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Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 2007"


Journal Article
TL;DR: The Learning Pyramid is an often-cited guide for teachers to use for designing effective instruction as discussed by the authors, and it can be found in books (Sousa, 2001; Danielson, 2002; Drewes & Milligan, 2003), articles in refereed journals (Wood, 2004; Brueckner & MacPherson, 2004), Darmer et al., 2004; DeKanter, 2005) and in teacher resources (Boulmetis, 2003; Hershman & McDonald, 2003).
Abstract: The Learning Pyramid (see Figure 2) is an often-cited guide for teachers to use for designing effective instruction. It can be found in books (Sousa, 2001; Danielson, 2002; Drewes & Milligan, 2003), articles in refereed journals (Wood, 2004; Brueckner & MacPherson, 2004; Darmer et al., 2004; DeKanter, 2005) and in teacher resources (Boulmetis, 2003; Hershman & McDonald, 2003). Further, a recent internet search using Google[R] returned 12,200 hits, of which 452 were from cites with the generic top level domain .org, 313 from .edu, and 30 from .gov. While it appears an intuitive model and an implied comprehensive research summary, the logic of the model, as well as its research base, have been questioned (Thalheimer, 2005). Therefore, it is our intention to examine the following: the source of the general structure of the pyramid, Dale's Cone of Experience; available research on retention from the methods identified by the pyramid; and consider the relationship(s) among the methods. Dale's Cone of Experience Edgar Dale was a prominent educator and nationally known scholar regarding the use of media in instruction. He had a laudable career at the Ohio State University and its media center is named in his honor. In 1946 Dale published the first of three editions of his influential text Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching. The purpose of the text was to delineate: the use of audio-visual materials in teaching--materials that do not depend primarily upon reading to convey their meaning. It is based upon the principle that all teaching can be greatly improved by the use of such materials because they can help make the learning experience memorable ... this central idea has, of course, certain limits. We do not mean that sensory materials must be introduced into every teaching situation. Nor do we suggest that teachers scrap all procedures that do not involve a variety of audio-visual methods (Dale, 1954, p. 3, italics in original) [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] The 1946 edition included the debut of his Cone of Experience (See Figure 1). The cone was Dale's attempt to organize various types of experience according to their levels of abstractness, with Direct, Purposeful Experiences being the at least abstract (or most concrete) end of the continuum, and Verbal Symbols, the most abstract, at the other. However, he notes that there will clearly be overlap among the levels. Before proceeding, we should note that that there were modifications to the cone to accommodate emerging technologies (e.g., television was added in 1954) in the three editions of his text (Dale, 1946; 1954; 1969)). However, the general construct of the cone, progressing from the concrete to the abstract, remained intact. Dale describes Direct, Purposeful Experiences as those in which "you have direct participation, with responsibility in the outcome" (1954, p. 42, italics in original). He asserts that our most vivid memories are often the result of direct experiences. As an example, Dale offers performing a laboratory experiment as direct experience. However, he goes on to note that: Life cannot, of course, be lived exclusively on this direct, concrete, sensory level. Whenever we remember something we have experienced, we have begun to abstract. Even our earliest experiences involve some degree of abstraction. As very young children we learn to talk about the doll or the cat or the man that is not physically present, and thus our direct, concrete experience becomes associated with abstractions. (1954, p. 44, italics in original) Dale prefaced his presentation of the cone with the reminder that the gap between the least and the most abstract is often quite narrow, noting that even the words of small children, for whom we often advocate concrete learning experiences, are abstractions. …

147 citations


Journal Article
TL;DR: For example, this article found that twenty-five to fifty percent of beginning teachers resign during their first three years of teaching and that about thirty-three percent of new teachers quit the teaching profession during the first year of teaching.
Abstract: "Preparing lesson plans, changing them to fit students' needs, and constantly grading papers while preparing for the next day of teaching ... My cooperating teacher was certainly not a positive role model and we did not have a good relationship during my junior block experience ... I was worried about the students' home situations and whether the children's basic survival, social, and emotional needs were being met by the families ... I had very little sleep and no time for myself ... Time management and getting used to not having time during the day to get things done... The preparation of lessons for the following days ..." These responses were given by a group of pre-service teachers after being asked, "What do you consider to be your main causes of stress during your field experience?" Many novice teachers verbalized the same apprehensions which focused on four domains: students, teachers, parents, and self. How can teacher educators prepare future teachers to handle these issues effectively? Teacher preparation programs should prepare students to recognize stress factors and to employ effective coping mechanisms. As reported by Fleener (2001), twenty-five to fifty percent of beginning teachers resign during their first three years of teaching. Roulston, Legette, & Womack (2005) confirm this estimate by reporting that about thirty-three percent of new teachers quit the teaching profession during their first years. Among all the causes, stress from teaching is one of the salient factors that has been investigated by many educators. Having the ability to deal with stressors is vital in teacher retention. Pre-service and novice teachers should not "sink" but rather identify stress factors, cope with these issues, and "swim" happily through a rewarding career in education. Questions addressed in this study included, "What are the leading pre-service teachers' concerns prior to their field experiences? What are pre-service teachers' and novice teachers' main stressors during field experiences or their first year(s) of teaching? How can teacher educators assist with relieving pre-service teachers' and novice teachers' stress? How can pre-service teachers and novice teachers identify their personal stressors and utilize effective coping mechanisms to eliminate and/or alleviate the identified stressors? Literature Review What is Stress? Although studies of pre-service teachers' stress did not identify one universal definition of stress (Miller & Fraser. 2000; Morris & Morris, 1980), there seemed to be a shared understanding of stress as an unpleasant emotional state (Miller & Fraser, 2000). Other definitions of stress include: the non-specific responses of the body to any demands made on it, a behavioral adjustment triggered by certain environmental conditions, and a response to pressures, responsibilities, and real or imaginary threats from the environment (Morris & Morris, 1980). Specifically for educators, teacher stress is defined as a response syndrome of negative effects resulting from the teachers' job (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1997, as cited in Hopkins, Hoffman, & Moss, 1997). Sources of Stress Studies of pre-service teachers' stress usually began with an investigation of the causes of the stress. Lack of experience, unclear perception of own status, conflict between advice and expectations, and lack of strategies coping with emergent situations are among those factors that make pre-service teachers extremely vulnerable to stress (Abebe & Shaughnessy, 1997; Beach & Pearson, 1998; Hopkins, Hoffman, & Moss, 1997; Kaunitz, et al, 1986). Bowers, Eicher, and Sacks (1983) reported that pre-service teachers' anxieties are based upon two areas of concern: classroom discipline and relationships. Specifically, relationships with students, cooperating teachers, and parents constructed the affective concerns, while subject knowledge, instructional strategies, and differentiated teaching constructed the instructional concerns. …

135 citations


Journal Article
TL;DR: The role of power in the student teaching dyad extends beyond the impending evaluations as discussed by the authors, and the role of the teacher role in student teacher change is explored in a larger study.
Abstract: For decades, all 50 states required student teaching for certification (Watts, 1987), though recently a few states have begun to allow those with alternative experiences or previous teaching experiences to forgo the student teaching practicum (Soares & Soares, 2002). Nearly all of the approximately 4.5 million K-12 teachers in the U.S. had to pass student teaching in order to receive their certification (United States Census, 2004). While failing student teaching does not signify the end of one's career, it is likely to result in a tarnished reputation in addition to costing the student time and money. Cooperating Teachers' Power Regardless of how student teachers and cooperating teachers perceive their roles and those of the other, one interaction pervades the student teaching experience: evaluation of student teachers by cooperating teachers. Though cooperating teachers are often considered to be mentors to student teachers, a fundamental flaw exists. Mentors should not be involved in assessment or evaluation since novices are less likely to share problems and ask for help if they are going to be evaluated by their mentors (Feiman-Nemser, 1996). A power differential is bound to occur since student teachers tend to avoid confrontation (Borko & Mayfield, 1995; Graham, 1999). Student teachers are aware of the cooperating teachers' decision-making power, and most student teachers give high priority to receiving a good student teaching evaluation (Beck & Kosnik, 2002). Barrows (1979) conducted a comparative case study of four student teaching triads and found that student teachers' desire to obtain a positive evaluation from their cooperating teachers lead "student teachers to imitate, and not experiment, to conform and not challenge, and to accept and not question" (p. 25). Cooperating teachers often are left in precarious positions. Student teachers report that they want caring, nurturing cooperating teachers who will act as mentors allowing student teachers to practice their craft; yet, cooperating teachers must also provide the final evaluations that determine if the student teachers pass and receive their teaching certifications. All of the student teachers in McNay's (2003) study were well aware that the written evaluation at the end of the practicum "can make or break a career" (Themes, [paragraph] 3). Their concern appears to be justified. Clarke and Bariteau (2005) found that of the nearly 10% of Canadian student teachers who fail to receive a teaching certificate, "virtually all falter during the practicum rather than the coursework" (p. 14). The role of power in the student teaching dyad extends beyond the impending evaluations. Cooperating teachers assert their power in various ways, only some of which are understood. Using open-ended interviews with 28 cooperating teachers Mays-Woods (2003) found that cooperating teachers sometimes interject and correct student teachers mid-lesson thereby establishing the subordinate status of the student teacher and resulting in disappointed and resentful student teachers. Mays-Woods determined that cooperating teachers held their student teachers "to a strict formula of classroom behaviors paralleling the mentors' style of teaching" (Discussion [paragraph] 1). Beck and Kosnik (2002) found that seven of the 11 student teachers they interviewed reported difficulty teaching with a different philosophy and style from the cooperating teacher. One of McNay's (2003) subjects reported feeling pressure to use the cooperating teacher's jokes. This paper is part of a larger study on student teacher change and the role of cooperating teachers on that change and seeks to explore the multifarious ways cooperating teachers exert influence on their student teachers. Numerous qualitative studies (Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005; Cochran-Smith, 1991; Enz & Cook, 1992; Karmos & Jacko, 1977; Koskela & Ganser, 1998; Mays-Woods, 2003; McGlinn, 2003; McNay, 2003) pointed to the roles of cooperating teachers and their relationships with student teachers. …

106 citations


Journal Article
TL;DR: Chester and Beaudin this paper found that teachers with low self-confidence are more likely to refer students who are perceived as difficult to teach, particularly students with special needs, than are teachers with high selfconfidence.
Abstract: In a recent study, results indicated that confidence levels had a significant effect on other aspects of teaching (Kalaian & Freeman, 1994). Developing confidence in one's ability to teach special learners is not only important for special educators, but also for general education teachers. Investigators have explored general education teachers' attitudes toward students with disabilities (Hoover & Sakofs, 1995; Center & Ward, 1997). Center and Ward (1997) conducted a survey that included 2,219 regular education and 332 special education teachers. Their results indicated that teachers' attitudes toward the integration of students with disabilities reflected a lack of confidence both in their own instructional skills and in the quality of support personnel currently provided to them. Also, Larrivee and Cook (1999) surveyed 1000 public school teachers in an attempt to assess attitudes toward students with disabilities. They reported that teachers' perceptions of degree of success in dealing with special-needs students had the most significant relationship to teachers' attitudes toward mainstreaming. Key elements have been noted addressing a change in confidence and attitudes toward special learners. A willingness to change, a common mission, use of collaboration, and training have all been targeted as essential elements in changing attitudes (Richardson, 1998). Sensitivity training was also noted as influencing a teacher's feeling of confidence, efficacy, and an increased positive attitude toward exceptionality. Efforts to enhance teacher confidence must take into account whether low teacher efficacy is due to teachers' confidence levels or a sense of futility regarding impact of their work. Variables emphasized as assisting in positive attitude change included training, collaboration, ownership, and administrative support. May and Kundert (1996) reinforced that a lack of training can be an obstacle for teachers in dealing with any level of exceptionality in students. Self-evaluation is viewed as an integral part of self-regulation, and resources and training are considered two of the building blocks to attain better self-regulation. Learning strategies to deal with exceptionalities were considered one of the building blocks. Chester and Beaudin (1996) suggested that a number of variables can affect the interaction between teachers and students with disabilities. These can include the amount of collaboration time given to special education and general education teachers, mentoring, better evaluation procedures for newly hired staff, individual strengths and needs, and resources available to general education teachers. Training of preservice teachers is reinforced in their research as being a critical factor in shaping teachers' beliefs and/or attitudes. Chester and Beaudin (1996) also explored the relationship between differences in self-efficacy beliefs, teacher characteristics, and school practices of newly hired teachers. Training and support were observed as key factors in success with special learners. Teachers with low self-confidence are more likely to refer students who are perceived as difficult to teach, particularly students with special needs, than are teachers with high self-confidence. Soodak and Podell (1996) noted that the confidence one has in outcomes of a specific behavior is a variable in determining one's actions. Their study looked at the difference in personal vs. teaching confidence and observed that efforts to enhance teacher efficacy must take into account whether low teacher efficacy is due to teachers' confidence levels or a sense of futility regarding impact of their work. If training does influence one's perception on his or her ability to successfully work with special learners, then an increase in requirements for teaching might be required in dealing with exceptionalities. It is often questioned whether general education teachers possess the skills to teach children with disabilities in their classroom. …

93 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss how best to safeguard children from abuse and neglect in the UK, and how to protect children from neglect and abuse and abuse in the care of adults.
Abstract: Concerns about how best to safeguard children from abuse and neglect have long occupied the thoughts of academics and practitioners alike in the UK. At the heart of much of the debate has been a co...

84 citations


Journal Article
TL;DR: Faranda and Clarke as discussed by the authors conducted an interesting study where they asked students to express in their own words the attributes they considered to be most critical to a good instructor: rapport, delivery, fairness, knowledge and credibility, and organization.
Abstract: BACKGROUND PERSPECTIVES A variety of literature relates to instructor effectiveness (Clarke et al. 2001; Conant et al. 1988, Hill and Herche 2001; Kelley et al. 1991; Smart et al. 1999; and Weaver 1985). Much of it focuses on the opinions of both parties to the learning exchange-students and instructors. While there is considerable agreement between these parties as to what constitutes a good instructor, Gruenwald and Ackerman (1986) note that there are also important areas of disagreement. For example, they observed that while instructors rated "knowledge of the subject" as the most important factor in education, students considered "communication skills" to be most relevant. In an interesting study, Faranda and Clarke (2004) used in-depth interviews to allow students to express in their own words the attributes they considered to be most critical to a good instructor. Five themes became apparent: rapport, delivery, fairness, knowledge and credibility, and organization. Of these themes, rapport and delivery were considered to be of particular interest. Rapport was described as the ability to build relationships based on mutual trust and harmony. Students expressed a desire to build such relationships with their instructors. They were interested in the personal experiences of instructors and wanted to know who instructors were so that they might feel more comfortable opening up to them. Delivery was described as the manner in which instructors present and convey class-content materials. Students were especially concerned with things like enthusiasm, high-energy levels, positive attitudes, and passions for the subject matter. Interestingly, students accepted the lecture format as long as it was supplemented by some variation. Powerpoint was an acceptable delivery method but not if instructors only read from slides. Also, students valued communication that was not simply student-instructor oriented but also included student-to-student communication. EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTORS COMMUNICATE Delivery is a critical consideration and effective instructors can be expected to have at least one thing in common: They are good communicators with students. What is necessary to communicate well with others? For communication to occur between two individuals, a sharing of meaning must exist between the sender and the receiver. However, some instructors have a misguided understanding about what constitutes communication. They view it as a process with certain steps that need to be completed. Usually, the steps include having an idea, putting the idea into the form of a message, sending the message, and having the message received. Unfortunately, going through these steps does not guarantee that communication has occurred. When instructors view communication simply as a process, they are lulled into thinking that they have automatically achieved high levels of communication with students as a result of presenting in-class lectures. However, for effective communication to have occurred, there needs to be sharing of meaning. It is incorrect to conclude that sharing of meaning has occurred just because the communication process of sending and receiving has been completed. This concept can be demonstrated by asking students to think of an example of miscommunication that they have experienced with another person. If a student feels embarrassed or uncomfortable using an example from his or her personal life, the student can identify an example he or she has heard about or observed in others. Although the request could be in the form of a written assignment, it is best to ask for volunteers from class who are willing to speak up and share their examples of miscommunication with others. This approach quickly gets students involved and captures their attention. Furthermore, it helps students appreciate the fact that, although a message has been sent and received, there can be inadequate sharing of meaning. …

79 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Sue Waite1
TL;DR: In this paper, a survey of 334 practitioners with children aged between 2 and 11, and a case study in a primary school in the West of England was conducted to find out what children remember of their learning outdoors.
Abstract: Potential benefits for learning that the outdoors may hold have been brought into increased focus in the UK by the recent introduction of a manifesto for learning outside the classroom (DfES, Learning outside the classroom: manifesto; Nottingham, Department for Education and Skills, 2006). This article draws on two recent studies of outdoor learning practices—a survey of 334 practitioners with children aged between 2 and 11, and a case study in a primary school in the West of England. The survey asked practitioners about their memories of outdoor experiences, and in the case study, the children talk of what they remember of their learning outdoors. With reference to relevant literature, the article reflects on how the quality of outdoor experience may sustain and support engagement and memory.

70 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the story of an encounter between two early years teachers and two Forest School workers, the growing tensions in their relationships and how these tensions were resolved, is analysed through a Foucauldian (poststructuralist) lens, the story can be read as a battle between dominant discourses.
Abstract: This paper tells the story of an encounter between two early years teachers and two Forest School workers, the growing tensions in their relationships and how these tensions were resolved. When analysed through a Foucauldian (poststructuralist) lens, the story can be read as a battle between dominant discourses—a battle exacerbated by the outdoor context in which it took place. Exploring the consistency and contradictions between these discourses enabled the teachers to make changes to their practice and to reconstruct their professional subjectivities in a way that more closely addressed their current interests and the requirements of the proposed Foundation Phase for Wales.

68 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper explored contemporary challenges to developing play in early childhood settings, and identified areas of consensus and collision in policy and practice, and discussed the power effects of free play and free choice in the context of wider concerns about equity and social justice.
Abstract: The aims of this article are to explore contemporary challenges to developing play in early childhood settings, and to identify areas of consensus and collision in policy and practice. Contemporary research highlights the effectiveness of mixed pedagogical approaches, including child- and adult-initiated play. Whilst early childhood specialists recognise these approaches as central to high-quality curricula in early childhood settings, play continues to pose a number of challenges to teachers and practitioners. These issues are discussed in the context of contemporary theoretical trends towards developing critical pedagogies, which contest the power effects of free play and free choice in the context of wider concerns about equity and social justice.

66 citations


Journal Article
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide key strategies for the successful inclusion of students with disabilities in the general education curriculum using the consultative model, which is most effective when implemented by proactive principals who create an inclusive school community by establishing models of effective co-teaching.
Abstract: Major change is occurring across this nation in the delivery of special education services. General and special education teachers are redefining their roles in providing these services. The passage of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) has created controversy and much debate in understanding, interpreting, and implementing its provisions. NCLB has reformed the ways in which we work with students receiving special education services. One such provision of NCLB is the mandate that teachers of academic core subjects be highly qualified in the academic core areas in which they are teaching. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) passed in 2004, provides a performance driven system to improve educational results for children with disabilities (Yell, Katsiyannas, & Shiner, 2006). The reauthorization of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), combined with NCLB provides and mandates opportunities for reform in providing accountability for the instruction and ultimately the assessment of students with disabilities. These powerful reform efforts provide the momentum for school districts to examine and redefine the role of the secondary special education teacher. Traditionally, secondary special education teachers have provided content area instruction to students who receive special education services even though most were not content area specialists. Inclusion efforts are requiring that general education teachers provide content area instruction to all students. The traditional content teaching model in secondary education has included general education students receiving content area instruction from content area specialists with students with disabilities included and supported based on their Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Many other students with disabilities received content area instruction from the special education teacher in their least restrictive environment. For example, a student with a specific learning disability in mathematics received math content instruction from the special education teacher in a resource room with other students with disabilities. While special education teachers are highly trained to work with students with disabilities in providing strategy instruction, study skills instruction, remediation, accommodations, modifications, social skills instruction, and address behavioral issues, the vast majority of secondary special education teachers do not have content area certification. These teachers are not deemed "highly qualified" under NCLB and the IDEIA of 2004 requirements as interpreted by state education agencies. Consequently, school principals must staff special education classes with highly qualified secondary special education content area specialists or move to an inclusion model. Either of these has far-reaching implications and challenges for the secondary classroom. The inclusion of students with disabilities in the general education classroom for content area instruction has increased the need for the special education teacher to be a consultative teacher. The consultative teacher delivers services to students with disabilities within the general education classroom in a variety of ways. Many schools have renamed the special education teacher as the "inclusion" teacher. Inclusion is most effective when implemented by proactive principals who create an inclusive school community by establishing models of effective co-teaching, while preserving the continuum of services and recognizing the need for manageable class sizes for general educators and caseloads for special education teachers (Carpenter & Dyal, 2001). Successful implementation of the above requires effective planning strategies for general and special education teachers. The purpose of this article is to provide key strategies for the successful inclusion of students with disabilities in the general education curriculum using the consultative model. Creating an Inclusive School Community Inclusion is a philosophy that begins, not at the classroom level, but at a much more global level. …

63 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report the findings of an exploratory study that documented the risk-taking behaviours displayed by four-year-old children in the natural environment of a forest school and within their school outdoor play space.
Abstract: Children's opportunities for independent play in natural outdoor spaces, and the associated opportunities to take and negotiate risk, are being eroded despite potential links between such play and the development of positive learning dispositions. This paper reports the findings of an exploratory study that documented the risk-taking behaviours displayed by four-year-old children in the natural environment of a Forest School and within their school outdoor play-space. The data indicated that the Forest School environment was better able to support the development of positive risk-taking behaviours. The environmental features that may have contributed to the observed behaviours are considered.


Journal Article
TL;DR: Marzano et al. as discussed by the authors examined teachers' views about the responsibilities of parents, schools, and teachers to enhance students' academic achievement, and concluded that the most effective teachers produced a gain of about 53 percentage points in student achievement over one year, whereas the least effective teachers achieved only 14 percentage points.
Abstract: The process of teaching and learning is rooted in student, teacher, and curriculum. Discussions about education are mostly focused on the level of attainment of the desired learning objectives. When student achievement is low, then some critical factors related to teaching and learning should be closely examined, such as qualities of teachers and school curricula, appropriateness of teaching strategies to students' developmental levels, and atmosphere and climate of schools related to students learning. Different views and suggestions about increasing students' academic achievement are discussed publicly. However, the perceptions of teachers as one of the main parts of the teaching and learning system have not publicized enough. The aim of this study was to examine teachers' views about the responsibilities of parents, schools, and teachers to enhance students' academic achievement. Specifically, the following three questions guided this study: 1. What do teachers think of the responsibilities of parents in enhancing students' academic achievement in schools? 2. What do teachers think of the responsibilities of schools in enhancing students' academic achievement in schools? 3. What do teachers think of the responsibilities of teachers in enhancing students' academic achievement in schools? The family characteristic that is the most powerful predictor of school performance is socioeconomic status. The correlation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement has been found 0.58 (White, 1982). Some caring parents are very good in creating a home atmosphere that fosters student learning (e.g., reading to their children, helping them with their homework, encouraging them to go to college, and taking them to the library and some cultural events) (Danielson, 2002). They also communicate their expectations to the children and show a great interest in the schoolwork of their children (Fan & Chen, 2001). There is a positive relationship between school quality and student learning. According to a current meta-analysis study, schools definitely can make a difference in student achievement. For example, the average student who attends a "good" school will have a score that is 23 percentile points higher than the average student who attends a "poor" school (Marzano, Pikering, & Pollock, 2001). The question is then "What are the characteristics of good or effective schools ? ". Marzano (2003) listed in rank order five school-level factors in terms of their impact on student achievement. They are guaranteed and viable curriculum, challenging goals and effective feedback, parental and community involvement, safe and orderly environment, and collegiality and professionalism. If a school is to be a true learning community, both teachers and students must have the opportunity to help develop the policies and practices that affect them (Danielson, 2002). Moreover, there is a negative relationship between school size and student achievement. Since, small schools report better attendance and fewer discipline problems than larger ones, small schools have been proven to be more conducive to student academic achievement (Burke, 1987). Teachers have a significant impact on student achievement. Teachers directly affect how students learn, what they learn, how much they learn, and the ways they interact with one another and the world around them. The effect the classroom teacher can have on student achievement is clear because student achievement begins and ends with the quality of the teacher, the instructional program, and his/her leadership. After conducting a meta-analysis study, Marzano (2003) concluded that the most effective teachers produced a gain of about 53 percentage points in student achievement over one year, whereas the least effective teachers produced achievement gains of about 14 percentage points over one year. Furthermore, 54-percentile point discrepancy in achievement gains between students with least effective teachers versus those with most effective teachers-29 percentage points versus 83 percentage points respectively over three years. …

Journal Article
TL;DR: In this article, Guepet et al. examined the effect of teacher communication on student achievement and parent's and children's attitude towards school. But, their focus was on the effects teacher communication had on student conduct and engagement, i.e., degree to which students are working on class activities and being attentive to the teacher.
Abstract: Data from the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2005), shows that American 15-year-old high school students ranked 24th out of 29 countries in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The assessment focuses on mathematics, which include problem solving and real world math problems that emphasize on the application of math outside a classroom. Research has shown that students' conduct in the school is related to their academic achievement (Guepet, 2002). Students who are inattentive, tardy, or disruptive in classrooms have a higher chance of failing academic subjects (Frick et al., 1991). Research has shown that by involving parents in their children's schooling, students will achieve higher academic achievement (Epstein, 1995; Sexton, 1990; Rogers, 2000; Henderson, 1987); however, most studies have concentrated on elementary school students (Keith et al., 1995; Keith et al., 1986; Matzye, 1995; Mendoza, 1996; Patrikako, 1997). The first 18 years of life, students spend about 85% of their waking time outside schools under the guidance of their parents. If these children live in an academically stimulating environment, then their amount of learning will increase (Walberg, 1984). Former President Bush, in America 2000, mentioned that American parents are an important component of their children's academic future success (U.S. Department of Education, 1991). Langdon and Vesper (2000) found that lack of parental involvement is an obstacle to school improvement. Henderson and Berla (1994) showed that parent participation is not only critical in elementary school, but it is essential throughout children's middle school and high school years. Guepet (2002) found that when parents are involved, students stay longer in schools, their dropout rates decline, and their referrals to the principal's office decrease. Cotton (1990) mentioned that discipline problems in schools are a serious problem in the U.S. educational system, and approximately one half of a teacher's classroom time is spent on activities unrelated with instructional activities which mostly deal with discipline problems. The current study presents a model that examines student achievement through several indirect variables. The researcher believes that by using parental involvement, teachers are able to improve student conduct and parent's and children's attitude toward school. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects teacher communication on student conduct (the degree to which students are disruptive or participate in any behavior that takes up class instructional time) and engagement (the degree to which students are working on class activities and being attentive to the teacher). Another purpose of this research is to find how teacher communication affects student's and parents' attitudes towards math work. A Teacher Communication Model Teacher Communication-Student Achievement In Figure 1, the arrow numbered 1 shows the effect of teacher communication on student achievement. Several researchers found that teacher communication improved student achievement (Cowan et al., 2002; Shaver & Walls, 1998; Ames et al., 1995). Both school-to-home and home-to-school communication are effective in improving students' learning (Epstein, 1990; Muller, 1998). Sexton (1990) showed that more frequent teacher communication with parents resulted in higher school performance in comparison with those students whose teacher had either little or no communication. Epstein (1995) mentions that communication between a teacher and a parent could consist of phone calls, personal contacts, report cards, e-mails, or home visits. In this study, the communication between the teacher and the parents was through sending report cards, progress reports, and making phone calls. Teacher Communication-Student Attitudes In Figure 1, the arrow numbered 2 shows the effects of teacher communication on student attitudes. …

Journal Article
TL;DR: According to as mentioned in this paper, most definitions of quality were either transcendent, product-based, user-based or value-based; however, as stated by Evans and Lindsay, most of these definitions are difficult to understand and nearly impossible to communicate.
Abstract: INTRODUCTION According to David Garvin (1984), most definitions of quality were either transcendent, product-based, user-based, manufacturing-based or value based. The transcendent view states that quality is something that is intuitively understood but nearly impossible to communicate. You just know it when you see it (Evans and Lindsay, 1999). The product-based view argues that quality is found in the components and attributes of a product. It implies that the higher the amounts of its characteristics, the higher its quality. The user-based says that if the customer is satisfied, the product has good quality. It is based on the presumption that quality is determined by what a customer wants. This leads to a definition of quality which is fitness for intended use or how well the product performs its intended function. According to the manufacturing-based view, if the product conforms to design specifications, it has good quality. Quality then is defined as the desirable outcome of engineering and manufacturing practice, or conformance to specifications. Lastly, according to the value-based perspective, if the product is perceived as providing good value for the price, it has good quality. Towards the end of the 1980s, many companies have come to embrace a more customer-driven definition of quality (Evans and Lindsay, 1999). Quality has come to be defined as meeting or exceeding customer expectations. In order to comprehend this definition, one must first understand the meanings of the term 'customer'. Most people think that the customer is the ultimate purchaser of the product or service. These people are more specifically referred to as consumers. But before a product reaches the consumer, it may first flow through a chain of many firms or departments, each of which adds some value to the product. This type of customers may be referred to as external customers. But every employee in a company also has internal customers who receive goods or services from suppliers within the company. Thus, understanding who one's customers are and what their expectations are is key to achieving customer satisfaction. In higher education, the notion of having customers is foreign to many campuses. Even the suggestion of the term can arouse many emotions, preconceptions, and mis-conceptions (Canic and McCarthy, 2000). Faculty and administrators alike are reluctant to call a student or anyone else a customer (Teeter and Lozier, 1993). They find the commercial flavor distracting and difficult to translate to education. In campuses that do admit they have customers, there is usually a general agreement that businesses, government agencies, and the society at large are customers. That is not generally the case with students. Many faculty members feel threatened by the notion that students are customers of the educational process. The idea that students (customers) are partners in developing and delivering quality education (the product or service) threatens the historic, traditional academic role of faculty as purveyor of knowledge. All too often this perspective is reinforced by administrative actions that tend to put the benefits of the institution before the needs of the student body. Many educational institutions are very hesitant to consider themselves as customer-driven entities (Lewis and Smith, 1994). Yet one fact has been proven over and over again. Customer-driven organizations are effective because they are fully committed to satisfying, even anticipating customer needs. The future success of colleges and universities will increasingly be determined by how they satisfy their various customers. The successful ones will be those which very clearly identify their mission and the customers they serve. Thus it is very important for colleges and universities to fully identify their different customers and their corresponding needs. WHAT IS A CUSTOMER? The centrality of the customer is grounded in history and tradition. …

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the key issues currently faced within primary PE and identify why within Physical Education, primary matters appear to be of secondary importance, despite research indicating that such a stage of schooling holds the key to lifelong physical activity and proficiency in more complex activities such as sport.
Abstract: Considerable literature has been written over the last decade which indicates that the National Curriculum for Physical Education in England and Wales is being delivered ineffectively in primary schools. This paper discusses the key issues currently faced within primary PE and identifies why within Physical Education, primary matters appear to be of secondary importance, despite research indicating that such a stage of schooling holds the key to lifelong physical activity and proficiency in more complex activities such as sport. It is argued that to create a more successful model of PE and sport within the UK there needs to be a shifting of priorities and resources into the primary sector and the creation of a ‘bottom-up’ model, rather than continue to pursue policies that are ‘top-down’ in nature.


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TL;DR: In this article, the authors offer an analysis of recent development in primary education, in particular the prevailing climate of performativity and new initiatives on creativity, and propose a new Primary National Strategy (PNS) via the DfES document Excellence and Enjoyment and Government support for creative partnerships: a programme aimed at developing creativity in learning and participation in cultural activities.
Abstract: This article offers an analysis of recent development in primary education, in particular the prevailing climate of performativity and new initiatives on creativity. Since 1989 education has been dominated by the performativity discourse accompanied by the obsession with evidence: of children's learning; of teachers' performance; and of student teachers' ‘covering’ the standards. Recent initiatives would seem to signify a shift in official Government thinking on education and a move to embrace the creativity discourse. The commissioning of a national report on creativity and culture was an important first step. There was also the QCA's literature review of creativity, and the development of the QCA web site on creativity. More recently, we have seen the introduction of the new Primary National Strategy (PNS) via the DfES document Excellence and Enjoyment and Government support for creative partnerships: a programme aimed at developing creativity in learning and participation in cultural activities. This a...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider pedagogy and outdoor play in the early years and draw on current international literature and evidence from outdoor learning constructed in an ongoing research project in two settings.
Abstract: This paper considers pedagogy and outdoor play in the early years. The particular focus is on the specific features and benefits of outdoor play in the Foundation Stage (England) and Foundation Phase (Wales). The paper will draw on current international literature and evidence from outdoor learning constructed in an ongoing research project in two settings. In the project, children aged three to seven years are given regular opportunity to play and learn in natural wild environments. The paper will reflect on the development and opportunities for children's play themes and how these impact on pedagogy in early years settings.

Journal Article
TL;DR: In this article, the authors define an educational portfolio as "a collection of work that an individual has built to demonstrate their learning process and progress" and describe the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes students are able to demonstrate upon completion of a program.
Abstract: Introduction What is an educational portfolio? It is a collection of work that an individual has built to demonstrate their learning process and progress. It is often artifacts selected by the learner to showcase their best work, to show development, and to give an opportunity for reflection upon their learning process. When presented with new knowledge (theory) in the classroom and after implementation (application) of this knowledge, reflection through journaling becomes an integral part of the portfolio process. Portfolios are utilized in three main areas: assessment and accountability, marketing, and learning (Wolf, 1999; Barrett & Carney, 2005). Through technological innovations portfolios are transitioning from a three-ring binder to the computer, turning the traditional educational portfolio into an electronic one with the ability to share one's work to a wider audience via the Internet and other technologies such as CDs, DVD's, and flash drives making them highly portable. Companies are developing electronic portfolio software with built in standards and assessment tools. Open-source electronic portfolio systems are now available, and if one has the technological skills and abilities, portfolios can be created via Hyperstudio[R]; PowerPoint, Excel, Word, HTML or web authoring software. There are many tools available for the creation of these electronic collections of one's learning. There are multiple ways to define electronic portfolios. The Learning Infrastructure Initiative, now known as the EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative, (University of British as cited in Lorenzo & Ittelson, 2005) defines electronic portfolios as "personalized, Web-based collections of work, responses to work, and reflections that are used to demonstrate key skills and accomplishments for a variety of contexts and time periods" (p. 3). Why electronic portfolios in education? Research by Lorenzo & Ittelson (2005) has shown that ePortfolios can "enhance teaching, learning and assessment practices" (p. 3). In the past decade, a paradigm shift has refocused teaching practices in education from a teacher-centered instructional environment to a student-centered one (Brooks, 1997; Terheggen, Prabhu, & Lubinescu, 2000). The result? Universities are expected to be more accountable for providing evidence of the process and growth in student learning during their academic tenure. Ruhland and Brewer (2001) acknowledge these increased demands for accountability that highlight assessment of student learning. In response to these demands, student learning outcomes have become the focus of many universities as a way to measure and document student learning. These outcomes measure how a student's university experience has supported their development as individuals and describes the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes students are able to demonstrate upon completion of a program. A learning outcome is not what the instructor does to the student, but rather what the instructor expects the student to do as a result of teaching. The methods by which these learning outcomes are assessed to determine student success of learning expectations vary and may be dependent upon the course, program, and/or assessment practices and beliefs of the faculty. Emphasis on alternative assessment practices in lieu of the traditional test is being developed as a means to meet accreditation and accountability expectations (Ruhland & Brewer, 2001; Herman, Aschbacher & Winters, 1992). However, it is through the increased demands for accountability practices and the assessment of learning outcomes that a conflicting paradigm is emerging--assessment of learning vs. assessment for learning. Barrett & Carney (2005) raise concern over this conflict and call for a balanced system within ePortfolio technologies that supports a blend of both assessment practices for accountability and life-long learning. …


Journal Article
TL;DR: The symbiotic relationship between organizational learning and program evaluation is discussed in this paper, where the authors argue that program evaluation alone is rarely comprehensive or transformational in the sense that it can inform regarding strategy and operation.
Abstract: Educators who understand that schools are complex interdependent social systems can move their organizations forward. Unfortunately, many education leaders fail to understand the interconnectedness of the institutional components. As such, planned changes often address symptoms, not the underlying root causes of the problems, and therefore meaningful improvements do not occur. On the other hand, a number of outstanding education leaders are slowly moving toward approaches that consider schools as "organic organizations" that are capable of learning and continuous improvement. "The idea of a school that can learn has become increasingly prominent during the last few years" (Senge et al., 2000, p. 5). Significant institutional change requires high levels of communication, coordination, time, money, and continuous organizational reassessment and realignment. As such, methods for managing school change must be considered to ensure district-wide commitment and success; organizations must continuously learn to improve (Argyris, 1992; Galloway, 2004; Senge, 1990). Whether external interventions such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB) lead to slow controlled improvements or a revamping of the entire public education system, school leaders and district administrators have accepted the mandates to improve student performance and are working to transform schools. One driver of school-wide change can be program evaluation. Whether they purport to advocate continuous incremental improvement, revolutionary reform, or reconstruction, educators, policy-makers, and other stakeholders traditionally have attempted to improve schools in a piecemeal manner. Fix the governance structure: elect a new school board or give mayoral oversight. Fix the leadership: hire private enterprise contractors, or bring in new superintendents and principals to run schools. Fix the teachers: demand more training or new licensure requirements. Or fix the curriculum: change the textbooks or add computer-aided instruction. Most often, these programmatic repairs are first-order adjustments within current school structures. Unfortunately, most program evaluations are compartmentalized analyses of performances and outcomes of specific activities within the larger organization. While it can inform regarding strategy and operation, by its character, educational program evaluation alone is rarely comprehensive or transformational. In this article, we examine how schools can reposition program evaluations from relating to specific programs to enabling organizational learning. Here we lay out an approach which treats organizational learning and program evaluation as a symbiotic relationship - a term used in ecology to describe a relationship in which two different organisms interactively benefit from the other. The ultimate message is that the ubiquitous program evaluations occurring daily in our schools can provide the basis for organizational learning and ultimately continuous improvement. Program Evaluation Scriven (1991) defines evaluation as a systematic process to determine the merit, worth, and value of things. Vedung (2000) provides a more comprehensive definition with reference to public policy in which evaluation is a "careful retrospective assessment of the merit, worth, and value of administration, output, and outcomes of government interventions which is intended to play a role in future practical action situations" (p. 3). The passage of NCLB is clearly a government intervention, which has created a demand for "research based" programs, and has increased the focus on program evaluations. These evaluations have been used to identify promising practices, calculate impacts, and establish strategies for improvement of student achievement. In the past, many state level grants required a final report, which provide a summary of grant activities and documentation of expenditures; however, formal program evaluations were not required. …

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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine messages from participatory research about young children's perspectives of early childhood environments and outdoor spaces in particular, and consider the implications of these findings for creating and supporting creative outdoor spaces.
Abstract: This article examines messages from participatory research about young children's perspectives of early childhood environments and outdoor spaces in particular. The studies chosen have been carried out in England with children under six years old using the Mosaic approach and are compared with findings from an Icelandic study using the same methodology. This framework for listening to children and adults brings together visual and verbal tools to gather children's perspectives and to facilitate exchange with adults. The findings reinforce the importance of private spaces, personal spaces, social spaces and imaginary spaces in outdoor environments for young children. The discussion considers the implications of these findings for creating and supporting creative outdoor spaces.


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TL;DR: In this paper, preliminary comments are made about The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum document questioning its framing of the arts "disciplines" and the notion of the "the arts" which appears to take its meaning from the generic term "art" that directs us to class together music, painting, visual art, dance and other diverse activities.
Abstract: In this paper, preliminary comments are made about The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum document questioning its framing of the arts ‘disciplines’. The notion of the ‘the arts’, which appears to take its meaning from the generic term ‘art’ that directs us to class together music, painting, visual art, dance and other diverse activities, is examined. The idea of ‘literacies’ in the arts is questioned, as well as the ideological nature of representing the arts as ‘essential skills’. Suggestions are made concerning the identity and role of educators in the arts areas of the curriculum. I then take strands within the Arts curriculum document (‘Communicating and interpreting in the arts’ and ‘The arts in context’) and scrutinize these in terms of the possibilities for a critical interpretation of pedagogy and what I believe to be our obligations as teacher educators within a pre-service programme in university setting.

Journal Article
TL;DR: The playground at Maple Street Elementary School is quiet these days. The only movements on the swing sets are a result of a strong west wind edging the swings back and forth as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The playground at Maple Street Elementary School is quiet these days. The only movements on the swing sets are a result of a strong west wind edging the swings back and forth. The long lines that once formed for trips down the sliding boards are empty. There are no softball or kickball games nor are there any games of tag or duck-duck- goose being played. There won't be a fifth grade musical this year. Children will not be learning to play the recorder nor will they be learning to march to rhythms or learn the traditional songs that have transcended the years of music instruction in elementary schools. There will be no art to display. Daddies' old long sleeved shirts that were handed down to children to cover up school clothes to keep from being stained with tempera paint and water colors are no longer needed. No, Maple Street Elementary School is not closing. It is squeezing every minute of the school day to meet the mandates of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and in so doing many parents and educators are questioning whether the nation's elementary school students are being robbed of their childhood. Maple Street Elementary School is a metaphor for elementary schools across the nation. It represents attendance centers in both urban and rural communities that have students with various degrees of abilities, that have multiplicities of family compositions, and that are multicultural. With all the diversity among Maple Street's student body, the one commonality is that each student has affective and social needs that, according to some, are being com promised. The NCLB legislation, passed in 2004, has left many states reeling as they scramble to meet the many mandates required. It has been reported (NASSP, 2006) that none of the nation's states have been able to meet the 'quality-goal' outlined in the act. As a result, at least one-half of the states are facing the possibility of receiving reductions in federal funding for educational programs. Many are asking whether NCLB's purview of educational quality and the purview of parents and educators are congruent. In many cases, parents are becoming vocal and angry in what they see as a set of standards that are robbing children of activities that develop them affectively and socially (Schacter, 2005). The impact of NCLB has been felt in many different fashions by the nation's elementary school children. Not only are the so called 'normal children' being impacted by the act's mandates, the children who are identified as 'underserved' are also feeling the impact. These are children who are receiving services in gifted education programs, special education programs, and programs for the educationally disadvantaged (Browder & Cooper-Duffy 2003; Ferrell, 2005; McMahon, 2005). On the other hand, there appears to be little compromise on the horizon regarding NCLB and its expectations. According to U.S. Education Secretary Margaret Spelling, the nation's parents and educators have had expectations that are undeniably too low, resulting in a set of standards and goals that have reflected those expectations for students. Spelling credits NCLB for the raising of those standards and indicates that the nation's education report card is improving with encouraging results indicated by reading scores that have increased more in the last 5 years than in the previous 29 years combined. Spelling maintains that a great deal of work lies ahead and that schools are headed in the right direction (Hardy, 2006). It appears that battle lines are forming among proponents of the act and those (primarily parents and educators) who feel as if the act is compromising the holistic needs of the nation's children. The focus of the latter group continues toward calculating the cost of developmental growth that is achieved outside the strict academic setting, but is nevertheless attained in the school setting. NCLB and Recess A trend seems to be affecting school districts in the United States. …



Journal Article
TL;DR: The purpose of this paper is to gather and review the literature on the use of weighted vests with students who have an autism spectrum disorder, as well as specific protocols for use.
Abstract: INTRODUCTION Autism spectrum disorder is a neurobiological disorder that is characterized by qualitative impairments in language, qualitative impairments in social skills, and stereotyped or restricted patterns of interest, behavior, or activities (DSM IV-TR, 2000). It has recently been estimated that .6% of the population has a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (Fombonne, E., 2005). Occupational therapists working in the school system have been and will continue to assess and treat students with autism spectrum disorder. However, empirical research studies on occupational therapy services with children with autism are rare (Watling, R., Deitz, J., Kanny, E.M., McLaughlin, J.E, 1999). Conversely, healthcare and education are increasingly pushing for evidenced based practice (Honaker, C., & Rossi, L.M., 2005). Accountability is, and should be, demanded by reimbursement sources, parents, teachers, and other healthcare professionals. An example of an occupational therapy technique used with students with autism spectrum disorder is a weighted vest. The use of a weighted vest is based on the sensory integrative frame of reference. It is argued that the weight in the vest provides proprioception (deep pressure), which provides calming input to the central nervous system by promoting the production of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine (Vandenburg, N.L., 2001, Honaker, D., & Rossi, L.M., 2005). A survey of school-based occupational therapists reports that 82% report using weighted vests with students. These therapists report seeing benefits of calming, increased attention to task, and decrease in self-stimulatory behaviors (Olsen, L.J. &Moulton, H.J., 2004). Many occupational therapists report using the sensory integrative framework when treating children with autism. They also report using proprioceptive input as a part of the intervention (Watling et al, 1999). Despite this and other qualitative reports of the benefits of weighted vests, there is little organized assessment regarding the effectiveness of their use (Honaker, D. & Rossi, L.M., 2005). The purpose of this paper is to gather and review the literature on the use of weighted vests with students who have an autism spectrum disorder, as well as specific protocols for use. Sound, research-based evidence for the use of weighted vests with this population will assist therapists in making informed decisions on appropriate use. It is also imperative that occupational therapists understand specific treatment techniques to be valuable members of the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) team. LITERATURE SEARCH The following journals were manually searched: American Journal of Occupational Therapy (1999-2005), AOTA's Sensor), Integration Special Interest Section (1998-2005), OT Practice (1999-2005), Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy (1997-2005), and Occupational Therapy in Health Care (1984-2006). The following databases were electronically searched: Medline (1980-present), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (1980-present), Psychinfo (1980-present), Academic Search Premier (1980-present), Educational Resource Information Center (1980-present), Professional Development Collection (1980-present), and Health Source: Nursing/Academic Edition (1980-present). The search terms used were weighted vest, autism AND deep pressure, autism AND proprioception. The reference section and in-text citations were examined for other works, and this process was repeated until no new studies were found. INCLUSION-EXCLUSION CRITERIA FOR STUDIES The studies used in this review had to be published in English. Studies had to be published between 1980 and 2006. Knowledge of autism has grown and changed rapidly in the last 25 years, and the use of a weighted vest in school system practice is a fairly new treatment technique. Articles chosen were those that studied the use of the weighted vest for children with autism spectrum disorder. …

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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors report on work done with Creative Partnerships which involved the NACCCE's 1999 All our futures report and report on the impact and processes of creative partnerships.
Abstract: The Government's recent Creative Partnerships initiative in England represents part of the resurgence of interest in creativity which was stimulated by the NACCCE's 1999 All our futures report. However, many questions remain about the impact and processes of creative partnerships. The field of creativity research has been dominated by two key questions: how should creativity be defined and is it possible to teach creativity? Much has been written which attempts to shed light on the answers to these questions so it is important that creative partnerships' work is understood in the context of what it already known from research and theory. A welcome aspect of Creative Partnerships is the desire to ensure an evidence base to support the creative work happening in schools. Frequently this evidence base has been built in part by using action research methodology which has a strong track record in the context of practitioner research. This paper reports on work done with Creative Partnerships which involved the...