Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 2003"

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

Abstract: In order to address the need for different teaching strategies, we must first realize there are different learning styles. Howard Gardner was aware of this when he developed his theory of multiple intelligences. According to Gardner, there are eight kinds of intelligences. Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences requires teachers to adjust their instructional strategies in order to meet students' individual needs. The first of Gardner's intelligences is linguistic or verbal. Verbal intelligence involves the mastery of language. People with verbal intelligence tend to think in words and have highly developed auditory skills. They are frequently reading or writing. Their ability to manipulate language lends them to fields such as teaching, journalism, writing, law, and translation. Language enables them to be better at memorizing information. Verbal students are often great storytellers and joke tellers. Linguistic intelligence enables one to pay special attention to grammar and vocabulary. They have great ability to use words with clarity. These people can use this to their own benefit either to explain, persuade, or entertain. Those with linguistic intelligence memorize best using words. Another advantage is that they tend to be great at explaining, hence the amount of people with linguistic intelligence that are teachers. Additionally, there is their ability to analyze language and to create a better understanding of what people mean when using words. In order for teachers to help linguistic learners progress, they need to use language that the student can relate to and fully comprehend. If used correctly, language can provide a bridge between the material and the learner. Having children write, read, and give oral reports about an element in their own lives such as sports, television, or popular bands develops their linguistic intelligence. Music and language can be considered a common medium. Yet, they have evolved on separate courses. Musical intelligence, therefore, is the next of the multiple intelligences. Musical intelligence makes use of sound to the greatest extent possible. Those with musical intelligence have a firm understanding of pitch, rhythm, and timbre. Through music, they are able to convey their emotions. Often, this intelligence is discovered at an early age. The individual differences between those with musical intelligence and those without are apparent from the day a child learns to sing. These students are usually able to read music, critique performances, and to use musical-critical categories. Our culture is known to minimize the importance of music and music education. Teachers should foster musical intelligence by introducing "formal musical analysis and representation" (Gardner, 1983, p. 111). Music can act as a way of capturing feelings, of knowing and understanding feelings, which is an important part of educating children. Another reason musical intelligence should be valued is that it can be tied to other intelligences. For example, it relates to the logical-mathematical intelligence in that music also contains ratio and regularity, as well as mathematical patterns. Mathematical-logical intelligence consists of the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively, and think logically. Children first explore this intelligence by ordering and re-ordering objects. They begin math using material objects such as marbles or M&Ms. After time passes, children are able to do math in their heads without the use of manipulatives. As this intelligence grows, the love of abstraction separates those with mathematical intelligence from the rest. They are able to follow long chains of reasoning very skillfully. These are usually the children who do well in the traditional classroom because they are able to follow the logical sequencing behind the teaching and are, therefore, able to conform to the role of model student. …

Institutional Factors Affecting Student Retention

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Since the 1980s, American institutions have experienced a major problem retaining students, particularly under-represented minorities. The loss of students returning to campus for another year usually results in greater financial loss and a lower graduation rate for the institution, and might also affect the way that stakeholders, legislators, parents, and students view the institution. Further, college administrators can attest to the high cost of recruiting in-coming students. Student retention is also an enormous problem in the United Kingdom, where the administrators of academic institutions now focus most of their efforts on decreasing student attrition, because the ability to retain students has become a determining factor in obtaining outside funding (Nash, 1996). In this country, in 1995 the national average four-year graduation rate was only 38%, compared to the five-year and six-year graduation rates of 50% and 54% respectively (Money, 1997). While the average freshman retention rate for 1996 was 75%, studies indicate that colleges with high freshman retention rates tend to have a higher percentage of students graduating within four years; thus, saving the cost of an extra year or more of schooling. Student retention has become a challenging problem for the academic community; therefore, an effective program for student retention must be implemented in order to increase the retention of qualified students. Institutions must work towards providing students with a meaningful learning environment, so that these students will become connected to the institution by developing a sense of belonging within the student body. Therefore, every effort must be made to retain students while they are on campus. REASONS FOR DROP-OUT Research consistently indicates that college students who drop out usually do so by the time they finish their first year (Noel, Levitz, and Saluri, 1985). Unfortunately, the student retention rate usually includes students who were also transferred to other colleges. Therefore, the retention rate does not provide an accurate account of the number of students who actually dropped out of college. Nevertheless, there are several reasons why freshmen do not return to colleges for their sophomore year (Terenzini, et al. 1996). First, some students leave for reasons that may be beyond institutional control, such as lack of finances, poor student-institution fit, changing academic or career goals, or unrelated personal circumstances. Secondly, many more students leave because the institution has failed to create an environment, inside or outside the classroom, that is conducive to their learning and educational needs. These students do not return to their college because they are unhappy with the education that they are receiving. Thirdly, the inability to manage normal school work or to assimilate within the student population could discourage some students from returning for another year of torture. Students who lack the basic and fundamental skills, especially in mathematics and writing, are finding it difficult to cope with the normal course workload. Therefore, it is extremely important for institutional administrators to ensure that students fulfill their prerequisite requirements before taking upper level courses, especially in the areas of writing and computer applications. Fourthly, freshmen might lack the motivation to do well in school, because they do not understand the importance of education, and/or do not know how to apply classroom-learned theories to real life problems. Further, the lack of appropriate role models or mentors in the academic environment could complicate this problem. Finally, during their first year at an academic institution of higher learning, freshmen might be overwhelmed with the transition from high school to college life, and they might become overly stressed by the dramatic changes even before they finish their first year of college. …

From Teacher-Centered to Learner-Centered Curriculum: Improving Learning in Diverse Classrooms

Abstract: Introduction Twenty-first century classrooms challenge traditional, teacher-centered curriculum to meet the increasingly diverse needs of students and make the required increases in achievement gains. School violence, diverse student needs and populations, educational renewal, and technological advances place demands on teachers in areas for which they were formally held accountable. With teacher educators, problems occur when teaching styles conflict with students' learning styles, often resulting in limited learning or no learning. Altan and Trombly (2001) offer learner-centeredness as a model for countering classroom challenges because of its viability for meeting diverse needs. Learner-centered classrooms place students at the center of classroom organization and respect their learning needs, strategies, and styles. In learner-centered classrooms, students can be observed working individually or in pairs and small groups on distinct tasks and projects. The transition from teaching the entire group to meeting individual learner needs involves extensive planning and task-specific classroom management. Purpose The premise--one teaching and learning approach fits all--is not working for a growing number of student populations and has prompted this researcher to examine what is required to move from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered approach. McCombs & Whisler (1997) identified two essential factors for a learner-centered approach to education: (a) characteristics of the learner and (b) teaching practices. By contrasting the use of reflective inquiry, thinking-centered learning, and assessment of program quality to satisfy McCombs & Whisler's essential factors, this article examines whether moving from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered approach requires a transition or a paradigm shift. Learner Characteristics Learner-Centered Approach An essential factor for a learner-centered approach is placing the learning characteristics of all learners under the microscope with specific emphasis on low-performing learners. McCombs (1997) explained that the focus in a learner-centered approach is on individual learners' heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs. She defined learner-centered, from a research-based perspective, as a foundation for clarifying what is needed to create positive learning contexts to increase the likelihood that more students will experience success (Defining "Learner-Centered", [paragraph] 2). Cultural factors impact the connection teachers must make to scaffold students' learning (Singham, 1998; McCombs & Whisler, 1997). The focus is on metacognition, how individual students learn. Milambiling (2001) extended the learner-centered definition by characterizing learner-centered education as context-sensitive. She said that the culture of the learning context is as important to learning as the content and the methods used. Milambiling recommended curricula which address the culture of the learner within specific learning contexts. Teacher-Centered Approach The teacher-centered approach is associated chiefly with the transmission of knowledge. McDonald (2002) clarified the definition by saying that the work of teachers depends upon the abilities, skills and efforts of their students. Student achievement is at the forefront of teacher centered curriculum, but teachers are driven to meet accountability standards and often sacrifice the needs of the students to ensure exposure to the standards. Berliner (as cited in Scherer, 2001) distinguished between the expert and the novice teacher. He explained that expert teachers have case knowledge, knowledge of information stored in their memory banks, that allows them to compare situations and respond accordingly. They have amassed a store of impromptu responses for capturing teachable moments. The issue, however, is whether those impromptu responses are a clear match for the learner who is having difficulty. …

Blogging and Blogspots: An Alternative Format for Encouraging Reflective Practice among Preservice Teachers

Abstract: Introduction In our effort to meet the requirements of departmental initiatives to increase the reflective practice of preservice teachers, we explored several types of student journaling. Traditional journaling activities used by teacher education faculty have included the use of supplemental workbooks, hard-copy journals or diaries, and written philosophy statements. While each option gave insight into the process of preservice schema-building, outcomes were considered to be inadequate. Students wrote sparse, descriptive summaries with few examples of heightened levels of awareness and little indication that these practices promoted a continuing routine of reflective practice. Additional problems included the legibility of handwritten documents, instructor response time, record-keeping concerns, and the transportation of over ninety written student journals. An informal faculty assessment indicated that we needed to explore what the literature says about journaling, and to experiment with other forms of reflective activities. A review of the literature on reflective activities indicated that preservice students' awareness of the complexity of the teaching and learning continuum was enhanced by journaling, but that little indication of deeper, personal actions and processes was demonstrated. Zeichner and Liston (1996) placed great importance in these missing pieces. They related that a reflective teacher: --examines, frames and attempts to solve the dilemmas of classroom practice; --is aware of and questions the assumptions and values he or she brings to the classroom; --is attentive to the institutional and cultural contexts in which he or she teaches; --takes part in curriculum development and is involved in school change efforts, and --takes responsibility for his or her own professional development. (p. 6) Mindful of these characteristics, we recognized that at the very least a more concerted, consistent effort needed to be applied to achieve these outcomes. To those ends, we explored other options. These included the introduction of more structured journal focus questions; increasing levels of teacher-mediation in student journals; focused workbook activities (textbook supplements); online discussion groups; and online journals. As the former options had already been tried with limited success we decided to consider an instructional technology based journaling option. Given our experience with prior coursework utilizing an online bulletin board format, we explored the advantages of experimenting with an online journal. It was our opinion that online journaling offered the following options: a state-of-the art format that may increase student enthusiasm in journal writing; an increase in both the quality and quantity of student output; an increased potential for teacher-mediated input; and the potential for future extensions to include the addition of links to illustrative websites and other options offered by web-based learning. After some exploration, an innovative, no-cost online weblog service called Blogger was selected. This paper describes the background and approach used in this initiative, a student evaluation of Blogger, an assessment of student outcomes, and suggestions on how these experiences may benefit students and preservice educators. The Reflective Teacher Model In 1995 the Department of Education at the University of Southern Indiana initiated a new undergraduate model for teacher preparation. This model was used to satisfy the standards promulgated by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). The department's Reflective Teacher Model "is based upon a philosophy of active and experimental learning, and critical inquiry into underlying issues in education and society" (Department of Teacher Education, 1995). It was intended to promote the use of reflective practice in all teacher preparation classes. …

Foundations for Learner-Centered Education: A Knowledge Base

Abstract: Learner-Centered Education: A Definition * The Citadel has for its conceptual framework Learner-Centered education. This is a fluid theoretical model which is subject to change, and, indeed, does continuously change as the faculty continues to redefine this term. The following statement was the basis for The Citadel's original concept of learner-centered education. Learner-Centered Education is defined by McCombs and Whisler (1997, p.9) as: The perspective that couples a focus on individual learners (their heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs) with a focus on learning (the best available knowledge about learning and how it occurs and about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning, and achievement for all learners.) This dual focus, then, informs and drives educational decision-making. In this perspective, learner-centered education involves the learner and learning in the programs, policies, and teaching that support effective learning for all students. Administrators are responsible for developing, maintaining and enhancing a school environment that enhances effective learning. They are also responsible for ensuring that teachers are knowledgeable about their students and about how learning occurs best. Teachers are responsible for having classrooms that promote effective learning for all and for being familiar with the instructional techniques that promote effective learning for all. School counselors are concerned with improving both the conditions for learning (parent education, classroom environment, teacher attitude) and with helping each learner develop to his/her fullest potential. The following five premises support these assertions. 1. Learners have distinctive perspectives or frames of reference, contributed to by their history, the environment, their interests and goals, their beliefs, their ways of thinking and the like. These must be attended to and respected if learners are to become more actively involved in the learning process and to ultimately become independent thinkers. 2. Learners have unique differences, including emotional states of mind, learning rates, learning styles, stages of development, abilities, talents, feelings of efficacy, and other needs. These must be taken into account if all learners are to learn more effectively and efficiently. 3. Learning is a process that occurs best when what is being learned is relevant and meaningful to the learner and when the learner is actively engaged in creating his or her own knowledge and understanding by connecting what is being learned with prior knowledge and experience. 4. Learning occurs best in an environment that contains positive interpersonal relationships and interactions and in which the learner feels appreciated, acknowledged, respected, and validated. 5. Learning is seen as a fundamentally natural process; learners are viewed as naturally curious and basically interested in learning about and mastering their world. * Taken from The Citadel Undergraduate Catalog (2002-2003, p. 207) Central emphasis and understanding emerge from an integrated and holistic examination of a learner-centered approach. For educational systems to serve the needs of every learner, it is essential that every instructional decision focuses on the individual learner--with an understanding of the learning process. The history of learner-centered education has one foot in philosophy and the other in psychology. Following is a cursory review of some of the important contributions of educational philosophy to the development of learner-centered education followed by a review of some of the most important contributions of educational psychology. This section, titled "Philosophical Knowledge Base" will be followed by a similar section titled "Psychological Knowledge Base. …

The Researcher as Research Instrument in Educational Research: A Possible Threat to Trustworthiness? (A: Research_instrument)

Abstract: Background and problem statement: Central to conducting research and more specifically qualitative research is the researcher as research instrument (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000: 368; Marshall & Rossman, 1995: 59-65). The researcher is the key person in obtaining data from respondents. It is through the researcher's facilitative interaction that a context is created where respondents share rich data regarding their experiences and life world. It is the researcher that facilitates the flow of communication, who identifies cues and it is the researcher that sets respondents at ease. This also contributes to a therapeutic effect for the respondents because they are listened to. It is also the researcher who is instrumental in translating and interpreting data generated from the respondents into meaningful information. The researcher as instrument in educational research can also be the Achilles heel in an educational research project. The authors are reasoning why she can cause the downfall in a research project. The question that can be asked is: "What can contribute to the educational researcher as instrument being a threat to trustworthiness in research? And what can be done to address possible threats?" Objectives: To explore and describe possible threats the educational researcher as research instrument can hold in the research situation regarding trustworthiness and to formulate possible measures to address identified threats. Methodology: The recently completed research project "The developmental implications of a termination of pregnancy on adolescents with reference to the girl and her partner" (Poggenpoel & Myburgh, 2000) and other research projects will be utilized to demonstrate what limitations and threats the researchers as instruments can pose in research project. Personal experiences and observations of researchers will be utilized (Wilson, 1989:435-436; Creswell, 1994:152; Marshall & Rossman, 1989:105-107) to reflect researchers' experiences of possible obstacles and threats of the researcher as research instrument in qualitative research to trustworthiness. Guba's approach (Krefting, 1991; Lincoln & Guba, 1985) to ensure trustworthiness with specific reference to credibility as strategy will be utilized to formulate possible measures to address identified threats. Analysis of findings concerning the researcher as possible threat during the research process: The following aspects of the researcher as possible threat during the research process will be addressed in this discussion: the educational researcher's mental and other discomfort could pose a threat to the truth value of data obtained and information obtained from data analyses; the researcher not being sufficiently prepared to conduct the field research; not being able to do member checking on findings; conducting inappropriate interviews; not including demographic data in the description of the results; the researcher not being able to analyze interviews in depth; and describing the research methodology and research results in a superficial manner. The researcher's mental and other discomfort could pose a threat to the truth value of data obtained and information obtained from data analyses: In certain circumstances the research topic could be so close at home to the researcher's own frame of reference and experience that all effort to bracket and intuit are fruitless. In the authors' research they have experienced that the researcher could not conduct interviews with families in which a child was terminally ill. As soon as the researcher were confronted with the intense pain of the families that were in the process of saying good bye to their beloved, she could not bear the pain. The reason for this was that her own unresolved pain regarding her brother's suicide. Supervisors must be alert because post-graduate candidates quite often select research topics close to their own unresolved pain and experiences. …

Overrepresentation of Minority Students in Special Education

Abstract: Introduction and Statement of the Problem It is impossible to overstate the importance of the overrepresentation of minority students in special education programs. The issue is of critical importance and is very complex. If education for children with disabilities were easily understood, special education would be locally funded, because special education programs are so very valuable to the community. Unfortunately this is not the case. Because of federal involvement and the provision of a free, appropriate, public education, persons with cerebral palsy, persons who are deaf or blind, persons with autism, and other individuals with significant disabilities are integral, highly productive members of our national community. These folks did not live in institutions. They lived with their parents and rode the same bus to school that all their friends rode. They were part of school plays and attended birthday parties and baseball games. They received diplomas at graduation. They went to college, and to graduate school, and to supported, competitive employment. Some of them have been our finest public servants, directing important federal agencies, enacting and implementing legislation such as IDEA and the ADA (Lipsky, D.K. & Gartner, A., 1997). The "picture" of special education programs is not a positive one for all participants. The outcomes which are most positive are those for individuals with significant disabilities--those students who were previously unable to attend school or hold jobs. The most "negative" comments relate to students with mild disabilities such as mild mental retardation, learning disabilities, and behavior disorders (Affleck, J.Q., Edgar, E., Levine, P., & Korteromg, L., 1999; Maynard, J., Tyler, J.L., Arnold, M., 1999; Artiles, A.J., Trent, S.C., Kuan, L.A., 1994). These high incidence disabilities have "emerged" with the passage of the special education laws, and students who are given these labels often have unsatisfactory outcomes--perhaps a label which they, and their parents feel they do not "deserve" ("I may be dumb, but I'm NOT retarded"). Parents and grandparents who were educated in segregated schools are not supportive of any label which implies that their children are deviant from the norm. Parents who did not have good experiences in the public schools are not willing participants in public education processes, and are suspicious of school based activities in which they do not participate. (Turnbull, R. & Turnbull, A., 1997) Wonderful athletes have graduated from high school without learning to read, because they were "placed" in special education, had poor instruction and suffered from low expectations. These students provide a very different side of the special education picture. They have not had positive outcomes, and they are overwhelmingly from ethnic groups other than those from Western Europe (Affleck, J.Q., Edgar, E., Levine, P., & Kortering, L., 1999: U.S. Department of Education, 1996; 2000). The notion that any one race is less able to learn than another is anathema to our national conscience. Despite our best efforts, the problem persists and is documented in the Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1990, and in biannual reports from the U.S. Office of Civil Rights. The issue of the disproportionate representation of minority groups in special education was discussed in the professional literature as early as 1968. Following the passage of P.L. 94-142, in 1975, both the profession and the Court System attempted to address the issue of the overrepresentation of minority groups in special education. Reports from the U.S. Office of Civil Rights, and Office of Special Education Programs have continued to document the problem. As recently as October of 2001, the Secretary of Education, Dr. Robert Paige, expressed his concern about the issue of disproportional representation of minority groups in Special Education programs in testimony to Congress. …

The Impact of Hope, Procrastination, and Social Activity on Academic Performance of MidWestern Collage Students

Abstract: Introduction Tests of academic ability such as the American College Test (ACT) and Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) have been found to be useful predictors of academic performance in college (e.g., Donlin, 1984; Halpin, Halpin, & Schaer, 1981; Mouw & Khanna, 1993; Sibert & Ayers, 1989). However, such tests do not account fully for college students' overall effectiveness in academic pursuits. Consequently, there has been considerable research focused on identifying additional variables that contribute to individual differences in academic performance (e.g., Britton & Tessor, 1991; Holland & Astin, 1962; Ting & Robinson, 1998). Two motivational factors that have received recent attention as potential predictors of academic performance are hope and procrastination. As conceptualized by Snyder and colleagues (1991, 1999), hope is a cognitive-motivational construct reflecting the interaction of 1) successful agency (goal directed determination) and 2) pathways (planning of ways to meet goals). Hope is associated with measures of adaptive functioning such as psychological adjustment, physical well being, and problem-focused coping (Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael, 1999). There is also recent evidence that hope is positively correlated with academic performance and related measures (e.g., Chang, 1998; Snyder et al, 1997). For example, Snyder et al (1997) found that the Children's Hope Scale was associated with the Iowa Basic Test of Skill, a commonly used measure of academic achievement for children and adolescents, even after statistically controlling for variance in self worth. In research with college athletes, hope was positively correlated with semester grade point average, after controlling for cumulative grade point average (Curry, Snyder, Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997). Snyder, Wiklund, & Cheavens (cited in Snyder et al, 1999) gave 200 college freshmen the dispositional Hope Scale and monitored academic progress over the next six years. High levels of hope were associated with both grade point average and graduation status, even after statistically controlling for variance in ACT scores. High hope students had a significantly higher mean grade point average and were more likely to have graduated than low hope students. Chang (1998) found that compared to students scoring high in hope, those low in hope employed more disengagement strategies (problem avoidance, social withdrawal, self-criticism) in coping with a specific stressful academic situation. Hope also contributed to academic life satisfaction independent of the impact of age, gender, and domain specific coping strategies. Although Chang's study did not assess academic achievement per se, it suggests that reduced hope is associated with less adaptive strategies in coping with academic stressors. Evidence that hope has positive associations with active coping (e.g., Snyder et al, 1999) and negative relations with avoidance and disengagement (Chang, 1998) raises the possibility that degree of active engagement rather than hope per se has greater predictive power in relation to academic achievement. Procrastination, a construct with direct relevance to degree of active engagement in tasks, has also been identified as a potentially important predictor of academic achievement. Procrastination refers to the irrational tendency to delay tasks that should be completed (Lay, 1986). About 20-30% of college students and the general population consider procrastination to be a significant problem related to impairments in personal, occupational, and financial well-being (e.g., Ferrari, Johnson, & McCown, 1995). Procrastination may impede academic performance in several ways. First, some procrastinators cope with the anxiety and threat of initiating tasks by actively avoiding them until there is insufficient time to perform optimally (Schouwenburg, 1995). Second, procrastinators might underestimate the amount of time required for specific tasks; consequently they may not invest the time and effort necessary for performing well (McCown, 1986). …

The Influence of Technology on the Initiation of Interpersonal Relationships (1)

Abstract: INTRODUCTION The world has witnessed a steady increase in the advent, adoption, and widespread use of new and varied technologies. With this proliferation of technology, scholars and lay people alike are beginning to ask the question, "How does advancing technologies impact interpersonal relationships?" This paper explores this concern by examining the following three areas. First, brief consideration is given to technology and its influence on social life. Second, the influence of media on interpersonal relationships is explored. Finally, the implications of computer-mediated interaction for relationship development are reviewed. TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL LIFE Ever since the discovery of the first tool, people have seen these tools, machines, technological advances as positive and desirable (the wheel, printing press, telephone, airplane, TV, satellite, micro wave, & PC, just to name a few). They have helped to bring about what McLuhan (1975) has termed the "Global Village." The world is becoming continually smaller. However, as the distance between cultures and countries shrink, the distance between interpersonal interactants appears to be expanding. Paradoxically, the closer we get, the further apart we appear to be. As this paper argues, technology (in many ways a positive influence on quality of life), in part, is responsible for this increasing social/interpersonal distance. Tools are intended to make one's work easier. However, the increased ease and time saved, afford people the opportunity to become less interdependent and more autonomous and self-reliant. For example, where once women gathered at the water's edge to do the laundry in social groups outside the home; men and women now go to the laundry room and turn on the washing machine, quickly returning to the comfort of the living room, kitchen, or den. The tools that were originally designed to aid in the execution of some activity have come to replace that activity. Human input goes from maximum to almost nonexistent. The telephone permits ordering food to be delivered to our front door, cable access provides the convenience of ordering recent-release movies for home viewing, Internet availability permits shopping for "almost anything" on-line. A consumer can take advantage of all of these services and never leave the comfort and isolation of home. Furthermore, all of this increased social isolation is encouraged and validated. The ATT one can be closer because some form of contact (i.e., CMC) is experienced and further apart because that contact serves to create a less accurate representation of the participants and their messages. The absence of the characteristics associated with face-to-face communication can result in a loss of fidelity and an increase in the psychological distance between interactants. In addition, the desire for this new technology places a heavier financial burden on the necessary income for the interpersonal unit (i.e., the family). Because of personal or economic reasons, dual income families have become the norm. According to Galvin and Brommel (2000)," [f]rom 1970-1990, the number of working married women with children under age 6 increased from 49 to 58 percent" (p. 14). These authors also report, that in families with children 6 to 17, 73 percent of the women are employed. Though the cause for these dual income families cannot be attributed directly to the acquisition, use, or presence of technology, the dual income family gives rise to the "latchkey children" phenomenon, children returning from school before either parent has return from work. …

Fostering Social-Emotional Learning in the Classroom

Abstract: It is estimated that between 15 and 22 percent of U.S. youth have social-emotional difficulties warranting intervention (Cohen, 2001; Mogno & Rosenblitt, 2001). Students at risk for school failure are particularly vulnerable for social-emotional problems. For example, 75 percent of students with learning disabilities (LD) exhibit social skills deficits (Kavale & Forness, 1996), and the U.S. Department of Education (1996) reported that 29 percent of adolescents with disabilities required social skills instruction beyond high school. Regular education classrooms include ever-increasing numbers of at-risk students. For example, special education students receive most, if not all, of their education in regular education classrooms (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). It is clear that teachers face enormous challenges meeting learners' academic and social-emotional needs. In this article we discuss ways in which teachers can promote social-emotional learning in their classrooms. First we discuss the construct of emotional intelligence and how it can be improved through social-emotional learning. We then review strategies teachers can use to improve learners' emotional, social, and interpersonal problem solving skills. Emotional Intelligence and Social-Emotional Learning The term emotional intelligence was first used in 1990 by Salovey and Mayer, who offer this definition: Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p. 10). Goleman (1995) popularized the construct of emotional intelligence in his book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. The term EQ, or emotional quotient, was coined by Bar-On (1997) to differentiate emotional intelligence from cognitive intelligence, which is measured by intelligence tests. EQ is thought to be comprised of five domains (Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey, 1997): * knowing ones' emotions * managing one's emotions * motivating oneself * recognizing emotions of others * effectively using social skills when interacting with others Less genetically determined than IQ, emotional intelligence can be taught by teachers and parents. Even more encouraging is that EQ skills overlap, creating a "spillover" effect: Teaching one skill improves other EQ skills. Social-emotional learning (or social-emotional education) involves using procedures and methods to promote EQ. Within two years after publication of Goleman's book, more than 700 school districts implemented social emotional learning (SEL) programs designed to teach students social-emotional skills (Ratnesar, 1997). SEL programs focus on emotional awareness, social skills, and interpersonal problem solving (Cohen, 2001). In the sections that follow, we discuss ways in which teachers can foster social-emotional learning in their classrooms. Emotional Awareness The ability to perceive and understand emotions develops with age. Children as young as three can identify sadness, happiness, and fear using nonverbal cues such as facial expression, gestures, and voice tone (Nabuzoka & Smith, 1995). At this age they begin to understand causes of feelings. However, children who are at risk for school failure may only acquire these skills through direct instruction (Gumpel & Wilson, 1996; Most & Greenbank, 2000). In addition, many children (and some adults) may require help in understanding subtle shifts in emotion represented by family groupings as identified by Bodine and Crawford (1999): Anger: Fury, outrage, resentment, wrath, exasperation, indignation, vexation, acrimony, animosity, annoyance, irritability, hostility Sadness: Grief, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom, melancholy, self-pity, loneliness, dejection, despair (p. …

Learner-Centered Conditions That Ensure Students' Success in Learning

Abstract: Ensuring students' success in learning has long been the goal of teachers, but over the years it has become even more critical. In 1892, the National Education Association (N.E.A.) created its Committee of Ten and charged it with the responsibility of determining exactly what should be taught in high school. In 1918, another N.E.A. committee created the Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education that later evolved to become the main goals of both secondary and elementary schools. In the 1950s, educators like Max Rafferty and non-educators like U.S. Navy Admiral Hyman Rickover urged the American public to reexamine its schools. In 1972, another N.E.A. committee reviewed the Seven Cardinal Principles and determined that they were still valid and applicable for schools. So, up to this point, educators had been thinking seriously about what should be taught in schools to ensure that students become well educated (Henson, 2001). Then, in 1983, members of the United States Department of Education's National Commission on Excellence wrote a report they entitled "A Nation a Risk." This report was highly critical of teachers and schools, using a lot of inflammatory language and exaggerations. However, the writers did achieve their goal of rekindling America's interest and concern for ensuring that students succeed academically. Around 1983, many top educators like John I. Goodlad, author of A Place Called School, Ernest Boyer, who wrote High School, and Mortimer Adler, who presented The Paideia Proposal, produced numerous books and theories about what teachers should do to ensure student success. Since the 1980s, hundreds of articles, reports, and books have been published that address the subject. In recent years, politicians have gotten involved, and, in 1994, President Bill Clinton signed the Goals for 2000: Educate America Act, which presented six national goals for education. As a result of the heightened attention devoted to education, every state in the country has politicians, parents, and teachers who are actively involved in monitoring student success in learning on a yearly basis (Henson, 2001). This heightened attention has motivated educators to study factors that can impact favorably on students' learning. Some of the factors that have been well researched in recent years include classroom management, student motivation, grouping arrangements, scheduling configurations, teaching techniques, and the use of technology in teaching. Based on the results of extensive studies conducted in recent years, teachers have begun to realize that, to be successful, they will have to pay close attention to creating learner-centered conditions in their classrooms. This motivated the American Psychological Association, in 1993, (APA Task Force) to create and publish Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: Guidelines for School Redesign and Reform. The fourteen learner-centered psychological principles are arranged into four categories: (1) cognitive and metacognitive factors; (2) motivational and affective factors; (3) developmental and social factors; and (4) individual differences factors. To ensure students' success, educators are employing as many of the learner-centered principles as possible. This article describes twelve practical conditions that emanate from the learner-centered principles and discusses how teachers should create and maintain the conditions in their classrooms to ensure their students' success in learning (APA Task Force, 1993). Condition No. 1: Classrooms must be learner-centered, not content-centered. Teachers must be sensitive to the fact that their teaching should not focus simply on the number of skills they teach and the chapters in the textbook they cover. Nor, should their teaching entail inundating students with tons of facts, which they are expected to reproduce on examinations. Instead of focusing on content initially, teachers should first consider learner-related factors, e. …

Locus of Control and At-Risk Youth: A Comparison of Regular Education High School Students and Students in Alternative Schools

Abstract: There are many indicators that America's youth continues to struggle with school failure and problem behavior. Some indications of these problems include: (a) one out of four students drop out of high school (these percentages raise to 50% in poor, urban high schools), (b) 3 million students and teachers are crime victims each month, and (c) violence-related deaths in youth have risen six percent from 1993 to 1998 (Gregg, 1999; McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 1998). Adolescents make these ineffective and self-damaging choices in an attempt to fulfill a basic need such as freedom or belonging (Glasser, 1986). When students believe it is their choices that determine outcomes more than chance or external elements they will be more likely to make effective decisions. Various intervention programs are in place in our schools, but to adequately address these issues it is important to understand what personality constructs contribute to adolescent school failure and problem behavior. Locus of Control is a possible factor in determining reasoning for problem behavior. Locus of Control is defined as the tendency of people to ascribe achievements and failures to either internal factors, they are in control, (effort, ability, motivation), or external factors, they are being controlled, (chance, luck, others' actions) (Rotter, 1966). The purpose of this study is to gain insight on how adolescents who exhibit chronic behavior problems perceive their control over their environment. This will be achieved by comparing levels of locus of control between students who have been removed from regular classrooms because of problem behaviors with students in regular classrooms. Method Participants Participants were 234 students, 7th graders through 12th graders, enrolled at public high schools in Kentucky. Participants self-reported ethnicity as follows: 54 African-Americans (23.1%); 2 Asian-Americans (.9%); 159 Caucasians (67.9%); 2 Hispanic-Americans (.9%); 4 Native-Americans (1.7%); 5 rated as Other (2.1%); and 8 did not identify ethnicity (3.4%). A total of 125 participants were male (53.4%) and 105 were female (44.9%) while 1.7% did not identify gender. Students in regular public schools accounted for 66.7% of the sample and 32.1% were from alternative education settings, 4 participants failed to identify their setting. Students are placed into alternative schools for chronic behavior and attendance problems. Instruments The Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children and Adolescents was used for this study. This scale is a 40-item scale that measures the degree to which people believe that reinforcement is a result of their own actions or a result of fate or chance. Participants report a "yes" or "no" to each item, with each response in the external direction receiving a point. Scores can range from 0 (internal locus of control) to 40 (external locus of control) (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973). Test-retest reliability was reported with a six-week interval at .75 for a group of 12- to 15-year-old children (n=54). Also, a test-retest reliability of .71, was found with a group of 10th graders. A Spearman-Brown split-half reliability of .74 was found for grades nine through eleven (Nowicki & Duke, 1983; Robinson & Shaver, 1973). Validity has been reported through correlating the scale with other scales that measure locus of control, such as the Bialer-Cromwell Scale (MacDonald, 1973). Results have suggested that the scale has fair concurrent validity with other locus of control measures and the relationships between locus of control and other constructs are in the expected directions. Procedure Three high school teachers in different schools assisted in data collection. A total of 5 schools were used for data collection. Each teacher contacted the schools' chief administrator to obtain permission to conduct the study in the schools. …

Promoting Cross-Cultural Competence in Preservice Teachers through Second Language Use

Abstract: Prospective teachers enter their teacher education programs with many years of personal experiences in the schools, along with strongly held beliefs about teaching. The experiences and beliefs of preservice teachers interact with the curriculum of teacher education in preparation for future teaching. Among the important curricular issues in teacher education is the increasingly diverse student population. Future teachers will be faced with greater diversity in their classrooms, schools, and communities as a result of over five hundred distinct ethnic groups in the United States. One large school district in Texas identified more than sixty languages spoken in the homes of its students (Ligons, Rosado & Houston, 1998). In 1996, the state of California classified 1.3 million of its students as English learners. As a result, California has mandated more thorough preparation of its future teachers to meet the needs of this diverse student population through its Crosscultural, Language and Academic Development (CLAD) and Bilingual Crosscultural, Language, and Academic Development (BCLAD) credentialing requirements (Guillame, Zuniga, & Yee, 1998). Despite the increasingly diverse student population of our nation, the teaching force continues to be predominantly European-American, middle class, and female. Approximately 10 percent of the teaching force is comprised of ethnic minorities. A related concern is the lack of interest among preservice teachers in teaching in our country's urban areas, where a greater diversity of ethnicities, cultures, and languages exists (Taylor & Sobel, 2001). Teachers' responses to diversity among their students affect the performance of their students. Their expectations are influenced by students' ethnicities, cultures, languages and socio-economic situations (Ligons, Rosado & Houston, 1998). Will the expectations of teachers teaching students who are culturally different from themselves be strongly oriented toward high performance? How might teacher education programs positively influence the expectations of teachers in ways that will enhance the achievement of our nation's diverse student population? Today's teacher education programs must prepare preservice teachers for working with culturally and linguistically diverse students. Identification and periodic revision by preservice teachers of their beliefs about teaching has emerged as an important curricular foundation in teacher education (Calderhead & Robson, 1991; Dunkin, Precians, & Nettle, 1994; Hollingsworth, 1989; Holt-Reynolds, 1992; Hutchinson & Johnson, 1994; Pajares 1992, 1993). Dewey (1933) described beliefs as covering, "All the matters of which we have no sure knowledge and yet which we are sufficiently confident to act upon and also the matters that we now accept as certainly true, as knowledge, but which nevertheless may be questioned in the future." One's beliefs tend to have a stronger hold than does knowledge. Beliefs are able to operate independently of knowledge. Nespor (1987) likened this relationship to that of feelings about oneself in comparison to knowing about oneself. She maintained that beliefs develop from previous personal experiences and have great power to influence subsequent events. "A well-informed belief system is the most credible basis for rational teacher decisions" (Wilen, et al., 2000). The teacher's ability as an instructional leader and classroom manager will be greatly influenced by his or her deep-rooted belief system. Research studies have shown that the beliefs about teaching with which preservice teachers enter their teacher education programs are highly resistant to change. The more central one's belief is, however, the more resistant to change it will be. Change that occurs in one's central, deep-rooted beliefs has greater potential for more widespread impact on the rest of the belief system (Rokeach, 1968). …

Preparing Preservice Teachers for Inclusion in Secondary Classrooms

Abstract: In 1975, PL 94-142, The Education for all Handicapped Children Act paved the way for students with disabilities between the ages of 5 and 21 to be educated whenever possible with students without disabilities. The subsequent amendments to this law, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 and then of 1997, continued this mandate while making refinements in areas such as due process, categories served, and discipline. These pieces of legislation, together with the Regular Education Initiative (REI) movement of the 1980s, have resulted in the current programming model in many areas of the country--full inclusion of students with disabilities. In 1997, the U.S. Department of Education indicated that 95% of students with disabilities are educated in regular schools (cited in Lewis & Doorlag, 1999). The implications for practicing teachers have been vast. The role of special educators has changed dramatically, with a shift from direct provider of instruction to facilitator and consultant. This change has resulted in increasing concern among teachers in this group. A study by Schroth (1997) found high levels of concern among special educators in two districts moving toward inclusion regarding information issues, personal demands of inclusion, and also how inclusion would be managed. One district implemented a plan for training teachers, providing opportunities for visitations of inclusive schools, and sharing information; a post survey indicated that the levels of concern in this group had decreased while those of the control group remained the same. Similarly, the new, more direct role of the general education teacher has demanded an increased understanding of various types of disabilities, types of appropriate curricular and instructional modifications, and interactions with the students with disabilities in the classroom (Sabornie & deBettencourt, 1997). Collegial coaching and staff development programs in these areas are vital and must be implemented as secondary schools move to an inclusive model (Ruder, 2000). Teachers have a fight and a responsibility to be prepared for the task at hand. Teacher education programs are in a position to ensure that preservice teachers acquire the knowledge, dispositions, and performances required to succeed in educating students with disabilities before they get to the classroom. Moreover, special education standards of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) state that "professional education programs should prepare all school personnel to contribute to the education of exceptional learners" (cited in Connard, 1984, p. 1). This, together with the Regular Education Initiative, has resulted in "many states requiring introductory level special education coursework for all preservice teachers and inservice teacher recertification" (Powers, 1992, p. 1). However, requirements for coursework in special education for those planning to teach in general education varies by state, and sometimes within states for elementary vs. secondary programs. The good news is that even one required course appears to yield significant differences in attitudes and instructional competencies among preservice teachers (Powers, 1992). It cannot be concluded however, that these changes necessarily manifest in satisfactory instruction once the teacher is practicing. Hopefully, this caution can be avoided with a variety of teacher preparation models that are becoming more and more common. What are some of these models? In addition to enriched models alluded to above, where students take perhaps one course which introduces them to special education issues, there are several others. One option which has been developed in several areas of the country involves merging regular and special education into a unified program of study, such that issues discussed in courses focus on all children, including those with disabilities (Kemple, Hartle, Correa, & Fox, 1994). …

Teachers' Attitudes towards Abstinence-Only Sex Education Curricula

Abstract: Introduction While debate may continue as to what is the most appropriate form of human sexuality education in America, few debate its importance. Many components comprise a sexuality curriculum and are vigorously debated [1]. Yet, the most important component for a successful human sexuality program may not be the material, but the classroom teacher. Evidence exists that teachers' attitudes are strongly influential in the success of any curricula they present [2], and given the importance of human sexuality education today, an important focus of research should be the classroom teacher. In order to evaluate the successfulness of specific curricula, most researchers concentrate on the program components, reliability, validity and outcomes. Yet, an equally important component and contributor to a successful curriculum is the teachers' attitude [3]. Teacher characteristics, attitudes, conceptions of self, and intellectual and interpersonal dispositions can influence both the explicit and the hidden curriculum in the classroom [4]. Earlier research examining writing instruction seems to suggest the personal attitudes of a writing instructor are often much more important than the pedagogical orientation, and teacher attitudes seem to affect student performance, attitude and success [5]. Recent studies [4,6] suggest teachers' attitudes play a critical role in the effectiveness of their teaching with characteristics of effective teaching evolving from their dispositions. Wenzlaff (1998) further indicates that teachers' attitudes are the impetus for successful teaching and learning. The influence of teachers' attitudes on curricula has also been investigated using controversial curricula such as sexuality education. Several researchers found that teachers' attitudes about the sexuality education curricula affected the integrity of the program implementation [7,8,9,10]. Many authorities have long agreed that the most important factor in successful sexuality education program implementation is a well-qualified and willing classroom teacher [10]. Factors that contribute to the willingness of a teacher to implement the curriculum include the teacher's knowledge level of the subject, perception about the importance of teaching the curriculum, intent to teach the curriculum, and level of comfort with the curriculum's subject [7,9,10]. The endorsement of sexuality education programs by the community, schools, and parents is negated if a teacher is not prepared or willing to carry out the program in the classroom [10,11]. Thus, teachers' attitudes and abilities to implement controversial and innovative curricula, such as sexuality education, are essential ingredients in program success. These ingredients have now become an important area of research. Because of the dichotomy of attitudes concerning the content of effective sexuality education programs (comprehensive or abstinence-only) [12,13] investigating the teachers' role in program success becomes even more important. As researchers continue to debate which type of program results in the greatest decrease of teen sexual activity, more teachers are being asked to teach abstinence-only programs. A recent study by Darroch, Landry, and Singh (2000) revealed that sexuality education in U.S. secondary public schools is increasingly focusing on abstinence-only information, excluding a comprehensive approach that includes contraceptive information [14]. This abstinence-only trend is supported, in part, by a new federal welfare law which went into effect in 1998 providing $50 million a year in new funding for state abstinence education activities [15]. In light of the existing political and educational controversy concerning sexuality education, it is important to investigate teachers' attitudes about teaching abstinence-only curricula. This pilot project as part of a longitudinal study, examined the teachers' roles and attitudes related to the implementation of an abstinence-only curriculum. …

Determining the Influences of Traditional Texas Teachers vs. Teachers in the Emergency Teaching Certification Program

Abstract: Introduction By 2006 America will educate almost three million more children than in 2000-2001, more than 54 million K-12 students throughout the U. S. (U. S. Department of Education, 1998). The elementary school-aged population is expected to grow 12% between 1990 and 2005, while the high school-aged population is projected to grow by 28%. Growth in the south and west regions of the U.S. is particularly acute due to increased births and migration. This anticipated surge in K-12 student enrollment will create a greater demand for qualified teachers. Research by Gawron, Harris, Kettler, & Wale (1998) indicates that by 2007 student enrollment will reach an all time high. Furthermore, their research provides evidence that the teaching profession loses more than 30% of first year teachers within their first two years of teaching, thereby increasing state-supported costs of recruitment and teacher preparation. According to the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2000), academic achievement is negatively impacted when students do not receive the benefits of teacher experience. A study by Steffy, Wolfe, Pasch, and Enz (2000) provides evidence that there are serious academic consequences of not providing novice teachers with the support needed to help them become experienced teachers. If we are serious about student achievement we must also be serious about developing a tangible networking system that encourages the retention of our teachers. Research by Fuller (2002) indicates that the total demand for Texas teachers has increased each year from 1996 to 2002. On average, the total demand for teachers has been nearly 32,000 per year, but was almost 38,000 in 2002. Teacher attrition is the single largest factor contributing to the demand for new teachers each year. Indeed, approximately 75 percent of the demand for new teachers is caused by teacher attrition. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is a significant difference in the attrition rate of students who went through the traditional teacher education program at Texas A & M University--Commerce vs. those who went through the Emergency Certification Program, starting in 1995. Specifically, the study attempted to determine: 1. Factors that attribute to the successful teacher's career 2. How well the teacher was prepared for the first year of teaching 3. The significant circumstances that caused the individual to terminate his/her teaching career 4. Preparation and support systems influencing teachers to stay Previous Research In a study initiated by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company and conducted by Louis Harris & Associates, Inc. (1995), it was determined that new teachers who began teaching in the fall of 1990 were considerably less optimistic about their career in teaching. Almost one-fifth of new teachers completing their second year of teaching say it is "very" (6%) or "fairly" (13%) likely that they will leave the teaching profession and go into some different occupation within the next five years. This sign of extreme discouragement with the teaching profession is particularly common among new teachers teaching high school (27%) in inner city or urban settings (24%), and in schools having large numbers of minority (23%) and lower income students (21%). The reason most often cited as a major factor for leaving teaching is lack of support or help for students from the parents. Fully 40% of teachers who intend to leave the profession name this reason as a major factor in their decision. Almost three in ten teachers cite financial reasons--needing or wanting to earn more money (29%)--and lack of support from school administration (29%) as major factors in their thinking about giving up teaching. Nearly as many say a major factor in their plans is that all the social problems faced by students make teaching too difficult (25%). …

Statistics Anxiety: The Nontraditional Student

Abstract: Background In 1991 over 38% of all college students were 25 years of age or older. In 1998 that number had increased to nearly 46% (Howard & Henney, 1998). Another study found that nontraditional students make up approximately one-half of the undergraduates (Kinsella,1998). Clearly, the average age of college students has been increasing. Even in foreign countries similar trends are being noticed. "Mature" students or "mature-age" students are the English and Australian equivalents of our nontraditional students (Richardson & King, 1998). Studies have shown that nontraditional students face different hurdles in the classroom today. Unrealistic goals, social-familial problems, poor self-image and a sometimes excessively practical orientation are among the nontraditional students' problems. These along with poor time management, weaker academic preparation and a need for remediation further distance the nontraditional student from the traditional student (Senter & Senter, Jr., 1998). The influx of nontraditional students has been attributed to government needs, educational needs, women in the workplace, and higher professional standards (Rollins & Seibert, 2002). Nontraditional students have tensions not only in the classroom but outside the classroom as well. A survey of 301 nontraditional students at Texas AM worth of statistics, interpretation anxiety, test and class anxiety, computation anxiety, fear of asking questions, and fear of the statistics teacher. The two groups were compared on their final course grades as well as the correlation coefficients between the various factors and final grades. INSTRUMENT STARS consists of two parts. The first part presents twenty-three situations often associated with statistics anxiety. These items are scored on a Likert-type scale from one to five, with a "one" indicating no anxiety while a "five" indicates considerable anxiety. The second part consists of twenty-eight statements dealing with or related to statistics. The responses are also recorded in a Likert-type scale from one to five, with a "one" indicating strong disagreement with the statement and a "five" indicating strong agreement. Hence, in either instance, a "one" means no anxiety while a "five" indicates considerable anxiety. Percentile rank norms are available for undergraduate students. Six areas that are revealed by STARS include: Worth of Statistics, Interpretation Anxiety, Test and Class Anxiety, Computational Anxiety, Fear of Asking for Help, and Fear of the Statistics Teacher. A brief explanation of each factor follows: Factor 1--Worth of Statistics--This factor deals with a student's perception of the value of a statistics course. A person scoring high on this factor sees little or no value in a statistics course. A student scoring high on this factor also feels that statistics does not "fit" his/her personality, thus indicating a negative attitude toward statistics (Cruise, 1985). Factor 2--Interpretation Anxiety--This factor is concerned with anxiety arising from interpreting statistical data. This could arise from deciding which statistical test to use or what to do with the null hypothesis (Cruise, 1985). …

The Effect of Attendance on Undergraduate Methods Course Grades

Abstract: A college degree is a prized commodity earned by years of hard work and perseverance. It can make the difference in obtaining good jobs, promotions in current positions, future advancements and salary increases. Those without a college degree can be doomed to years of earning only minimum wages. In a report by former Labor Secretary Robert Reich (Reich, 1995) it appears that the gap between the wages of college graduates and those less educated is widening. The report states that a white male college graduate earned 49% more than those who only finished high school in 1980. By 1995 the figure almost doubled to 82%. How can students improve their chances of earning a college degree and earn higher wages? Admission to college is dependent on several factors including high school grades. In a six-year study Blanchard and associates (1990) found a strong relationship between high school grade point average (GPA) and college degree completion. Of the 400 subjects, none with a high school GPA below 2.0 completed a degree. In the 2.0-2.49 range there were 2.4% completers, and 8.3% graduated in the 2.5-2.99 range. Those with high school GPA's above 3.0 fared much better. Those with GPA's of 3.0-3.49 had a 29.9% college degree completion rate, and in the 3.5-4.0 range 42.9% earned college degrees. This study clearly supports the importance of high school grades in predicting college degree completion. A study (Van-Blerkom, 1996) concerning the academic perseverance of 140 undergraduate students found a significant correlation between class attendance and the final grade in a course. A study by the same investigator (Van-Blerkom, 1992) revealed better attendance early in the semester and a greater number of missed classes later in the semester. This study also found moderate correlations between attendance and course grades. There are ways to improve attendance. Baum and Youngblood (1975) examined attendance in a multiple section undergraduate course. When attendance was mandatory, the average attendance was 82%. However, the average daily attendance fell to 76% when attendance was not required. Howell, Williams and Semb (1979) analyzed attendance in several sections of a psychology class. In a section where weekly quizzes were given daily attendance averages reached a high of 81%. In a section where quizzes were not used the attendance dropped to a low of 59%. Therefore, attendance appears to improve when required for the course and when incentives are given for regular attendance. Wilder (1993) compared college students (n= 196) termed decliners, those whose grades declined 20% during the sophomore year from the first year GPA, and maintainers, those who maintained or improved their first year GPA. During the sophomore year the decliners differed from the maintainers in several factors including attendance and degree of commitment to school. Attendance in class is related to commitment to school. Selected classes require high attendance, especially those in a student's major. Pre-service teachers' attendance in methods classes is very important. It is in these classes that lesson planning, reflecting, instructional strategies and national standards are taught. Students are able to understand instructional strategies by observing the teacher's model. Attendance in these classes would especially be beneficial in acquiring teaching strategies. The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a correlation between attendance in methods classes and the grade that the pre-service teachers earned in the classes. Subjects were 277 pre-service teachers enrolled in education methods classes over a three-semester period. Number of absences and final grades were recorded for each semester. For analysis purposes data was divided into two groups, subjects with three or fewer absenses (N=199), and subjects with four or more absenses per semester (N=86). …

Engaging Highly Transient Students

Abstract: Standing behind the tall office counter I could see them. Almost everyday, one or two, but usually more, families lined up to register their children in our school. In this section of the township it really doesn't matter what your ethnicity, color, or race is; everyone blends into the student body, which is rich with diversity and culture. But on this particular day, Main Street Elementary School *, just outside of Philadelphia, was brimming with action. On The Move What made that particular day so special was that this is when I became cognizant of the impact a transient population can have on a student body. Throughout the weeks leading up to that day the topic of mobility had crept into multiple conversations I had had with many different Main Street employees including the principal, instructional support team members, individual classroom teachers, and members of the office staff. But, what makes Main Street different from any other public school in an "inner suburban ring" (Hodgkinson, 2000/2001, pg. 8) or urban area? The answer is simply: nothing. There is a popular belief that urban schools are subject to more highly mobile student populations (Brent & DiObilda, 1993; Research for Better Schools, 1987; and Paredes, 1993), yet, this phenomenon is not exclusively urban. Suburban districts on the fringe of major metropolitan areas are also feeling the sting of student mobility. In large cities across the country schools struggle with student mobility rates of seventy, eighty, and ninety percent (Kebrow, 1996). It is not unheard of for a child to change schools six or seven times in a single year (Stover, 2000). Suburban schools near these urban centers have mobility rates that climb up to forty or fifty percent, which is still substantial. Every day, hundreds of students leave their schools and are re-enrolled in new schools for various reasons. This constant turnover can disrupt the school environment, the teacher's lessons, overall classroom learning, and the mobile students' levels of engagement (Hodgkinson, 2000/2001). Yet, this is the trend in our highly transient western society. Overall, mobility is woven into the fabric of American life. A 1994 General Accounting Office report on elementary school children indicates that approximately seventeen percent of the nation's third-graders (more than 500,000 children) have attended at least three different schools since starting first grade (Kebrow, 1996). The question that arises is "how are schools getting students to engage in their learning through all of the movement?" Transiency Impacts the School Office Main Street's office is a lively and loud place. With a first through fifth grade population that reaches far above eight hundred students hailing from over forty-two nations, it is easy to see why the office is always bustling with an enthusiastic hum. It's run by two efficient secretaries who are constantly meeting with parents to enroll or disenroll students on any day of the week during any given month. Forced to commit large blocks of time to creating newcomers' files or pulling students' cumulative folders to be forwarded to a new school, the "paperwork battle" is never ending. Typed class lists are incredibly difficult to read since a large number of students enroll after the lists are already generated. Due to necessity, many handwritten names have been added and many student names have been crossed off. Compounding the problem of transiency is the fact that on many occasions, students' records from previously attended schools never materialize, so invaluable information that assists with issues of placement is lost. The school is then pushed to screen and assess new students without the added knowledge of knowing the students' educational history. It is a challenge for the principal and the instructional support team to place a new student without knowing his/her reading and math levels. …

Academic Dishonesty: A Plague on Our Profession

Abstract: We live in a time when corporate misdeeds are being exposed at alarming rates; when accounting and auditing schemes are coming to light with frightening frequency, (1) and when political claims, promises, and assurances are subject to ridicule and doubt. (2) These lapses in ethics and honesty have not suddenly sprung upon us; they developed over time. Some of the origins of such cultural decay begin in the schools where plagiarism is sadly common and where such dishonesty seems not to be rooted out emphatically and methodically. Plagiarism is intellectual theft, no less a moral offense than would the theft of a car, money, or jewels would be. While intellectual theft is less tangible than other theft forms and other species of academic dishonesty, it is nonetheless very real. Many plagiarizers claim, when caught, that "everyone is doing it," "it's not a big deal," or "I didn't mean to cheat." (3) Such statements suggest that too few people know exactly what plagiarism is; they are unaware of rules against plagiarism; and/or they have learned through benign neglect from teachers, school administrators, school boards, and parents that plagiarism is not a big deal. Plagiarism and other academic dishonesty take many forms, some familiar to all; others less common. (4) Some of the more familiar such behaviors include: copying test responses from a classmate; taking exams for others; doing another's assignments; not citing others' work included in course papers, take home exams, or other assignments; and purchasing research papers from companies too willing to sell these to unscrupulous students. Some other less familiar dishonesty methods include: fabrication of quotes and other spoken or written materials with made up sources; and getting exam copies in advance from accomplice sources. Other academic misconduct sometimes accompanies plagiaristic practices which border on or equate with criminal activity such as: breaking into teacher offices/files to gain surreptitious access to tests or answer keys; sabotaging peers' ongoing work or experiments; and gaining illegal access to school computer data bases in order to alter official grade records. The author has taken active interest in plagiarism over the years, serving on students conduct code committees over the past twenty years and raising the issue in ethics, persuasion, and interpersonal communication classes as a vehicle of instruction in these courses. Academic dishonesty is familiar to students as validated each year by an almost universal show of hands when students are asked if they personally know others who cheat and/or if they have personally witnessed cheating. When the topic of cheating is raised in class, few students express heightened interest; many students claim not to have been confronted with the issue by parents or previous teachers except when personally caught plagiarizing. When students have been asked to respond to whether or not they would expose students they knew were cheating, most report they would emphatically not report such behavior. Their typical rationales for refusing to report cheating are: "it's not my job; that's the teacher's job;" "they are not hurting me; only they are potentially hurt by cheating;" "I cannot prove they were cheating, so I'll stay silent;" or "if they need to cheat to pass, who am I to cause them to fail?" (5) This benign neglect of cheating has remained consistent in the author's classes and in individual conversations with students over the past fifteen years. In many conversations with middle and high school teachers and students, similar responses are given. Teachers at all levels seem to take one of the following stances when probed about their views on plagiarism: (1) it's too dangerous legally to charge students with cheating;" "It's too much work taking me away from my regular work to bother with investigating, reporting, and defending my accusations;" "Students will just cheat another way if punished and/or I'll just have them repeat my class next year if I discover and report such behavior; "or "I fear I will not be backed up by administrators, peers, or parents if I do actively act on cheating in my classroom. …

Cardinal Shifts in School Management in South Africa

Abstract: Introduction Reform initiatives in education in South Africa follow similar trends to the rest of the world. These reform initiatives rest on the assumption that participation of educators, learners and parents can enhance the achievement of the desired transformation in education (Mosoge & Van der Westhuizen, 1998). They include the devolution of authority and responsibility from the central office to the school, the so-called school-based management of schools (Department of Education, 1996; Mosoge & Van der Westhuizen, 1998). Although the vision for a transformed education system in South Africa has been set out in policy frameworks and new legislation, the system is still influenced by the ethos, systems and procedures inherited from the apartheid past. The Report of the National Task Team on Education Management Development in South Africa identifies the following four apartheid legacies in education (Department of Education, 1996): * The education legacy: The complete fragmentation of the education system created by the apartheid era is one of the most visible legacies. During apartheid 19 education departments catered for the different ethnic and racial groups (Harber, 2000). Schools were thus structured in a racial hierarchy. White schools were the key beneficiaries and black schools, the most disadvantaged. * The education management legacy: The lack of legitimacy of the education system led to a crisis in schools. In the majority of schools this was accompanied by poor management and a collapse of teaching and learning. * The public administration legacy: Public administration was characterised by a hierarchical structure infused with authoritarian management styles. The new departments of educations inherited these structures and management styles. * The gender legacy: The broader discriminatory tendencies in society as a whole influenced past practices. Women in general were under represented in senior management positions due to the perception that women were not fit to hold top positions. The restoration of the culture of teaching and learning after the breakdown during the apartheid era, is currently one of the most important endeavours aimed at improving the quality of education in South African schools (Garson, 2000). This article focusses on certain leadership and management initiatives to address the poor quality of education in the majority of South African schools. Restoring a culture of teaching and learning The concept "culture of learning and teaching" is widely used in the education context of South Africa. It refers to the attitude of educators and learners towards learning and teaching as well as their spirit of dedication and commitment to the schools (Lethoko, 1999) Certain factors have contributed to the lack of a culture of learning and teaching in schools. The most important factors and the strategies for interventions are the following: * Poor physical conditions and large shortcomings in the provision of resources, facilities and equipment in schools. Enormous disparities existed during apartheid and still exist among schools in terms of school buildings and resource provision. These include electricity, water, decent ablution blocks, telephones, security fences, photocopiers, text books, well-stocked libraries, furniture and classroom space (Harber, 2000; Chisholm & Vally, 1996). According to Chisholm and Vally (1996) the Department of Education has the obligation to provide the necessary infrastructure and resources required in schools. Initiatives such as Tirisano have been implemented to provide resources and facilities. In addition, the funding model contained the South African Schools Act requires school communities to contribute to school resources. * Poor management and administration skills. The breakdown of management and leadership within schools is an important part of their dysfunction (Christie, 1998). …

Progress in the middle years of schooling: Continuities and discontinuities at transfer

Abstract: Recent reviews of transfer have emphasised a need for schools to give greater emphasis to curriculum and pedagogic continuity. Evidence presented in this article suggests that schools have attempted to respond by shifting the focus of current activity in the desired direction. However, the attitudes of pupils have not improved as a result. It is suggested that these attitude dips can be accounted for in part by too rigid application of the Key Stage 2 and 3 teaching strategies and by the pressures of testing and inspection on the curriculum. As a result, classroom practice in Y6 is almost identical to that experienced by pupils in secondary school. We are producing a generation of students who do well academically but are being turned off learning.

Great Expectations for Student Teachers: Explicit and Implied

Abstract: In preservice teacher education universities strive to devote a considerable portion of the curricula to clinical experiences in K-12 schools From the beginning of coursework in education are interwoven classroom experiences intended to expose potential teachers to what lies in store However, the culminating student teaching experience plays a primary role in shaping preservice teachers' values, beliefs, and teaching skills (Darden, Scott, Darden, & Westfall, 2001; Koskela & Ganser, 1998) Student teaching has been the capstone of teacher preparation for nearly a century (Ganser, 1996) All fifty states require a student teaching practicum, testifying to the significance of the experience Henry (1989) attributes this to the novice teachers' need for (1) experience in an actual teaching setting, (2) emotional involvement, (3) personal and professional growth, and (4) one-on-one teaching encounters (pp 74-75) Therefore, maximizing the degree of guided immersion in the field is reported to be predominant in the quest toward becoming an educator Student teachers spend far more time with their cooperating teachers than with university supervisors Therefore, the mentor teacher has much greater influence on the outcome of the mentorship Student teachers verify that the influence of their host teachers was paramount (Borko & Mayfield, 1995), and veteran teachers also testify to the impact of their own cooperating teachers during their preservice experience (McIntyre, Byrd, & Foxx, 1996) Clearly the exchange between mentor and mentee has the potential to provide a rich opportunity for guided growth However, the influence of a cooperating teacher extends beyond classroom instruction (Pellet, Straye, and Pellet, 1999) The host teacher models professional behavior in his or her interactions with parents, administrators, other faculty, and support staff Clothing selection, grooming, conduct, language, and reliability also demonstrate expectations for the student teacher Thus, it is the responsibility of the host teacher to ensure that the student teacher be acculturated into the field, learning not only formal classroom techniques, but also the myriad of other more subtle awarenesses reflective of a professional In our study of the expectations for the student teacher in the practicum experience cooperating teachers identified a multitude of expectations of student teachers beyond simple classroom practices Participants for this study were 28 (5 male and 23 female) public school teachers, who had served the previous semester as cooperating teachers for two Midwestern regional universities Represented were 10 elementary, 7 middle school, and 11 high school teachers from a range of disciplines, including speech, physical education, English, science, music, special education, math, high school business, family and consumer science, and elementary education Two primary sources provided data for this study A demographic survey was completed, followed by interviews with each of the cooperating teachers at the completion of the student teaching experience The interviews were conducted using an interview guide for consistency The 20-30 minute interviews were tape recorded and later transcribed for analysis Teacher education programs from the two sponsoring Midwestern regional universities reflected in this study both provide cooperating teachers with packets of information outlining their expectations for the student teaching experience Twenty-two of the 28 cooperating teachers attested that the university's expectations were clearly outlined A high school English teacher suggested that if there is any confusion, the fault does not rest with the university She said, "Many times it's our fault because we don't contact the university and find out more about their student or what they want us to do" Communication between the host teacher and the university supervisor is integral to providing a quality experience …

Television Viewing and Academic Achievement Revisited

Abstract: Introduction: Given the central role popular media plays in the lives of our children, it is important to have an understanding of the impact television viewing has on academic achievement and school performance. Parents and teachers alike ask the question of how much television viewing is too much. Few people would argue that an investigation of children's TV viewing habits could help parents better understand how youth occupy their free time. In addition, there has been growing concern over the relationship between the media and rising violence and other antisocial behaviors among youth. The relationships between TV viewing and academic achievement, age, home environment, and other variables are complex, multidimensional, and inconclusive (Bachen, et al., 1982; Beentjes & Van der Voort, 1988; Broome & Fuller, 1993; Razel, 2001). The purpose of this paper is to provide readers with a summary of the literature from the last 25 years regarding the impact of television viewing on student achievement and necessary behaviors for school success. Although the general picture from research is somewhat muddled, an initial understanding of the question can be achieved, nonetheless. It is hoped that this review of literature will provide a basis to implement sound educational policy and family practice. A Summary of Television Effects Research: More than half of U.S. students watch more than three hours of television per day on weekdays, and 60% of parents rarely or never limit their child's television viewing habits (Levine & Levine, 1996). The average television weekly viewing time is approximately 27 hours per week, while the average reading time is 8.1; a 3 to 1 ratio (Angle, 1981). Studies (Levine & Levine, 1996; Wells & Blendinger, 1997) support the finding that children watch too much TV and read too little. It has been argued that a negative side effect of high levels of viewing might include the promotion of "unintelligent consumerism" and a physically and intellectually passive dependency among our youth (Levine & Levine, 1996). Viewing habits typically increases throughout elementary school years, and decreases during high school years. The years right before and after adolescence are the most opportune times to shape TV viewing habits (Clark, et al., 1978). Individuals in lower income brackets and with lower educational levels watch more television (Housden, 1991; Mediamark Research Inc, 1996). Adolescents who view television during late night hours average more television viewing than do other adolescents (Potter, 1987). African American youth tend to watch more TV than their white counterparts (Caldas & Bankston, 1999). Teens who are in the lowest per week viewing category are more likely to continue their education by enrolling in college (Corporation for Public Broadcast, 1993). Some of the studies reviewed found no significant relationship at all (Gortmaker, Salter, Walker & Dietz, 1990b; Hagborg, 1995; Shastri & Mohite, 1997). A few studies (Felter, 1984; Kohr, 1979) uncovered a large and significant negative relationship, while most others (Angle, 1981; Clark, et al., 1978; Cooper & Valentine, 1999; Dornsbusch, 1986; Gorman & Yu, 1990; Patrick, 1991; Tymms, 1997) found smaller, yet significant negative relationships. Naturally, parents' failure to provide guidelines for television viewing has a lot to do with the attitudes and values of today's children (Clark, et al., 1978; Levine & Levine, 1996; Sharman, 1979). Patrick (1991) discovered that higher school social studies achievement is associated with "limited television viewing". Felter (1984) reported that achievement scores in reading, math, and written expression were "sharply lower" among students who viewed more than six hours of television per day. Researchers (Dornsbusch, 1986; Potter, 1987) have stated that a negative relationship does not begin to manifest itself until a child exceeds a 10 or more hour per week threshold, with the strongest negative relationship observed for 30 or more hours of viewing. …

A High School Drop-Out Prevention Program for the At-Risk Sophomore Students

Abstract: Peter Drucker, father of management (1989), insists that schools need to change and begin to prepare students for the "world of tomorrow." He insists that we are in a social and technological revolution that will drastically changed the meaning of education and the art of teaching. The American economy is rapidly shifting from heavy industry to high technology goods and services, and schools will need to change more than in the last 300 years. Drucker insists that the critical point for change is that "knowledge" is rapidly becoming our true capital base and premier wealth producing resource. In order to prepare for this post-business society in the brave new world, education will be everything. Here the worker will know more about h/her area of expertise than the boss, and, thus, an associate rather than a subordinate. In this new world direction will come from within, not from above, and always through interaction among colleagues at all levels. High School Drop-Out Problem In this "brave new world" Drucker paints, the consequence to society where the high school drop-out rate becomes crucial and important in relation to competitiveness and our economy. One million of the two million prison inmates are high school drop-outs, and for many of them it means manpower never to be regained. First, and most important for all inmates "truth and creditability" of the individual is lost forever, and second because 80 percent of inmates are addicted to alcohol or drugs, and the success rate of addiction rehabilitation is low (around 15% success), much manpower is lost. High School Principals across our nation must take immediate action to prevent such high school drop-outs before there is the contagion of being a prison inmate with lack of trust, and before there is the loss of manpower through addiction. Identifying the At-risk students Today in America one million of the two million prison inmates are high school dropout students, and the primary reason for their dropping out of school is a general lack of personal development. The Personal Development Test (PDT) was administered to 1,005 of such incarcerated Juvenile Delinquents and adult prison inmates (about equally divided). A comparison was made between the scores of that 1,005 inmates and 2,131 typical individuals. Every single PDT score showed a statistically significant lack of personal; development for those inmates. It is clear that an absence of personal development is the basic cause for students who dropout of high school, and the second million of our two million prison inmates are largely college drop-out students who show the same lack of personal development. Third Force Psychology Third Force Psychology is quite new (since the 1960s) in relation to the understanding of human behavior, human development, and learning. It has little or no interest in rats like First Force Psychology, or sick people like Second Force Psychology. The individual is considered to be an intellectual thinking planning person where full responsibility for the action takes place through own personal decision making; as opposed to the "contingency management" action in First Force Psychology, where all thinking and planning was done by others; usually a generation or two older (Cassel,2000a). Typically, the activity begins with a very careful analysis of where he/she presently is in relation to the problem at hand--their own ego-status. This is followed by just as careful an analysis of the full range of alternatives in relation to same problem of where they would like to be or go-their "ego-ideal." It involves a continuous process of personal decision making, and where there is a testing of one alternative after another to formulate an acceptable and functional ego-ideal. When one or more ego-ideals has been established, then the problem becomes one of planning the best way to achieve that ego-ideal, and the building of a bridge from the ego-status to the ego-ideal (Cassel, 1986). …

Creating Knowledge through Management Education: A Case Study of Human Resource Management

Abstract: Introduction In the last two decades a new range of business improvement philosophies has emerged since existing versions of management and management theory were viewed as inadequate in a changing world (McAdam & McCreedy 1999:91; Bryans & Smith 2000:228; Martensson 2000:204). Currently organisations have to deal with an emphasis on knowledge, one of the most hotly debated issues in management literature at present (Roelof 1999-95; McElroy 2000:195). Moreover, the number of knowledge-based and knowledge-enabling organisations that consider intellectual capital as a prime source is increasing (Katz 1998:50; Roelof 1999:94; Hargreaves 1999:124; Smith 2000:236; McElroy 2000:195; Bassi 1997:26; Riley 1998:149). It is believed that staff members own the tools of production through the knowledge they possess (Kinnear & Sutherland 2000:106). The increasing awareness of the value of knowledge embedded in experiences, skills and abilities of people has become an emerging discourse known as knowledge management (Todd 1999:11). Knowledge management is therefore developing as a significant challenge to improve organisations and has become a key concern of many (Katz 1998:50, Roelof 1999:94; Rolf & Ron 1999: 287; De Long & Seeman 2000:33; Martensson 2000:204; McElroy 2000:195; O'Connell 1999:33; Kinnear & Sutherland 2000:106). The success of organisations in the post-industrial world seemingly lies more in its intellectual abilities than in its physical assets (Hargreaves 1999:124; Bassi 1997:25; Riley 1998:154). This requires the transformation of personal knowledge into institutional knowledge that can be widely shared throughout the institution and appropriately applied (Bryans & Smith 2000:229). The acquisition of knowledge and skills can be seen as an investment in future (Robinson & Ellis 1999:27). The relevance of and interest in `knowledge' as a critical component of the intellectual discourse is also evident to the academic community (Shariq 1998: 10; Hargreaves 1999:125; Bassi 1997:25). The purpose of this article is to explore the manifestation of this discourse, knowledge management, in an academic programme. Firstly a literature review explores the key concepts: knowledge creation and knowledge management. This provides a theoretical framework to a qualitative investigation which examines the perceptions of distance learners enrolled for a module in HRM as part of a M Ed in Educational Management. Research question To understand the knowledge and skills created through learning material and the role played by learners in knowledge management, it is crucial to determine the views of learners. The following question provided the organising framework for the study: To what extent does the module HRM as part of the MEd in Educational Management contribute towards knowledge creation in the schools/organisations of the learners? In an attempt to answer this question, the article aims to: * explain the concepts, knowledge creation and knowledge management, which are pertinent to the research question; * provide an overview of the module in HRM * determine learners' perceptions of how the learning material contributed towards knowledge management What is knowledge creation? The question of the nature of knowledge is very challenging (Martensson 2000:208). Furthermore, knowledge is not static and changes continuously (Katz 1998:50; Riley 1998:147). The old knowledge equation was: knowledge is power, so collect it. This has been currently replaced by: knowledge is power, so share it in order for it to multiply (Allee 1997:71). This implies that people and organisations should continuously renew and create more knowledge (Allee 1997-71). The competitive advantage lies in people's skills and knowledge and the organisation's ability to nurture the concept of lifelong learning (Bassi 1997:25; Robinson & Ellis 1999:27; Martensson 2000:208; Hicks 2000:71; Cascio 2001:4). …

Business-Like Accountability in Education: Commentary on Morrill to Baldrige

Abstract: Introduction and Preface to the Malcolm Baldrige Awards This article functions in three separate yet interconnected ways. To begin, the Malcolm Baldrige Awards are defined as an effort towards inculcating "accountability" in education. These awards use industrial successes as benchmarks to incorporate more business-styled efficiency at public and higher education sites. Second, the article traces the history of U.S. public school curricula, with special notations to precursor business interests and governmental interpurposes beginning with the Morrill Acts and leading to the Baldrige Awards. Third, the article suggests how the Baldrige Awards apply the concept of quality to education, utilizes government directives, and then examines the practical and utilitarian applications these awards imply. The Malcolm Baldrige Awards, named after the former Secretary of Commerce and initiated by Congress in 1987, was created to promote quality awareness, recognize quality achievements of U.S. business organizations, and provide vehicles for sharing successful strategies (Acaro, 1995, p. 1). The award criteria have been built upon business values of customer-driven quality, leadership, continuous improvement, employee participation and development, and fast response (www.quality.nist.gov). Historically, these five qualities have roots in and are complementary to Edward Deming's, Total Quality Management system. That economist's World War II, Marshall Plan reconstruction for Japan had fourteen points of interest: 1] Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service; 2] Adopt a new philosophy of productivity; 3] Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality; 4] End the practice of awarding business via price tag; 5] Improve production and service; 6] Begin on-the-job-training; 7] Institute leadership; 8] Drive out fear; 9] Break down barriers between departments; 10] Eliminate zero-defects and more productivity slogans and exhortations; 11] Eliminate quotas and management by objective; 12] Build pride of workmanship for all workers; 13] Begin programs of education and self-improvement; and, 14] Transformation is everyone's job (www.quality.nist.gov). The Baldrige Awards criteria provide a framework for designing, implementing, and assessing seven business-oriented criteria: 1] Customer-driven quality; 2] Leadership; 3] Continuous improvement; 4] Employee participation and development; 5] Fast response; 6] Design quality and prevention; 7] Long-range outlook; 8] Management by fact; 9] Partnership development; and, 10] Corporate responsibility and citizenship (Acaro, 1995, p. 2). Since 1999, however, the Baldrige Awards have been extended to public and private schools, including elementary, secondary, junior colleges and colleges/universities. Applicants must plan and show detailed, recorded improvements in leadership, strategic planning, customer and market focus, information and analysis, human resource focus, process management, and business results. (www.quality.nist.gov). Those results are coterminous to five pillars of "Total Quality Schools" the Baldrige Awards champion: 1] Customer Focus and Satisfaction; 2] Total Involvement and Staff Development; 3] Quality in Operational Results; 4] Problem Prevention and Resolution; and, 5] Continuous Improvement (Arcaro, 1995, p. 94). U.S. Public School History and Governmental Interventions The Malcolm Baldrige Awards are not the first federal interventions U.S. public schools have experienced. Following is a selected, mini-history of U.S. public schools, and it examines their growth through eras exemplified by emphasis on religion, politics, and business/industry. As the public school movement proliferated in the U.S., the federal government has taken more interest and provided more curricular guidelines and programs. Until the 19th century, U.S. public school curricular history focused primarily on the New England region, for the middle colonies utilized parochial schools as their central focus, while the southern colonies concentrated on tutoring and small group instruction for the plantation owners' children (Button and Provenzo, 1989, pp. …

Going the Alternate Route: Perceptions from Non-Credentialed Teachers

Abstract: My experience in my parents' classrooms really prepared me for what a `real' classroom would operate like. Hands-on experience in their rooms was very beneficial for me. Second, my methods courses helped out tremendously (especially the off-campus) course. Thirdly, my experience with Sunday school, teaching on a German exchange program, and coaching high-school track and soccer. (An emergency permit teacher) Since publication of A Nation At Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) first brought teaching and teacher education under public scrutiny, alternate routes to certification have taken up increasing space on the teacher preparation agenda. Publicly funded alternate route programs initiated by state, university and college, and school districts, as well as independent programs such as Teach for America, have sprung up nation wide so that nearly every state has some form of alternative certification (Feistritzer & Chester, 1998). The Department of Education has devoted large portions of the first Title II report on teacher quality to a severe criticism of traditional teacher education and has extolled the virtues of alternate route certification as a means of recruiting highly qualified candidates to teaching and breaking the putative monopoly on teacher preparation held by colleges and universities (U. S. Department of Education, 2002). Alternate routes typically seek to fast-track or circumvent traditional university-based teacher education, even when they are sponsored by or in partnership with universities or colleges. Some see alternate routes as a serious threat to university sponsored professional preparation (Roth, 1986). Some disparage teacher preparation as it currently exists and welcome its overhaul or even removal from the academy (Innerst, 1999; Ballou & Podgursky, 2000; Hess, 2001; U. S. Department of Education, 2002). Still others hold that the issue is not over which agency prepares teachers, but "over the timing and institutional context for teacher preparation, and about the mix of professional knowledge and skills to be acquired" (Stoddart & Floden, 1996, p. 90). Multiple reasons are given for alternate routes (Feistritzer & Chester, 1998): they offer greater access to teaching for non-traditional candidates; they are better at providing teachers to under-served geographical areas; they attract candidates to subject areas of perennial shortage such as science and math; they draw in promising candidates who might otherwise pursue different careers (Darling-Hammond & Cobb, 1996); they permit candidates to bypass needless hurdles put up by traditional teacher education programs (Hess, 2001; U. S. Department of Education; 2002). In California, alternate routes have served to lessen the historical shortage of special education and bilingual teachers (Institute for Education Reform, 1996; McKibben & Schrup, 1995; Gunderson & Karage, 1992). The research on alternative certification is mixed (Ashton, 1996; Darling-Hammond & Cobb, 1996; Dill, 1996; Shen, 1997; Sandlin, Young & Karge, 1998; Stone & Mata, 1998). Darling-Hammond and Cobb (1996, p. 41), in their review of several studies, maintain that "fully prepared and certified teachers are generally more highly rated and more successful with students than teachers without full preparation." Teachers who complete traditional preservice preparation before beginning teaching are superior to alternate route teachers on virtually every dimension of teaching, including classroom management, curriculum development, repertoire of teaching strategies, knowledge of students, awareness of differing learning styles, and ability to assess for evaluative as well as instructional planning purposes. The linking of a theoretical, research-based foundation with practical clinical experiences is central to university-based teacher education and distinguishes it from alternate routes unconnected with the academy (Darling-Hammond and Cobb, 1996). …

Elementary Teachers' Perceptions of "Administrative Support" in Working with Disruptive and Aggressive Students

Abstract: A supportive environment is critical to the work experiences of any organization The presence of organizational support and resources may be much more critical for teachers, considering that they are presented with challenges in dealing with a number of difficult students at a time and are typically isolated from other teachers and other professionals (Maeroff, 1988) Indeed, administrative support in managing students' difficult behaviors has been found to be critical (Graden, Casey, & Bonstrom, 1985; Kruger, Struzziero, Watts, & Vacca, 1995) In particular, teachers' perceptions of support from principals have been found to be an important component of organizational support Chalfant and Van Dusen Psych (1989) found that 91% of the teacher assistance teams reported support from principals as a key determinant for the team's effectiveness Meanwhile, lack of administrative support has consistently been linked to teacher stress and low commitment to the profession of teaching (McManus & Kauffman, 1991) A major premise of the literature is that administrators should be sensitive to the needs of teachers and should be knowledgeable as to how to assist teachers (Singh & Billingsley, 1998) This presents tremendous challenges to the administrators because this requires a more systematic approach in identifying the needs of teachers and delivering the appropriate support within the specific organizational perspective Although this approach may be a challenging task for many administrators, it appears to be an important task worthy of further discussion Empirical evidence suggests that teachers' attitudes and responses to support services do vary For example, Fuchs, Fuchs, and Bahr (1990) found teachers who consulted with guidance counselors about their difficulty in teaching students were less likely to refer them to special education and rated their behavior as less severe, more manageable, and were more tolerable of the students after the consultation In contrast to these findings, others found that teachers are not quite willing to work with paraprofessionals when dealing with students who exhibit behavioral problems and prefer to work on their own (Sevcik & Ysseldyke, 1986) Although teachers generally value administrative support, these inconsistent findings may reflect teachers' different perceptions of administrative support, Furthermore, current literature does not offer a clear description of "administrative support," thereby making it difficult to generalize what types of administrative support are critical in dealing with challenges of disruptive, aggressive children Thus, teachers' own reports are critical to our understanding of their needs The purposes of this study were (1) to examine teachers' perceptions of different types of administrative support that are valuable particularly to dealing with disruptive and aggressive students; and (2) to explore extended roles of administrators and other professionals Method Participants A questionnaire was distributed to 370 elementary teachers in 2 school districts located in a metropolitan area of the Midwest Following the endorsement of school district superintendents and principals, teachers were solicited Those who agreed completed the survey and returned it to the researcher All procedures were approved by the university institute review board Thirty six percent (n=132) of teachers returned the survey Out of 132 teachers, 26 teachers were excluded from the study due to missing data, and thus the participants in the study included 106 male (n=11) and female (n=93) certified teachers Ninety three percent was Caucasian (n=98) and sixty-two percent held a master's degree Years of teaching experience ranged from one year to thirty-seven years (mean=12 years) The mean number of students per class was 238 and the mean number of students with behavior problems was 58 The teachers' perceived levels of stress involved in dealing with these students was moderate (mean=3 …

Factors Contributing to Teacher Choice of Classroom Order Strategies

Abstract: Introduction Classroom order remains an important focus of schools and classroom teachers. Teachers use a variety of strategies to maintain order in the classroom. Each strategy has a distinct impact on children. Some are conducive to quality teaching and learning, others are not. In a previous study (Traynor, 2002), five of these strategies were identified and evaluated for their pedagogical soundness: (1) coercive, (2) laissez-faire, (3) task oriented,(4) authoritative, and (5) intrinsic. Although the reader may refer to this previous study for a more detailed description of these strategies, they will be briefly reviewed here. The coercive strategy was characterized by the use of techniques such as intimidation and student deprecation to control student behavior. However, using this strategy has negative effects on student attributes such as motivation, attitude and behavior (Moore, 1967). The laissez-faire strategy was characterized by the use of positive social interactions between the teacher and students. A teacher using this strategy presents a low risk of student defiance. However, the teacher also gives the students little intellectually challenging material to defy (Cusick, 1983). Hence, the students will not be challenged to grow intellectually. The task-oriented strategy was characterized by the use of material as a device to keep students under control with little or no regard to its educational value. Powell et. al. (1985) point out that in using this strategy a teacher also fails to challenge students intellectually. The authoritative strategy is characterized by the use of rules that are reasonable and whose consequences are humane and consistent. The learning environment is positive, firm and non-hostile. Finally, the intrinsic strategy was shown to be characterized by the use of rewards for desired behavior. The intention in using this strategy is to enable the student to properly control him/herself. Quality, engaging instruction may also be considered as a reward and therefore may be considered to be a possible characteristic of the intrinsic strategy (Gettinger, 1988). This quality instruction may also have the added benefit of positively influencing student behavior in general (Coie and Krehbiel, 1984; Lane, 1999). In Traynor's study (Traynor, 2002), two criteria were used to evaluate the pedagogical soundness of each strategy. The first criterion was the allowance of the development of a desired learning skill. The second criterion was the allowance of the development or maintenance of a student's emotional well-being. According to these criteria, the authoritative and intrinsic strategies were hypothesized and found to be pedagogically sound. The coercive and task-oriented strategies were hypothesized and found to be pedagogically unsound. The laissez-faire strategy was hypothesized to be pedagogically unsound, although it was not observed or evaluated in the study. Although much can be inferred about the pedagogical soundness of the various strategies teacher use to maintain order, little is known about what contributes to a teacher's choice of a particular classroom order strategy. It makes sense that teachers would make great efforts to enact strategies they know to be pedagogically sound. However, under the conditions they find themselves, many may enact strategies they would otherwise avoid. This study answers the question, What contributes to teacher choice of a particular classroom order strategy? The study found that teacher conviction of the pedagogical soundness of the strategies, and the teacher's expectations of (1) rewards derived from the teaching experience, (2) who is responsible for student discipline, and (3) common student behavior all contribute to the teacher's choice. In this investigation, if the teacher's expectations matched the actual classroom context, the teacher was more likely to enact a strategy he was convinced was pedagogically sound. …