowering service-learning in teacher education In addition, particular guidelines for crafting effective service-learning experiences are presented While the students' "voices" are the primary focus of the data shared in this paper, faculty assessments and observations, as well data from the SLATE literature are also shared Sample Service - Learning Accomplishments By Students Teacher education students at the University of South Carolina experience S-L in various courses and in diverse school and community settings All students in the "Education Minor" take a course in Community Service in which service-leaming is the main focus of the course Students also do S-L as a part of other required and elective courses in the education minor and during the professional program The service-learning design used in the USC Teacher Education Program emphasizes S-L activities that promote student achievement in the four behavioral categories that Serow (1997) indicates effective service-learning should promote: competence, participation, relationships, and understanding While these behavioral categories are interactive and interrelated, an example of service-learning used to strengthen student knowledge and skills in each category is explicated Competence Example As Serow (1997) notes, competence refers to the "skills" a person acquires in the process of doing S-L A common service-learning activity most USC teacher education students experience is that of tutoring a child They may work with an individual child or a small group of children on academic subjects like math or more general homework tasks Skills learned or strengthened might include instructional techniques, teacher-child interaction skills, and related affective perspectives toward teaching itself In addition, students acquire "career assessment" knowledge they use in reflecting on and making decisions about teaching as a career For example, one student noted: "I had never really related to children in a teaching setting prior to this experience The service-learning really enhanced my understanding of the need to be patient, sensitive, and supportive of children as they are learning new skills …

Learning the Art of Instructional Conversation: The Influence of Self-Assessment on Teachers' Instructional Discourse in a Reading Clinic

Abstract: Over 2 decades of sociolinguistic research describe the teacher's powerful role in creating the communication system that supports students' learning. Yet research evidence about how to prepare and develop professionals for this role beyond their natural discourse tendencies and style remains sparse. This study examined self-assessment as a means of teacher learning that develops teachers' understanding and use of discourse strategies that support instructional conversation. Using a discourse analysis tool and related procedures (transcription, analysis, and interpretation), 9 teachers examined the conceptual and social functions of their talk from videotaped excerpts of tutorial instruction over 5 weeks. Although the teachers' analyses did not grow more precise, their interpretations of their talk revealed a growing ability to treat their discourse as an object of knowledge. Repeated engagement in the 3-phase self-assessment activity may have provided a form of self-assistance that promoted conceptual un...

Kirkpatrick's Evaluation Model as a Means of Evaluating Teacher Performance

Abstract: Today schools are being asked more and more to justify that they are providing quality education to their students (Haertel, 1999). The schools in turn are asking that teachers be responsible for the quality of the training that they are providing their students (Haertel, 1999). This demand for quality is often without markers other than, perhaps, student performance on some identified standardized test (Haertel, 1999). This may be one reasonable marker of teacher effectiveness but, perhaps is not sufficient by itself. A teacher's effectiveness is a multifaceted picture of how the learners in their charge grow under their direction. We expect our children to develop a motivation for learning, a basis of learning to build on, the skills or ability to apply their learning, and finally we expect our children to succeed at taking their learning and their skills outside the school and to use them in building the lives we hope they will have. Largely, we hold our teachers responsible for guiding this monumental task. To frame our reference in a realistic approach to evaluating teacher performance, this article suggests borrowing from the realm of corporate, industrial, and adult training and using Kirkpatrick's (1959a, 1959b,1960a,1960b) four level model of training evaluation. This model of evaluation has been the most reviewed and applied guide to assessing the effectiveness of training in the adult world of work since its inception in 1959. In an article in Training and Development (1996), Kirkpatrick reviews the model and notes that little of the content has changed. He still posits that the effectiveness of training, and this paper suggests teaching, is best evaluated at four progressively difficult and valuable levels. These are the reaction level, the learning level, the behavior level, and the results level (Kirkpatrick, 1959a). The rest of this paper will define these levels and discuss how each can be used to evaluate the performance of teachers in the traditional classroom setting. Level One: Reaction The first level of this model is the reaction level. Kirkpatrick (1996) describes it as, "how participants feel about the various aspects of a training program." In other words, do they have positive feelings about the instructor, the material, and the experience. The premise is that if participants do not have those positive feelings they will not reap the fullest benefit from their instructions and they will not support the experience as valuable to others. For corporate training, we can see the loss this could lead to for the trainer or training department. If little benefit or positive experience was derived, little future use of this trainer or training service is likely (Kirkpatrick, 1959a). For teachers working with our children in a traditional school setting, the value of this level of evaluation may seem less clear. For as long as there has been instruction, students who have not wanted to be in school have been there anyway. We have laws that make being there until a given age mandatory (McCarthy & Cambron-McCabe, 1987). So why should teachers be evaluated on their performance at the student reaction level? The answer is, again, multifaceted. To begin with if we accept that one of the goals of instruction is to create motivated learners, we can easily connect student reaction to learning and instruction to motivation (Alao & Guthrie, 1999). If an individual does not like a program, "there's little chance they'll put fourth an effort to learn" (Kirkpatrick, 1996). An environment that is valued and an experience that is enjoyed leads to a learner that is willing and more receptive. A more willing and receptive learner is able to take in and retain more material. Additionally, if we look to the value that corporate training places on their participants leaving their training experience with favorable things to say so as to not drive future trainees away or to not influence employers to devalue their training, it may seem difficult to find ready analogies in public education. …

Collegiality, Collaboration, and Kuleana: Three Crucial Components for Sustaining Effective School-University Partnerships

Abstract: Introduction The literature on teacher change and educational reform makes it clear that change is a complex issue, and true change in practice requires the time for beliefs to change accompanied by a complex, ongoing support structure to facilitate the change process (Cronin-Jones, 1991, Little, 1993, Taylor and St. John, 1993, Haney and Lumpe, 1995, Hiller, 1995, Gess-Newsome and Lederman, 1995, Lynch 1997). The idea of partnerships between universities, Pre-K-12 schools, and community agencies interested in improving education for all students is a powerful structure to support change. According to Valli (1999), "Educators across the Pre-K-12 spectrum seem to realize that (a) schools benefit from the resources, perspectives, and know-how of universities; (b) universities need partner schools to prepare teachers well; and (c) social - especially urban - problems are so seemingly intractable that all public institutions have the responsibility to work together to effect positive social change". Our program at the University of Colorado at Denver focuses on the changes associated with meeting national and state science education standards which demand a more inquiry-driven approach to science in the classroom. To support this oftentimes difficult transition, we have developed an extensive partnership including university faculty, primary and secondary teachers from across twenty Front Range Colorado school districts, and science professionals from institutions such as the local aquarium, botanical gardens, and natural history museum. Maintaining a true partnership between so diverse a group of stakeholders can be very complicated. Unfortunately, "most school-university collaborative efforts have been characterized by a continuing record of tensions, detrimental outcomes, and cultural clash" (Lewison and Holliday, 1999, p. 80), and the inclusion of parties outside the realm of traditional formal education (e.g. museums) only adds an additional layer of concerns, opinions, and agendas. Public school teachers tend to want practical resources and ideas that can be immediately used in their classrooms, whereas university faculty are typically more interested in deepening content knowledge and the underlying philosophical contexts. On the other hand, outside institutions are often most interested in selling their own services or products. Despite the damaging potential of these types of issues, our partnership continues to be very successful in terms of high levels of satisfaction for all participants. We believe that this success can be directly attributed to three crucial components that underlie all of our work: Collegiality, Collaboration, and Kuleana. In this paper we present our definitions of each of these concepts and describe how we employ them in our program. Collegiality Webster's dictionary defines the concept of "colleagues" as "An association of individuals". Perhaps the most common use of the word refers to the idea of different people or groups of people who work together for a common cause. From our perspective colleagues are much more than that. True collegiality involves ongoing professional interaction from a position of trust; it is a meeting of equals where each colleague is respected for his or her own unique contribution to the whole. We believe that collegiality is closely related to Harris and Harris's (1992) description of "dignity" as the recognition that everyone is a person of worth, that all have equal value in the partnership, and that equity and trust are characteristics of all collegial relationships. Colleagues should ideally represent a close-knit community with an emphasis on the "connectedness" between people (Boyer, 1993). This type of relationship between partners contrasts sharply with the traditional "university as ivory tower" approach. We see two elements as essential to the development of this degree of collegiality, 1) building strong relationships, and 2) validation of colleagues as equals. …

Grade Inflation: The Effects on Educational Quality and Personal Well Being

Abstract: Reports of grade inflation have been widely circulated. Though occasionally disputed (Bracey, 1994), they reveal that grade inflation is a reality. For example, Juola (1977) has reported changes in GPA's of 134 colleges from 1965 to 1973, showing an average increase of .404 points. In a later study covering the period from 1960 to 1979 and including reports for 180 colleges, Juola (1980) showed a .432 point rise in GPA. Other studies generally corroborate Juola's findings (Goldman, 1985). More recently, Levine (1994) surveyed 4900 college graduates from the years 1969-1993 and found that the number of A's given had quadrupled while the number of C's had dropped by 66%. After more than three decades of grade inflation at the university level and an even longer period in the secondary schools (Gose, 1997), the effects of this practice show that the inflation is not benign. There are various proposed causes of grade inflation along with suggested effects, including negative effects on the traditional university as well as more devastating consequences to the psychological well-being of students. Proposed solutions to the problem fail to get to the heart of the issue. Radical changes will be needed. Proposed Causes Various causes have been advanced to explain the grade inflation phenomenon, including changes in the quality of students, changes in student demographics, changes in instructor attitudes and practices, changes in administrative and institutional practices, and student evaluations of faculty teaching performance. One of the reasons given for grade inflation by many university admissions officers is the steady increase in the quality of students over the past thirty years (Bromley, Crow & Gibson, 1978). However, the decline in Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores and American College Training (ACT) scores seems to indicate that current students are less qualified than their predecessors. Ironically these scores have dropped during a time when preparing for the tests has received much greater attention. The decline in SAT and ACT scores is often blamed on a relative increase in the number of females and students of lower ability attending post-secondary institutions. With these demographic changes, lower GPA's would also be expected, but in fact GPA's have steadily increased (Goldman, 1985). It has been suggested that shifts in administrative and institutional practices may well have contributed to grade inflation. Changes made in the 1960s and 1970s include a reduction in the number of rigorous core requirements, especially those in foreign languages, mathematics, and science. Many universities have moved toward an almost completely elective system. There has also been a trend toward field-centered or experience-oriented courses, criterion-referenced grading, late withdrawal provisions, removal of first-attempt grades from transcripts, and pass/fail options. All these have tended to camouflage students' real performances (Bromley, 1978). Finally, budgetary pressures on universities, related to enrollment declines and concern for credit-hour production, influence the tendency to inflate grades. Colleges compete to ensure a larger share of state revenues, and enrollment is a major factor in funding decisions. Also departments and professors struggle to increase or maintain enrollments to justify their continued existence. Students do withdraw from courses, in order to protect their grade-point averages, and they avoid enrolling in courses taught by professors who have reputations as low graders (Geisinger, 1979). Student evaluations of faculty are among the most frequently cited (McKenzie, 1979) and pernicious contributors to grade inflation. Renner (1981), for example, indicates that student ratings diminish the quality of higher education by poisoning faculty-student relationships, encouraging students to assess their instructors based on anticipated grades and other confounding factors. …

Teacher's Perceptions of Principal Effectiveness in Selected Secondary Schools in Tennessee

Abstract: The literature on school effectiveness repeatedly refers to the need for strong leadership of the principal. The principal has received extraordinary attention in the literature of educational administration and in the press. The reason for this attention in the scholarly literature stems largely from the intense interest on the part of educators and scholars in achieving better understanding of the dynamics of school effectiveness. Furthermore, the educational reform movement and the accompanying search for conditions and causes on effective schools have fueled broader public interest in the principalship. In discussing the review of literature, I divided it into six sections. The National secondary school recognition program is explained in the first section. The definition of educational leadership is discussed in the second section. Role perception is dealt with in the third section. The domain of organizational development is discussed in the fourth section; organizational environment is summarized in the fifth section, and the sixth section deals with effective instructional leadership. National Secondary School Recognition Program For any school to be judged deserving of recognition there should be strong leadership and an effective working relation among the school, the parents, and others in the community. The school should have an atmosphere that is orderly, purposeful, and conducive to learning and good character. The school should attend to the quality of instruction and the professionalism of its teachers. There must be a strong commitment to educational excellence for all students and a record of progress in sustaining the school's best features and solving its problems (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). The goal of the Secondary School Recognition Program is to give public recognition to outstanding schools across the United States. Schools are identified on the basis of their effectiveness and standards of quality applicable to secondary schools generally. An important consideration is given to schools successful in furthering the intellectual, social, and moral growth of all students (U.S. Department of Education, 1988-89). Educational Leadership Educational leadership seems to have, as many definitions as there are people willing to define it. Lipman (1974) implied that "leadership" is not all a matter of group maintenance but "the initiation of a new structure or procedure for accomplishing an organization's goals and objectives." To be the leader, one must be concerned with initiating change. According to Fuhr (1970) the administrator, on the other hand, may be identified as the individual who utilizes existing structures or procedures to achieve an organizational goal or objective. As in the case of the leader, the administrator may bring to bear the authority of his role, and the influence of his personality in his relationships with other members in the organization. But the administrator is concerned primarily with maintaining, rather than changing established structure, procedure, or goals (Fuhr, 1970, P. 48). The principal has been recognized as the educational leader by Neagley and Evans (1964) by stating that, in any size district, the principal should be recognized as the educational leader of his school and immediate community. He/she is responsible for the supervision of instruction as well as for execution of administrative functions (p. 12). According to Delapp (1988), educational leadership skills can be learned and practiced with some effort and clear vision of what must be accomplished. These skills come from the principal's knowledge of the school or district and what is needed to be done to improve education for all students. As an administrator, the principal has a unique opportunity to lead. Several distinct groups of people depend on him for leadership and direction. The teachers, students, parents, and members of the general public see school administrators as community leaders. …

Fostering Creativity in Education

Abstract: "EVERYBODY HAS A VASTLY GREATER POTENTIAL FOR CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE THINKING THAN THE ROUTINE WORKDAY ALLOWS." - Mark Sebell Introduction Education has always been a key public-agenda item because the economy of any country requires changes in educational policies to match the changes in economic growth. For example, in Singapore, more students will take up science and engineering to meet the challenges of a changing economy where technology and knowledge matter. The future is always uncertain but we will see: 1. more demand for teachers as some teachers quit due to increasing work demands on them, 2. lifelong learning for all who wish to remain in the workforce which has to constantly keep up with new changes and rapid technological advances, 3. growing emphasis on science, technology, and technical courses in an IT environment, and 4. flexible school scheduling to accommodate the varying demands for new courses and work hours. In order to have a place in this exciting future, teachers need to be constantly aware of the new skills required for the next century and be receptive to learning these skills so as to impart them to their students. Some of the new skills are as follows: 1. Determining the relevance of information 2. Distinguishing between fact and opinion 3. Identifying unstated assumptions 4. Detecting bias 5. Coming up with reasonable alternatives or solutions 6. Predicting possible consequences Because changes are rapid in an IT environment, there is an urgency to revolutionise some of the ways educational training has been for centuries. It is hoped that the ideas in this paper will help educators in their journey into the next century. Getting Outside Speakers Schools and universities can invite lecturers and professionals from outside institutions and the industry to impart their knowledge to students. Presentations can be on interesting subjects or on creative thinking itself. If the presenter is someone of imminence, such as our Senior Minister, Mr Lee Kuan Yew, or our Prime Minister, Mr Goh Chok Tong, students tend to take the presentation seriously. The university can also invite experts, such as Edward de Bono, from other countries to give talks to students on the importance of creative thinking in society. They can instill in students that it is not just the piece of certificate that determines their future job opportunities. Students must understand that companies employ people not only with paper qualifications but also who are able to think creatively. Establishing a Creative Climate It is important to begin by promoting a positive attitude towards creative education through talks, seminars, courses, and even campaigns. This attitude can only be sustained in a creative climate. In order to establish a creative climate where creativity can flourish, school principals need to: 1. improve communication by encouraging feedback of new ideas to colleagues, 2. encourage brainstorming at all levels, and 3. market new ideas introduced into the schools. Changing the Classroom Environment Classes need not be conducted in the traditional way. Students can have lessons outside the classroom in parks, on the road, or even in the canteen, so that they can use the surroundings to stimulate their thinking and come up with unexpected ideas. For example, seeing an artwork in a park may lead one to think of the effect it can have on an advertisement. Although this may sound silly, even observing a couple in a park can help one to generate new ideas for a new song. Classes can be conducted in the communication laboratory where students use the internet to get more ideas instead of depending on lecture notes and textbooks. The atmosphere of the learning environment is also important. …

Comparing Students with High and Low Preferences for Tactile Learning

Abstract: There has been a good deal of research assessing the learning style preferences of students (Carbo, 1983; James & Galbraith, 1984; Reed, 1996). This research has consistently revealed a strong relationship between academic achievement and individual learning style. However, there are few studies that have examined the differential preferences of students beyond their primary learning style category. The purpose of this study was to explore the underlying learning preferences of tactile learners to determine if they could be further differentiated from those whose tactile preference is low. The concept of learning styles has many different definitions (Reed, 1996). Generally, learning styles are thought to represent an individuals unique approach to learning material. They are the consistent ways in which students respond to stimuli in the learning environment (Matthews, 1991). Learning styles might be thought of as the cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that contribute to a student's ideal learning pattern (Price & Dunn, 1997; Hickson & Paltimore, 1996). A learning style approach places an emphasis on a student's strengths, rather than their deficiencies (Hickson & Baltimore). Semple and Pascale (1984) contend that how a student learns is one of the most important factors related to academic success. Research has examined the different learning style preferences of males and females, the differences across grades, and the various learning preferences of ethnic minorities. Hickson and Baltimore (1996) found that females have more of a preference for visual learning tasks than do males. Research assessing the learning styles of ethnic minorities has revealed 12 variables that discriminate the learning styles of four ethic groups (Hickson, Land & Aikman, 1994), suggesting learning may be influenced by cultural differences. Therefore, an awareness of learning style differences of ethnic populations and accommodating these differences in the classroom may result in better academic achievement for these youth. The particular learning style preferences of students have been found to have a strong impact on achievement in different academic areas. Corlett (1993) proposes that if we are to respond effectively to the needs of students, we must understand how they learn best and develop instructional methods that respond appropriately. For example, Carbo (1983) suggests that students who are fluent readers may have stronger auditory and visual preferences, whereas younger beginner readers and readers with disabilities tend to have more tactile preferences. This is only one example emphasizing the importance of assessing learning styles in the educational environment. This study compared students with a high preference for tactile learning with those with a low preference. A person with a tactile learning style learns best through the use of manipulative and three-dimensional models (Price & Dunn, 1997). They prefer to be able to touch and move resources (Semple & Pascale, 1984) and should be allowed to utilize models and other real objects to plan, demonstrate, report and evaluate. Further, they may need encouragement to keep written or graphic records. Although these factors remain important to enhancing the achievement of students, it is also important to understand the secondary learning styles of students, or the preferences aside from tactile that distinguish high tactile learners from low tactile learners. Method Subjects A total of 25,104 students in grades five through twelve completed the Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) (Price & Dunn, 1997). These students were further divided based on their scores on the Tactile scale. Instrument The LSI for grades five through twelve is a self-report instrument that contains items on a five-point Liken scale ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree (Price & Dunn, 1997). …

The Changing Role of School Superintendent with Regard to Curriculum Policy and Decision Making

Abstract: Introduction Decisions have been made regarding curriculum policies for many years. Over the past few years, policy makers have seen a need for change in the role of curriculum policy making. This role mainly deals with the superintendent. He has a distinctive role in the curriculum policy process. Though his role is distinct, he must collaborate in order to have a curriculum policy with common goals. Superintendent is integral agent in curriculum policy. It is imperative that he works in harmony in instituting curriculum policy. The Superintendent is the key actor in curriculum policy. In this capacity, the Superintendent is the liaison between the school board and state educational leadership. Superintendent filters state curriculum policy mandates to the school board. School board, who is responsible for local education, acts in concert with the superintendent. Most school-boards are deficient in technical knowledge of education. Therefore, school board affirms the professionally based decisions of the Superintendent. Curriculum policy continues to be a hot issue in the news throughout the United States. The responsibility of providing a suitable curriculum to meet the needs of all children involves many people. According to McNeil (1996), curriculum policy is seldom rational or based on research. Decisions are not often based on careful analysis of content in the disciplines and on societal needs, or on studies of the learning process and concerns of learners. Curriculum development is a knowledge that has been selected by some individual or group and implies a particular vision of what society should be like. The role of the Superintendent is very important in curriculum policy. Another important aspect in curriculum policy is how the Superintendent can develop and implement a curriculum policy that can meet the needs of all students and produce a citizen who is successful and productive in life. Curriculum policy refers to the ability to promote one good over another. Recently, some of the participants responsible for making curriculum policy decisions received great pressure to improve the curriculum at all levels. This increased effort was in response to greater demands in standards and testing. Local district, under the auspices of the state, was closely monitoring curriculum policy practices throughout the district in order to meet new federal, state and local demands. The new curriculum policy tended to reflect the ideas and beliefs of individuals or of powerful and outspoken groups rather than the needs of the students or society as a whole. Superintendent is the most influential player in the business of forming curriculum policy. His function is to influence curriculum policy on the local system level in a positive way. The Superintendent has a role and part to play in the education of students that are in his district. This is a part of the leadership that is looked upon by the local community to lead the schools. He is expected to provide the best possible curriculum to the children. A curriculum that prepares each student for the future and maximizes the potential of each. Review of Literature The first State Superintendent was established in 1812 in New York and the duties assigned to the position included developing a plan for a common school system, reporting the management of public funds, and providing school-related information for the state legislature (Butts and Cremin, 1953). The position of local School Superintendent emerged in the mid-1800s. Between 1837 and 1950, thirteen districts (all urban) established the position. By 1890, most major cities had followed this lead (Knezevich, 1984). Spring (1994) wrote that the development of the role of the superintendent was important in the evolution of the hierarchical educational organization. The primary reason for creating the position was to have a person work full-time at supervising classroom instruction and assuring uniformity in the curriculum. …

Parent Perceptions of a Co-Taught Inclusive Classroom

Abstract: In the past few decades, the integration of children with disabilities into general education classrooms has become an accepted principle. Parents who were once told that a segregated program would provide the "best setting" for their children with disabilities are now being asked to place their children in modified general classrooms (Bradley & Fisher, 1995). Further, growing numbers of parents of children with mild disabilities (learning disabilities, behavior disorders and mild mental handicaps) are advocating inclusive settings for their children (Frantini, 1992; Buswell & Schaffiner, 1990). However, while the principle of inclusion is now widely accepted, the practice of inclusion has only recently taken center stage as a research issue. Few studies have examined what regular education parents think about inclusive settings -- the literature generally reflects the attitudes of parents of children with learning disabilities rather than parents of regular education students (McCoy, 1995). In this paper, we examine the practice of inclusion by describing a unique inclusion model featuring a team teaching approach, We also present the perceptions of parents of children with disabilities and parents of regular education students. Generally, parents of children with disabilities are in favor of inclusion. However, there are some concerns among these parents. For example, some parents feel the self-esteem of their children is negatively affected. Studies have also shown that these parents sometimes feel genera educators lacked understanding of learning disabilities (Waggoner & Wilgosh, 1990; Mackey, 989). Another study which examined the views of parents of children with abilities ranging from gifted/talented to regular with learning problems indicated that parents feel inclusion is detrimental in meeting the needs of all students (Shipley, 1995). Parental concerns center around the following: 1) gifted students are bored by the pace and not challenged; 2) average children receive a "watered" down curriculum and resent adaptations made for students with disabilities, 3) regular education students are frustrated by seeing other children doing less work and receiving the same or better grades; and 4) teachers spend "too much time" on disciplining and managing students with behavior problems or working with slower students (Shipley, 1995). Finally, a national study on inclusion states that "some general education parents report the positive social and academic benefits for their children due to involvement with persons with disabilities and the increase in instructional supports in the classroom" (NCERI, 1995, page 5). One approach to providing instruction more closely matched to individual student's needs is through team teaching. Proponents argue that teachers in co-teaching settings are able to provide instruction in their areas of expertise as well as share teaching responsibilities and learning from each other (Dettmer, Thurston, & Dyck, 1993), While co-teaching is generally discussed in the context of strictly regular education classrooms or strictly special education classrooms, the concept is rarely applied to inclusive classrooms. The Classroom The classroom in this study is a co-taught, inclusive fourth/fifth grade second year of implementation. The classroom is in a public school in a Central Florida town with a population of approximately 20,000. The class has 42 students (12 identified exceptional students and 30 general education students). Twenty-one students are in this classroom for the second year. This class is taught by a general education teacher with 18 years experience and a special educator with 22 years experience. This classroom uses a constructivist co-teaching approach to teaching. This approach differs radically from the compartmentalized curriculum in which discrete subjects are studied at designated times during the day that is so prevalent in exceptional student as well as some general education classes. …

The Teacher's Stress and Its Implications for the School as an Organization: How Can Tqm Help?

Abstract: Introduction Maples (1980:23) states that each historical era is characterized by certain distinctly identifiable physical diseases. The Great Plague and leprosy predominated in the Middle Ages; syphilis and deficiency diseases, such as scurvy, during the Renaissance and opulence diseases, such as gout, during the Baroque era. Tuberculosis was prevalent in the eighteenth century (the era of Romanticism); whereas the nineteenth century was brought to its knees by diseases such as pox, diphtheria and enteric fever should not be taken tightly. Pelletier (1977:7) wrote that all diseases are of psychosomatic (stress related) origin. People's reaction to stress determines the quality of their lives, health and working ability. As far as time and importance are concerned, work comprises a large part of people's lives. On the one hand, work has the potential to reward (psychologically and financially) and to damage on the other. Concerning the latter, the focus of this article is upon psychosomatic diseases caused by inordinate stress and how those diseases affect the school as organization. The educational manager in the school should take note of the effective aspect (positive or negative) of the teacher's profession. In this regard Greenberg (1969:20-21) remarks: Within the teacher's emotional life are the forces that most powerfully affect the entire teaching process. The human, emotional qualities of the teacher are the very heart of teaching. No matter how much emphasis is placed on such other qualities in teaching as educational technique, technology, equipment or buildings," `the humanity of the teacher is the vital ingredient if children are to learn.'" This quotation emphasizes the importance of the affective or emotional qualities of the teacher (positive and negative) in the teaching profession. Consequently, the issue of stress in teaching is crucial, particularly in contemporary times where a considerable percentage of illnesses is attributed to excessive stress. All people are susceptible to stress at one time or another. Stress can usually be avoided or dealt with by means of specific mechanisms. Gray and Freeman (1987:144) maintain it is undeniable that good management techniques in the school are the best way to prevent stress in both learners and teachers. The author supports this view wholeheartedly. In a new era, more than ever before, the school must give account of its financial administration. The search for quality is on the increase. Increasing emphasis is laid on the human aspect in organizations. Ideally more work should be done by fewer people. A new management paradigm, Total Quality Management (TQM), which stresses the use of human potential, has recently come to the fore in organizations worldwide and also in schools. American teachers are looking for new ways to solve school problems, such as socio-psychological distress (Fields, 1993:4). At the beginning of a new millennium, the issue of teacher stress is significant for the educational manager, because excessive stress may negatively affect the quality of the teacher's work. The stress of teachers has been widely discussed and written about and the devastating consequences of stress has been thoroughly documented in teacher journals. What is stress? Because of Selye's pioneering work in the study of stress, he is called "the father of stress." He distinguishes between eustress (pleasant stress) and distress (unpleasant stress) (Selye, 1976:74). Concerning eustress, Selye (1974:96) maintains that stress which finds its origins in successful activities, bring about a feeling of contentment and youthful vigour. As a matter of fact, (Selye (1974:85) even goes so far as to call stress "the spice of life". For instance, the teacher should encounter challenges to motivate him, such as putting effort in the preparation of lessons. Success, love and achievement are examples of pleasant stress. …

How Innovative Middle School Mathematics Can Change Prospective Elementary Teachers' Conceptions

Abstract: Over the past decade, mathematics education reforms have challenged teachers to expand their pedagogical repertoire to include classroom activities that allow students to pose and solve rich problems and reason mathematically (Mathematical Sciences Education Board [MSEB] & National Research Council [NRC], 1989; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 1989). These specific reform recommendations have resulted in, among other things, a flourish of curriculum development activity across the grade levels. Reform-oriented curriculum materials differ from traditional mathematics textbooks in that they emphasize student explorations of real-world mathematical situations and discussions of problem-solving activities. Another important distinction is that reform-oriented materials offer more extensive information for teachers than do traditional texts. For example, the materials include details about different representations of content, historical information about mathematical and pedagogical ideas, examples of what students might do with or think about particular activities and content, potentially fruitful questions for eliciting discussion, and so on. This second distinction reflects tinction reflects an increasing recognition that it is teachers, not texts alone, who determine how the innovations envisioned by reformers and curriculum designers become implemented in the classroom. What issues do curricular reforms raise for those involved with the preparation of future teachers? In light of the differences in the instructional methods prospective teachers will be expected to use in schools and those they likely experienced as students of mathematics, teacher education programs are faced with the task of creating opportunities for prospective teachers to critically consider important mathematical and pedagogical ideas. As the MSEB and NRC (1989) state, "Teachers themselves need experiences in doing mathematics--in exploring, guessing, testing, estimating, arguing, and proving ... they should learn mathematics in a manner that encourages active engagement with mathematical ideas" (p. 65). Many prospective teachers possess weak knowledge and narrow views of mathematics and mathematics pedagogy that include conceptions of mathematics as a closed set of procedures, teaching as telling, and learning as the accumulation of information (Brown, Cooney, & Jones, 1990; Thompson, 1992). If reform themes are to be enacted in the mathematics classrooms of future teachers, these conceptions need to be challenged and developed in ways that will support meaningful and lasting change. This paper reports about a project that was designed to challenge and re-develop preservice elementary teachers' conceptions of mathematics by engaging them in the use of middle school reform-oriented curriculum materials. Recognizing that current reforms expect these teachers to teach unfamiliar mathematics using pedagogical methods that they have not experienced personally, this report focuses on the teachers' perceptions of the opportunities afforded by the curriculum materials to engage them as both learners and teachers of mathematics. Description of the Project Our project took place between January and May of 1998 in a one-semester mathematics course, titled Geometry for Teachers, for which the authors were the instructors of two sections. Of the approximately 50 teachers enrolled in the Geometry course, most were sophomores (10 juniors), female (3 males), and European-American (1 African-American). The examples presented in this paper emerge from teachers' written comments on various course assignments. The preservice teachers wrote three papers in which they analyzed their experiences as former elementary students, reflected on their studies in the Geometry course, and presented visions of themselves as future teachers. Teachers had opportunities to learn or revisit geometric concepts and mathematical processes, as well as pedagogical issues and practices, as they engaged with three types of text materials: (1) student editions of curriculum materials, (2) teachers' guides of curriculum materials, and (3) a reform document for elementary mathematics curriculum. …

Teachers Need Affective Competencies

Abstract: "Everyone who remembers his own educational experiences remembers teachers, not methods and techniques" -Sidney Hook (1). "Educators should be chosen not merely for their special qualifications, but more for their personality and their character, because we teach more by what we are than by what we teach"-Will Durant (2). The competencies deemed most valuable in a teacher change from era to era. In the post-Sputnik 1950s, emphasis was placed on a teacher's knowledge of mathematics and science. It did not take long to discover that more than a knowledge of subject matter was required of teachers. In the 1960s and 1970s "human potential" era, emphasis was placed on the affective skills of teachers. It was quickly discovered that even the most caring teacher could not be successful without a knowledge of subject matter and a repertoire of teaching skills. Historically, the emphasis on what we seek in teachers swings between the cognitive and affective domains. The latest efforts to define what teachers need to know and be able to do tend to overemphasize the cognitive skills of teachers. Across the nation we are increasingly basing the evaluation of school districts, individual schools and teachers on the results of standardized tests. This trend will result in increased emphasis on the cognitive skills of teachers. In recent years excellent work has been done in defining teacher competencies as standards. Various states, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, and the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) have defined versions of "what teachers need to know and be able to do." The INTASC standards have been widely adopted. They are excellent as far as they go. However, they are not comprehensive enough as they tend to stress the cognitive aspects of teaching more than the affective aspects. Knowledge of subject matter and pedagogical skills are necessary for successful teaching. However, they are not sufficient. As veteran educators, we have trained, employed and supervised hundreds of teachers. We are convinced that the personality and attitudes of teachers are just as important as their knowledge of subject matter and pedagogical skills. Research demonstrates that the affective competencies of teachers directly impact student learning. We need balance. We should be defining what teachers need to "know, be able to do and be." The INTASC standards and similar standards adopted by various states and organizations are generally excellent statements of the cognitive skills needed by teachers. We do not presume to criticize or change them. We do recommend they be augmented. We suggest that, in order to achieve balance, educators should consider additional standards such as the following when considering the needed competencies of teachers: * The teacher is an authentic person who is genuine, self-aware and able to behave in accordance with his or her true feelings. * The teacher sees all people as worthy of unconditional positive regard and treats them with dignity and respect. * The teacher is an empathic person who understands the feelings of students and responds appropriately to those feelings. We offer these standards to illustrate the type of affective standards supported by research. We do not suggest that any group adopt these standards exactly as we have written them. However, we do feel that separate standards should be devoted to the three key personal characteristics of authenticity, respect and empathy. It will be argued by some that there is no need to articulate additional affective competencies of teachers for some or all of the following reasons: * Everyone knows that teachers need affective competencies. * There is no clearly established relationship between the affective competencies of teachers and student learning. * The importance of affective teacher competencies are implicit in current lists of standards. …

Discipline in K through 8th Grade Classrooms

Abstract: Introduction Lack of discipline has several times since 1968 topped the annual Gallup Poll of Public Attitudes towards public schools as the major problem schools have to face (Schottle & Peltier, 1991). The way teachers solve this problem will determine how well students learn and perform in the classroom (Buck, 1992). However, all too often teachers are unaware of the effectiveness of the discipline and classroom management techniques they adopt (Almeida, 1995; Rosen, Taylor, O'Leary, & Sanderson, 1990). Being a source of anxiety and uncertainty (Almeida, 1995), lack of discipline leads to teachers' stress, burnout (Schottle & Peltier, 1991), and inability to care about students (Chemlynski, 1996). This study aimed at finding out, based on direct classroom observations, the discipline problems teachers most often encountered in K through 8th grade classrooms, and the techniques they adopted to solve them. Theoretical Background & Literature Review Misbehavior in the classroom has been defined as students' actions that distracts from, disrupts, competes with, or threatens learning in the classroom (McCown, Driscoll, Roop, 1996). These may range from the benign act of dropping a pencil to serious acts of aggression. Based on 254 narratives submitted by 137 student teachers, the three discipline problems most frequently encountered in the classroom were reported to be acts of disruption such as talking and fidgeting, acts of defiance such as disrespectful behavior and disobedience, and acts of inattention such as being off task, not doing one's work, or out of seat. These 3 categories encompassed respectively 50, 20 and 9 percent of the misbehavior. The remainder included acts of verbal and physical aggression and other miscellaneous acts such as crying, lying, cheating, stealing, or gum chewing, which respectively accounted for 4 and 5 percent of all the incidents of misbehavior (Tulley & Chiu, 1995). Some educators (Dreikurs, 1968; Glasser, 1986) perceived the occurrence of discipline problems to be the consequence of students' frustration and lack of opportunity to fulfill basic needs within the confines of the classroom. Students may feel pleasure or frustration depending on whether they will be empowered to meet their needs for fun, reedom (Glasser, 1986), and belong (Dreikurs, 1968). However, schools rarely create the proper conditions to meet these needs and rarely allow students to work to their full potential. Consequently, students misbehave by adopting mistaken attitudes, goals, and behaviors such as power, or revenge, while giving up trying to meet academic and social expectations (Buck, 1992; Dreikurs, 1968; Glasser, 1986). Gartrell (1995) draws our attention to the difference between misbehavior and mistaken behavior. Misbehavior implies that the student has intentionally done something wrong and must be punished. In contrast, mistaken behavior merely implies that a mistake has been made in the process of learning. Based on Piaget's developmental stages, students gradually learn to overcome their natural tendency toward egocentrism while acquiring the skill of taking others' perspectives (Schickedanz, 1994). Errors in judgment often occur in the process of becoming socially competent. Autonomous exploring of the surroundings and harmless experimentation may also lead to mistaken behavior (Dreikurs, 1968; Gartrell, 1995a). Traditionally, teachers reacted to unacceptable behavior by shaming, verbally reprimanding, threatening, embarrassing, paddling, and suspending or expelling the misbehaving student (Gartrell, 1995b; Gettinger, 1988; Johnson, 1994). These punitive methods often stigmatized the students who internalized the labels "mean", "bad", or "crazy" and by misbehaving, reflected back to the teacher the negative labels he/she had applied on them (Gartrell, 1995b). Since 1970, the management of discipline problems no longer focuses on punishment and retribution, but on conflict resolution and guidance (Gartrell, 1995b). …

Issues Facing Special Educators in the New Millennium

Abstract: The field of Special Education is relatively young and has experienced many changes during the second half of the 20th century. In addition, social, political, legal, and scientific forces have created controversy and fragmentation among professionals and parents of students with disabilities. The consistent controlling force has been and, will likely continue, to be the mandates and funding of the federal government. Social movements have impacted political and legal institutions independent of scientific research. This influence has caused changes within the field. Federal research priorities have been modified to correspond with the goals of these movements. Researchers followed this lead in order to receive funding. Practitioners have based their efforts either directly upon the tenets of the social movements or on the resulting research. What has resulted is a system of beliefs and practices. This paper describes historical and contemporary issues in the field of Special Education and offers predictions about the course of events in the coming decade. A consistent trend in special education and in social services, in general, is a growing life-span perspective. This trend defines several areas of increasing professional focus, early intervention and planning for transition to adulthood. The ongoing debates regarding funding of programs, discipline, and inclusion of students with disabilities in general education settings are more controversial. Other topics that will be discussed are teacher training and personnel shortages, parental and student rights, and the research to practice gap in instructional technology. The Trend Towards Inclusion It is antithetical to the primary tenet of special education practice, individualized educational programming, to argue for full inclusion of students with disabilities in general education settings. To contend that "all" students with disabilities should receive anything, other than an appropriate education, violates the letter and intent of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997). Like many trends in education, inclusion is driven by parents, advocacy organizations, and professionals with an admirable focus on advocacy for the rights of children. Many special education professionals resisted the voyage into what were the uncharted ill-defined waters of inclusion. Proponents were clear about where instruction should occur but an empirical research base for what to attain and how to attain it was absent. Many proponents foresaw improved social skills in addition to the civil rights goals of the movement, but the social goals were never clearly operationalized to allow for meaningful evaluation. Intuitively, educational settings that mirror community, residential, and vocational settings have the highest likelihood of success. However, these outcomes have not received adequate attention in the research literature. Currently, Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) are required to document Transition Plans for secondary students with disabilities that establish post secondary goals. Educators have yet to reconcile program needs with placement options. It is likely that the coming decade will see the parallel purposes of IEPs, Transition Plans, and the determination of least restrictive environment becoming better integrated. The most striking feature of the inclusion movement has been that general educators are not included in decisionmaking with regard to inclusive practices at the same time that special education professionals tout consultation, collaboration, and parity. Students with disabilities had not succeeded in general education settings in the past and evidence that anything had changed was lacking. The unilateral nature of the inclusion movement tended to alienate many general educators who resented the adversarial tone of forced compliance. Still many general and special educators are willing to test inclusion given adequate administrative support and opportunities to work together (Villa, Thousand, Meyers, & Nevin, 1996). …

The Art of Storytelling: A Collegiate Connection to Professional Development Schools

Abstract: Professional Development Schools provide diverse experiences for students in Schools of Education pursuing degrees in teacher education. These experiences include early observation opportunities, tutoring options, content methodology in current practice, seminars and finally, the culminating student teaching experience. This early, interactive link between the professional development schools and schools of education has proven beneficial for all parties involved. Attempts to encourage further collaboration should be ongoing. With that goal in mind, the collegiate course Children's Literature and Storytelling provides an ideal opportunity to create another valuable connection between the college students and the elementary students that would potentially benefit both groups. Elementary school students are invited to campus to become the audience for interactive storytelling activities presented by the college students. The preservice teachers become more proficient in the ability to use the learned techniques in their own classrooms and use them to improve their students' cognitive abilities. Elementary students view the experience as a positive one. They indicate an increased interest in reading and the art of storytelling as a result of the interaction. Current research concerning the art of storytelling reiterates what teachers who employ storytelling techniques in their classrooms have suspected all along. Training in how to share a story enhances cognition in many specific areas. Children involved in programs which utilize storytelling exhibit increased attention spans, improved listening skills, accuracy of recall, better sense of sequencing, predicting and fluency in writing (Reed, 1987). Schema theorists emphasize the importance of framework in understanding text. A "sense of story" aids in the comprehension of the many different types of stories to which children should be exposed (Golden, 1984). We know that children are active participants in their acquisition of language. Their language patterns are learned in social contexts while they are interacting with other children and adults. They actually construct language as they learn (Strickland, 1989). Studies continue to confirm that the development of vocabulary and syntactic complexity in oral language are more advanced in children who are frequently exposed to a variety of stories. Psycholinguists define reading as an active process based on this interaction that is simultaneously creative and predictive. Predictive-creative thinking is demanded of an audience when they mentally participate in the construction of a story while listening to the tale (Roney, 1989). In light of the overwhelming evidence concerning the positive influence of storytelling in the classroom, student teachers should be encouraged to employ storytelling techniques in their own teaching. The collegiate curriculum in Children's Literature and Storytelling should include specific activities that would facilitate an understanding of storytelling techniques. The course should include: 1. Tips on how to choose an age appropriate story to share with children. 2. Techniques for learning a story -- Read, Analyze, Retell, Visualize. 3. How to commit the beginning and the end of the story to memory. 4. Practice in drawing a map of the story from beginning to end. 5. Instruction in storyboarding. 6. Practice in telling the story aloud and establishing eye contact with the audience. 7. Direction in pacing the telling of the story and varying the tone of voice. 8. Direction in the use of gestures and facial expressions to help tell the tale. 9. Reminders to employ the vocabulary appropriate to the culture, location and time of the story. 10. Encouragement to stay relaxed and confident in order to enjoy the story. Discussion and elaboration on how these techniques relate to cognition and comprehension should be emphasized. …

In Loco Parentis: Alive and Well

Abstract: In his 1770 compilation of English law, William Blackstone applied the phrase in loco parentis to educators. By definition, teachers were given the right to act as parents would when responding to disciplinary problems. However, it should be noted courts have permitted application of in loco parentis but have limited it to reasonable punishment in light of circumstances such as the nature of the infraction, method of discipline, and the age of the student (Zirkel & Reichner, 1987). While the 1960's were seen as a decade in which the mission of the school and the relationship between the student and the educational institution was challenged, the concept of in loco parentis remains very much alive and well in schools while in a significantly more challenging context. Schools are finding positive and creative answers to the many questions that are often associated with the growing responsibility and accountability of the school for the care, custody and education of those children under their tutelage. There is a clear indication that in loco parentis transcends elementary and secondary schools and is becoming significant in the higher education domain. According to an article in the March 3, 1999 issue of The New York Times (Bronner, 1999), and long after the Gott v. Berea College case (Bickel and Lake, 1994), which upheld the authority of the College to enforce a rule prohibiting its students from frequenting "forbidden" off-campus places, colleges are now offering and students are often demanding greater supervision of their lives, resulting in an updated and subtler version of in loco parentis. A sampling of this trend, cited by Bronner, is present at The Pennsylvania State University which has opened an alcohol-free, adult-supervised student center. At the University of Virginia, rules are being drafted to inform parents of drinking violations and Lehigh University has banned parties on campus without a staff member or other adult present. As far as colleges and universities are concerned, the choice comes down to a marketing dilemma: Who is a university's primary customer -- the student or the parent? Furthermore, the tragedy of a dormitory fire at Seton Hall University that killed three students and injured dozens more, tips the scale decisively on the side of safety and highlights the fact that institutions of higher education bear heavy responsibility for the lives and well-being of their students, especially those who live in college-provided dormitories (The Times, January 24, 2000). To provide yet another dimension to the issue of in loco parentis, the author profiled the responses of elementary, middle, and secondary in-service teachers (N=60) from a sample of urban and suburban schools in Mercer County, New Jersey, relative to their views of in loco parentis. In addition to reporting the findings of the survey, the author identified pertinent comments made by the respondents. The letters in parenthesis that follow comments are indicative of the school level of the respondent: (ES) elementary school, (MS) middle school, (HS) high school. It would appear from this survey of in-service teachers that the responses, in large measure, were made after appropriate reflection and deliberation. The mentality of completing yet another "academic exercise" in the most expedient manner was not reflected in the responses. Question 1: How do your define in loco parentis? * In place of parents. While we have students in our care we are in the role as parents as authority figures, as mentors, but not necessarily in all parental roles. (HS) * The phrase in loco parentis means I stand in and work on behalf of the parent in the most caring sense for their child. (MS) * Educators find themselves in the parental position of taking on more and more needs of students, including feeding and clothing, referring families to agencies that can help with their personal needs, etc. …

Development of an Educational Program to Increase School Personnel's Awareness about Child and Adolescent Depression

Abstract: Currently, psychiatric and behavioral problems are the number one health problem among young people ages 10-18 (Blum, 1987; Bushong, Coverdale, & Battaglia, 1992). Psychiatric and behavioral disorders, including depression, can have devastating effects at this age and often lead to school failure, violence and suicide (Birmaher & Brent, 1998; Lewinsohn, Rohde, Klein, & Seeley, 1999). Moreover, research indicates that depressed youths are being seriously under-diagnosed and under-treated, causing a great burden to both individuals and society (Blum, Beuhring, Wunderlich, & Resnick, 1996; Hirschfeld, et al., 1997; Horwath, Johnson, Klerman, & Weissman, 1994). Depression that originates in adolescence will often persist into adulthood if not adequately treated (Lewinsohn, Rohde, Klein, & Seeley, 1999; Weissman, et al., 1999). Further, mental health services are often unavailable (Katon, et al., 1996) and even when they are available, real or perceived barriers limit utilization for our youth (Angold, et al., 1998; Blum, 1991; Lamarine, 1995). For example, a large statewide study of student access to health services in Oregon found that many adolescents felt they needed, but did not receive, medical care for personal or emotional problems (Zimmer-Gembeck, Alexander, & Nystrom, 1997). In 1990, the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly recommended that education about depression and suicide prevention be integrated into the educational system (Committee on School Health, 1990). More recently, the Surgeon General's "Call to Action to Prevent Suicide, 1999" advocated 15 recommendations centered on three principals- Awareness, Intervention and Methodology (AIM). These recommendations strongly urge that training about suicide risk assessment and treatment be instituted for all human service professionals including clergy, teachers, correctional workers and social workers. While a number of programs have been designed to disseminate knowledge and to provide interventions for depression and suicide (Shaffer & Craft, 1999), almost no literature to date has been published about programs designed to train teachers and school personnel. Teachers and/or parents are the primary sources to observe and gather information concerning the behavioral problems of children and adolescents (Gresham, 1984; Verhulst, Koot, & Van Der Ende, 1994). However, they commonly feel either poorly equipped or reluctant to consider that a child's academic or social difficulties may be related to poor emotional health (Lamarine, 1995). Nevertheless, educators have considerable experience observing a range of normal child and adolescent behavior (Verhulst, Koot, & Van Der Ende, 1994), and are in a favorable position to identify significant developmental and behavioral problems (Kazdin, 1990; Resnick, et al. 1997). Indeed, research has shown it frequently falls to the schools and the teaching profession to provide the initial link to treatment (Adelman & Taylor, 1999; Klein, McNuity, & Flatau, 1998). In an effort to more effectively handle the emotional, social and psychological problems of our youth, many schools are now attempting to provide some version of onsite mental health services (Adelman & Taylor, 1999; Flaherty, Weist, & Warner, 1996; Jepson, Juszczak, & Fisher, 1998; King, 1996; Waxman, Weist, & Benson, 1999). In addition, when surveyed, many youth identify school personnel as important resources for health and counseling needs (Fotheringham & Sawyer, 1995; Klein, McNulty, & Flatau, 1998; Shaffer, Garland, Vieland, Underwood, & Busner, 1991). Because childhood and adolescent depression is treatable and early identification and treatment have shown to be effective (Hirschfeld, et al., 1997; Weissman, et al., 1999), public health approaches are needed to enhance early recognition and interventions for young people who suffer from depression. …

Society Cannot Continue to Exclude Women from the Fields of Science and Mathematics

Abstract: Introduction During the 1960s-1970s, the American public was besieged with numerous articles asking the questions "Why Johnny and Suzie cannot Read?" and "Women in Science: Why so Few?" (Rossi, 1965). As we approach the 21st Century, Johnny and Susie still cannot read and females remain underrepresented in careers pertaining to science, mathematics, and engineering. Why have females continued to lag in their pursuit of careers in science? Women have been traditionally underrepresented in the physical sciences compared to their fraction of the total population. Matthews (1990) suggests that females have also been underrepresented in the areas of mathematics and engineering. According to Matthews (1990), women accounted for only 16 percent of all scientists and engineers in the year 1988. At the close of the 1980s, women comprised 4 percent of the engineering population and 30 percent of the scientific population, but even fewer of the women scientists and engineers are minorities (5 percent Black, less than 1 percent Native American, and 3 percent Hispanic). These numbers have not noticeably changed in a positive manner since Matthews' 1990 comments. Even in their article of 1994, Sadker and Sadker write that girls are still hampered by the sex stereotype perspective that girls do not have the mental capacity to master mathematics and science curriculums at both the K-12 and higher educational levels. According to Matthews (1990), the Federal Government statistics suggests that there are barriers to participation and how women might over come these barriers that will allow them to be participants in the physical sciences at all levels. The understanding of the continued efforts to increase the enrollment and success of women in the physical sciences in higher education is essential to the overall importance of the United States as a continued world leader. Changes in faculty attitudes and educational goals for women are necessary and imperative in implementing modifications to the science and mathematics curriculums in the institutions of higher learning. According to Kramarae and Treichler (1990), "women's experiences are different from those of males, and those experiences are `unsatisfactory in ways not recognized by most university faculty and critics of education policy.' They argue that women experience the academy differently for several reasons: curricula that largely excludes the experiences of women, professional advising that restricts their [women] options, and male control of classroom talk. Thus, the messages and socialization patterns established earlier continue to play out in post-secondary education and careers [of women]." In Hartman's 1995 article, the earlier messages and socialization patterns are documented by female students reflecting on their educational experiences in physics classes. For example, one high school student described her experiences as being confined to a shark tank. Even at the higher education level, a female graduate student recounted her experience by explaining "that when she turned in an especially good work her professor suspected plagiarism." Review of Related Literature According to American Association of University Women (AAUW) (1992), at a certain age, females are socialized in a manner that does not emphasize their possible academic achievements in the areas of mathematics and science. The American Association of University Women made the following observations regarding factors involved in attributing to the general decline in science achievement observed for girls and not boys: 1. An American Association of University Women research review found that teachers give boys preferential treatment in school. The researchers found that boys ask more questions, are given more detailed and constructive criticism of their work, and are treated more tolerantly than girls during outbursts of temper or resistance. …

The Characteristics of Bad High School Teachers Reveal Avoidable Behaviors for New Teachers

Abstract: Perceptions of the "Bad" High School Teacher The expected teacher shortages across the United States and the higher learning standards being proposed in virtually every state have left colleges of teacher education and pre-service teachers reeling. We are in dire need of a great number of great teachers, and most of these will be young, recent college graduates. However, these newly minted teachers can not be expected to start out as experts. Contemporary teacher education graduates have been exposed to a magnitude of theory and practical information associated with effective teaching. So much, perhaps, that they can't begin to integrate "great" teaching into their daily practice. These novice teachers begin their careers often times with a feeling that if they were just not "bad" then they could get by until they are "good". Interestingly, with the volumes of research dictating what it means to be a good teacher, it is almost impossible to identify a body of literature addressing the issue of bad teaching, namely specific examples of what novice teachers should avoid. As one newly hired English teacher recently put it, "What not to be is the real question". This study compares perceptions of the "bad high school teacher" as gathered in interviews with high school administrators, teachers, parents and students. Results show patterns of negative behaviors that are both informative and interesting. Our discussion offers suggestions to teachers on how to avoid being "awful" ... and a list of reminders of positive behaviors as well. As students begin the process of becoming a teacher through a formal teacher education program, they often hold out hope that they will become "outstanding". Models for high quality are often rolled out and shown off both to inspire these novices AND to show what good teachers do. The literature abounds with such images, for example, Haberman has described "Star" urban teachers (1995), Ladson-Billings (1994) has told us about Culturally Relevant Teachers who have been superb. Lightfoot (1983) has identified "good" high schools and Dyer's (1996) survey identified the ten desirable traits of successful teachers. Seldom, however, have images of the "bad" teacher been available. Dyer's study produced a student survey showing qualities of effective and ineffective teachers, albeit these characteristics were presented on a continuum (a forced-choice approach). Another recent source, a text called "Bad Teachers: The Essential Guide for Concerned Parents" (Strickland, 1998) ostensibly offers a handbook to help parents deal with lousy teachers and the administrators who protect them. While providing no definition of bad teaching, Strickland provides exemplars embedded in stories told by youngsters about school. Strickland does offer seven attributes that lead to a description of "bad teachers": 1. They lack subject knowledge 2. They have poor classroom control 3. They act unprofessionally 4. They can't diagnose learning problems 5. They are obsessive about method (particularly about whole language, although he himself is obsessive about phonics and is an avid opponent of Madeline Hunter's work). 6. They focus on the wrong goals 7. They have no goals at all In truth, avoidable qualities and undesirable images of high school teachers have not been investigated very well ... and the result has been a belief that "badness" is the opposite or the absence of "goodness" qualities. We saw this belief as a hypothesis worth deep investigation within our University community. We had already suspected that incoming teachers were less marked by a passion to be "great" than they were horrified at the thought of being bad. Make no mistake, almost all of the novices wanted to become great and had confidence that they would be highly successful ... but that was a long term goal. In the short run, they didn't want to be a disaster: they wished to survive student teaching so that they could grow and develop as they profited from experience. …

Early Childhood Education Programs Can Make a Difference in Academic, Economic, and Social Arenas

Abstract: As the year 2000 approaches, states are not progressing uniformly toward meeting the first of eight national education goals - by the year 2000, all children will start school ready to learn - enacted in Goals 2000 legislation (Lunenburg & Irby, 1999). Goal One implies universal access to appropriate preschool environments, parental support in the child's preschool education, and attention to health and prenatal care. The first national education goal and the position statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) sets the stage for a national commitment to early childhood education. NAEYC underscores developmentally appropriate preschool learning environments, the critical role parents play in the education process, and the importance of health and nutrition in the preparation of children for learning (Bredekamp, 1987: Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Preschool Experience Preschool experiences are designed to provide cognitive and social enrichment during early childhood development. The goal of these experiences is to promote children's ability to successfully make the transition to school (Reynolds, 1994; Schweinhart & Weikart, 1988; Wachs & Green, 1982) and to prevent poor school adjustment outcomes such as school failure, unemployment, and poverty. Studies of a wide variety of programs such as Head Start, Even Start, Follow Through, Learning to Learn and other model programs have shown that one or two years of preschool can improve children's school readiness, early scholastic achievement, and school competence such as lower grade retention and special education placement (Barnett, 1992; Haskins, 1989; Hubbell, 1983; McKey et al., 1985; Reynolds, 1995; White, 1985). Research supports the effects of preschool programs on long term outcomes such as reduced school dropout rates and increased employment (Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, & Weikart, 1984; Reynolds, 1994; Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993). Evidence indicates that once children's achievement patterns are established, there is a high degree of continuity from that point forward, and early attainment sets boundaries on later attainment (Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994; Entwisle, Alexander, Cadigan, & Pallas, 1986). The academic difficulties experienced by many minority children are traceable to adjustment problems and patterns of underachievement that begin in the first few years of formal schooling (Alexander & Entwisle, 1988; Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994). The child who gets off to a slow beginning in the early school years carries a record of failure; and because of the cumulative nature of topics in the early curriculum such as reading and mathematics, a disadvantaged learner may be hindered by gaps in understanding that may be difficult to overcome (Alexander & Entwisle, 1988; Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994). Compared to a generation ago, the large majority of children who enter kindergarten now have had extensive nonparental child care experience, either a center-based preschool experience or extrafamilial home-based child care (Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994; West, Hauskien, Chandler, & Collins, 1992). It seems reasonable that children with considerable nonparental preschool experience might be expected to have fewer adjustment problems when starting school (Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994; Ladd & Price, 1987). Consistent with this view, studies of high quality child care indicate that such preschool experience is related to positive functioning in the early elementary grades (Andersson, 1989; Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994; Field, 1991; Howes, 1988). On the other hand, poor quality child care is associated with poor functioning, both during kindergarten and during later schooling (Vandell, Henderson, & Wilson, 1988). For example, a recent investigation of 227 child care centers in five major metropolitan areas in the United States found the quality of care to be "barely adequate" (Whitebrook, Howes, & Phillips, 1990). …