Showing papers in "Education 3-13 in 2010"

The Importance of the Ninth Grade on High School Graduation Rates and Student Success in High School

Abstract: The Ninth-Grade Problem Researchers target ninth grade as the make or break year for completing high school It is during the ninth-grade year that many students for the first time have to earn passing grades in core courses (Fulk, 2003) Satisfactiory completion of core courses is often required for graduation from high school, and these core courses are typically some of the toughest and most rigorous academic classes a student has to take in high school (Smith, Akos, Lim, & Wiley, 2008) Furthermore, the rising use of standardized examinations to measure school performance, and exit examinations required to earn a diploma, add to the difficulty and importance of doing well in high school (Schemo, 2004) As a result of the increased demands of high school, the statistics generated from freshman year are concerning Ninth-graders have the lowest grade point average, the most missed classes, the majority of failing grades, and more misbehavior referrals than any other high school grade level (Fritzer & Herbst, 1996) The ninth grade also has the highest enrollment rate in high schools This is mainly due to the fact that approximately 22% of students repeat ninth-grade classes (Fritzer & Herbst, 1996) This number, however, can be even larger in some places, especially large comprehensive urban high schools Researchers at Johns Hopkins University have found that up to 40% of ninth-grade students in cities with the highest dropout rates repeat the ninth grade, but only 10% to 15% of those repeaters go on to graduate (Kennelly & Monrad, 2007) According to NCES, the average freshmen graduation rate for 2001-2002 is 726 %, but is as low as 579 % in states such as South Carolina (Seastrom, et al, 2005) This means that there can be more than double the amount of students in ninth grade as compared to twelfth grade (Useem, Neild, & Morrison, 2001) That is why the ninth-grade year has become such a focal point of educational reform Increased Graduation Requirements States that have felt the pressure to compete globally have raised their graduation requirements Students moving into the ninth grade are the first to experience the effect of any increase in state-mandated high school graduation requirements For many ninth-graders, such rigorous requirements are a noticeable change from middle school expectations (Fulk, 2003) One such example, Michigan, has recently reverted to a new Michigan Merit Curriculum The "new" requirements are first imposed on the ninth-grade class of 2007, which is scheduled to graduate in 2011 According to these new requirements, all students must complete four credits in specific math and English language arts classes and three credits in science and social studies Other non-core class credits must be earned in physical education and health, visual performing and applied arts, and a language other than English (Michigan Merit Curriculm, 2008) According to the Michigan Department of Education, this curriculum is developed, "to prepare Michigan's students with the knowledge and skills needed for jobs in the 21st century" (Michigan Merit Curriculm, 2008) The graduating class of 2011 in Michigan schools will face a tough challenge trying to meet these new state requirements Statistically, and regardless of new requirements, not all incoming freshmen will graduate in four or even five years of high school, and even more daunting, some will not graduate at all (Wheelock & Miao, 2005) This is distressing considering that it is practically impossible for individuals lacking a high school diploma to find employment that pays more than minimum wage (Neild, et al, 2007) The Transition to Ninth Grade Challenging graduation requirements are only one of the many issues that ninth grade students have to overcome There has been a lot of research done to pinpoint exactly why students have so much trouble during the ninth-grade year, and most research points to one overarching problem, the transition from eighth grade to ninth grade …

College Distance Education Courses: Evaluating Benefits and Costs from Institutional, Faculty and Students' Perspectives

Abstract: Introduction Distance education refers to technology-based instruction in which students are at a location physically separated from their instructor during the entire course of study (Simonson et al., 2003; Ormrod, 2008). Distance education through web-based learning is a concept that is relatively new to modern educational practices. It is a method of learning outside of a typical classroom environment. Initially, distance education was created for students who were unable to attend school. Prior to all technological advancements, distance education, in the form of "pure" correspondence study, was created to give those students a chance to study who could not attend ordinary school or university due to social, medical, financial, or geographical reasons (Holmberg, 1977). This web-based form of instruction allows instructors to reach a much larger audience and encourages more flexibility with student's schedule. Web-based teaching and learning are changing the face of higher education and rapidly working at a frenzied pace to develop the skills needed to instruct in an online environment (Boettcher and Conrad, 1999). Moving from the classroom as the primary center of organized instruction to the web changes how educators approach instructional design. Advances in teaching and learning in a web environment have brought new curiosities, excitement, and challenges to educators (Boettcher and Conrad, 1999). While online learning at the college level has grown at an astonishing pace, it has done so in ways that no one predicted (Doyle, 2009). Total student enrollment in distance education courses went from 754,000 in 1995 to 1.6 million in 1998 (Harasim, 2000), and over 3 million students enrolled in distance courses in the 2000-2001 academic year (Waits and Lewis, 2003). By fall 2007, 3.9 million students were taking at least one online course (Doyle, 2009). According to some educators, higher education has been revolutionized. Presently, distance education has never been so popular. A large, diverse group of students comprise the target audience of distance education. Regardless of their demographic backgrounds and academic disciplines, students all over the globe are embracing these educational resources. While there are many benefits of distance education, many drawbacks go hand-in-hand with these emerging technologies. Administrators, faculty, and students can embrace these technologies in distance learning, but must be aware of all its drawbacks and educational implications. The objective of this article is to evaluate distance education from institutional, faculty, and students' perspectives. We provide insight on both benefits and costs associated with college distance education courses. Benefits of Distance Education for Institutions There are major benefits of distance education from an institutional perspective. By now, it is obvious to most educators in higher education that distance-learning technology is transforming instructional delivery in profound ways (DeNeui and Dodge, 2006). They (2006) state that the most significant online technological development is the way that the former constraint of time and space has largely been removed by networking capabilities. Though not all instructors teach distance education courses, few can deny that online technology is transforming the way students learn and the way instructors teach (DeNeui and Dodge, 2006). Even in the midst of a major budget crisis, colleges and universities still embrace the same educational mission and philosophy: to educate its students (Gould, 2003). While not a panacea, online courses allow institutions to maximize their available resources to meet the educational needs of their students (Gould, 2003). Online courses can reach a much larger audience, with students from greater geographic regions than traditional classroom courses. Online courses may help disabled and geographically isolated students, as well as students with busy schedules obtain quality higher education. …

Teacher Leadership: Overcoming 'I Am Just a Teacher' Syndrome

Abstract: Eighteen Master of Education students sat in a class titled "Teacher Leadership" pondering how they could possibly be teacher leaders. One offered, "But my principal is our leader. He leads. I follow." Another said, "Teacher leadership is just a theory, I believe. It does not exist in real life--at least not in my school." A third said, "I think I have some leadership qualities, but I am just a teacher. "I am just a teacher." This mantra is embraced by legions of teachers across the land. Principals lead; teachers follow. And so it goes. The guiding principles of teacher leadership date to antiquity and received renewed interest in the twentieth century. Over 60 years ago, Bahn (1947) charged administrators with the task of "exploring abilities, releasing creative powers, tapping experiences, and, consequently, developing the quality of teacher leadership" (p. 155). In addition, numerous reform efforts in the 1980s and 1990s recommended "teacher leadership" as a mechanism for widespread reform. Wasley (1991), too, almost two decades ago, led a clarion call for the necessity of teacher leadership and shared decision-making in school improvement. She rightly acknowledged, however, that the body of literature was absent in supporting this concept. Twenty years later, a body of literature has been developed and continues to grow, yet it is poorly understood and only intermittently practiced where it counts--in schools. Despite the many calls for teacher leadership in the literature over the years, the message has not reached teachers themselves in any large measure. School improvement ultimately will depend on teacher leadership--a factor largely untapped in schools today. Principal leadership and teacher leadership Sustained, effective school leadership substantially strengthens student achievement (Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2004) as does a positive school climate (Heck, 2000). Having engaged in numerous school reform efforts over the years, it is clear that traditional, top down leadership falls short of effecting the systemic, meaningful reform necessary to meet the needs of students in the new and challenging world they will face (Copland, 2003). The principal has position, power, authority, and the responsibility of accountability for the total school program. However, the prevailing, role-bound model in schools depicting the principal as having the requisite set of leadership skills and teachers being passive recipients of directives or prescribed professional development must be examined. Both principal and teachers have important and reciprocal roles in the overall leadership quotient of a school, but to do so, an open and equitable relationship must be in place. Leadership at its best takes place in the interactions between people in the school and the situations they face; therefore for leadership to be effective, it must be shared or distributed (Gronn, 2000; Hargreaves & Fink, 2006); this takes certain leadership dispositions on both the part of the principal and the teachers. Using Occam's razor, leadership can be succinctly defined as "making happen what you believe in" (Barth, 2001). Considering this, leadership can no longer equate exclusively with the man or woman in the principal's office and the tendency to focus on the managerial aspects of the job. Bolman and Deal (2003) assert: If an organization is overmanaged but underled, it eventually loses any sense of spirit or purpose .... The challenges of modern organizations require the objective perspective of managers as well as the brilliant flashes of vision wise leadership provides. (p. xvi) So, in this age of accountability where no one person can possibly be omniscient, a "wise" principal will honor and support a distributed form of leadership, a philosophy put in action where others in the building are trusted and expected to bear the burden and pleasure of leadership, which far surpasses a few "brilliant flashes of vision. …

For sale – primary physical education. £20 per hour or nearest offer

Abstract: With the pressures of time and finance schools find themselves under, such as the need to meet ever-increasing Public Service Agreement targets for pupil participation in physical education (PE) and school sport, the need to provide extended school hours and the need to cover planning, preparation and assessment (PPA) time, sports coaches are being increasingly used in primary schools to fill the void. How exactly this current situation has emerged remains unclear. In order to shed light on this issue, sports coaches (n = 23) returned self-completion questionnaires before engaging in follow-up interviews, semi-structured in nature. The paper discusses key themes emerging from the data including a lack of teacher engagement in extra-curricular provision, the cost of covering PPA time, a willingness of teachers to ‘give up’ the teaching of PE and the apparent confidence exuded by sports coaches.

Co-Teaching: An Educational Promise for Children with Disabilities or a Quick Fix to Meet the Mandates of No Child Left Behind?.

Abstract: Co-teaching: Cure or Quick-Fix? Is co-teaching a fad or the future for teaching students with disabilities in the regular education setting? The Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1997(IDEA) required that disabled students, to the extent possible, be taught with nondisabled students in the regular classroom. The least restrictive environment standard (LRE) has led to new ideas and models in special education. The co-teaching model is designed to include disabled students in the regular classroom, but in a manner which provides the necessary accommodations to be successful. The standard special education model utilizes the "pull-out" approach to educating disabled students (Ross-Kidder, 2003). In the elementary school setting the special education teacher pulls the student out of the regular education class for a period of time each day. At the secondary level disabled students would either be self contained or be serviced by a special education teacher for at least one period per day. Districts are now looking at models for "pulling-in" disabled students (Ross-Kidder, 2003). As more students with learning disabilities (LD) are being included in regular education classrooms, the challenge for school districts is to continue to provide for both the regular education student and the LD students in the same setting. Co-teaching is a collaboration effort between a general education teacher and a special education teacher. Both teachers are responsible for teaching all of the students in the class (Keefe & Moore, 2004). The goals of co-teaching should be to increase instructional options for students, enhance participation of disabled students within the classroom, and to enhance the performance of students with disabilities (Mastropieri, Scruggs, Graetz, Norland, Gardizi, & McDuffie, 2005). There are several approaches to co-teaching, five of which were identified by Friend and Cooke (1995). In the first approach one teacher would be responsible for the teaching while the other circulated throughout the room providing support. The second approach, station teaching, allows the teachers to divide the content and students into groups, splitting time with each group. Parallel teaching, the third approach, allows the class to be divided and each teacher teaches their own group the same content. In the fourth approach, alternative teaching, students are organized into groups, one large and one small, and each teacher instructs one of the groups. The smaller group is recognized as the one requiring the most attention. Co-teaching is a partnership between two teachers, one special education and one regular education. Elementary teachers, in a study conducted by the Keefe and Moore (2004), had a more positive attitude toward co-teaching than did secondary teachers. Elementary teachers were more likely to share a class for at least half a day if not all day, with one or two teachers, while secondary teachers may only be together for one or two periods. The way teachers were paired also made a difference. Teachers generally reported a more positive working arrangement if they chose their co-teaching partner. This also included better communication which in turn led to an enhanced relationship. Teachers who had no choice in selecting their partners, in general, had more negative views of co-teaching. Teachers utilizing the Co-teaching models in the Mastropieri, et al. (2005) study, the Keefe and Moore (2004) study, and the Lawton (1999) study reported problems with having sufficient planning time, primarily in the secondary levels. When special education teachers partnered with more than one teacher, scheduling planning periods to coincide often proved to be difficult, if not impossible. Teachers either had to meet before or after school to plan the curriculum and determine the roles of each teacher. Teachers reported needing a minimum of 45 minutes per day to plan for co-teaching. …

Where do children choose to play on the school ground? The influence of green design

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine where children choose to play on a school ground with a diversity of play spaces. We were particularly interested in understanding the influence of the natural/green part of the school ground on children's choice. Using a momentary time sampling direct observation instrument, a total of 23 scans were taken of six pre-determined Target Areas within an Australian primary school over an 11-day period. Separate scans were taken for girls and boys. Results revealed that the green/natural Target Area (a) attracted the highest number of students in total on average (63.78 students/scan) and (b) was the only area that revealed no statistical difference between the mean number of girls and boys. We discuss a number of design and cultural factors that might explain these findings. The results from this study suggest that when children are given a choice about where to play, they are choosing natural areas. As such, green areas of school grounds stand to make an important con...

Biology Student Teachers' Conceptual Frameworks regarding Biodiversity.

Abstract: Biodiversity, the variety and variability of living organisms and the ecological patterns of which they are a part, has received a great deal of attention worldwide since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (van Weelie & Wals, 2002). The reasons for this attention are the increase of human activities on biodiversity, rainforest destruction, habitat fragmentation, species extinction, water and air pollution, alteration of natural cycles and many other environmental problems. Biodiversity is affected also by global climate changes and its effect on the human population. The protection of biodiversity is defined as one of the basic roads leading to sustainability. However, a global threat to biodiversity increases daily. The dramatic decrease in biodiversity, one of the most serious results of the global environmental crisis, is accepted as one of the most basic issues of our times (Gayford, 2000). Biodiversity generally includes three main factors, namely genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. These factors are important parameters of sustainable development (Kassas, 2002). Biodiversity is a sign of a healthy environment. However, excessive and unsustainable use of biological or natural resources has caused significant damage to biodiversity and the situation has become a threat to human life. Respecting nature, improving the quality of life, and protecting the biodiversity of the planet are principles of a sustainable community. The dependence of humanity on biodiversity, now and in the future, is unavoidable, because the continuation of man's existence depends on ecosystem services for lodging, clothing, drugs, and food. With regard to sustainable development, in order for humanity to continue its existence, it is necessary to provide a sustainable use of biodiversity. Therefore, it is very important to raise individuals with an awareness of the necessity to protect biodiversity to conserve its global richness. In educational terminology, biodiversity is an environmental and ecological buzz-word and an ill-defined or fuzzy concept (Dreyfus et al., 1999; Richardson & Hari, 2008; van Weelie & Wals, 2002). Furthermore, the lack of clarity regarding assumptions, ethics, possibilities, and limitations about the depletion of biodiversity is part of the problems of education (Gayford, 2000). For these reasons, biodiversity has become the focal point of educational research in recent times. However, little research is presently carried out on biology student teachers' conceptual frameworks regarding the aspects of biodiversity. The study of biology student teachers' conceptual frameworks is quite important from the perspective of the development of environmental education and scientific literacy. Most research about biodiversity is generally focused on biodiversity education (Dreyfus et al., 1999; Gayford, 2000; Kassas, 2002; Lindemann-Matthies et al., 2009; van Weelie & Wals, 2002), loss of biodiversity (Kim & Byrne, 2006; Menzel & Bogeholz, 2009), educational programs (Lindemann-Matthies, 2002), and students' knowledge about biodiversity (Menzel & Bogeholz, 2009; Summers et al., 2001; Yorek et al., 2008). Summers et al. (2000; 2001) investigate the understanding of practicing primary school teachers, and secondary science trainees about four environmental issues (biodiversity, the carbon cycle, ozone, and global warming). Researchers define the well-understood and not understood scientific concepts about the said environmental issues. Results have shown that most participants agree on the necessity of biodiversity and its benefits on humanity. However, some incomplete concepts and misconceptions about biodiversity have been reported. Moreover, in these studies it has been indicated that good subject knowledge is necessary for the best teaching. From the perspective of science education, the teaching of biodiversity in schools for students in the 11-18 age group is considered a controversial issue. …

The Elephant in the Classroom: The Impact of Misbehavior on Classroom Climate.

Abstract: Introduction Classrooms are complex societies where students and teachers live and interact with each other. Teachers are the leaders of these societies and the way they exercise their leadership abilities greatly affect the quality of interactions that take place between teachers and students as well as the interactions that take place between and among the students themselves. These interactions, both social and instructional, have a great impact on the academic and social growth of the students assigned to a given teacher's classroom. Educational scholars have suggested for decades that the group dynamics of a classroom needs to be analyzed in order to fully understand how teachers best function in their role and how students best learn (Bracey, 2009a; Pianta, 2006; Eisner, 1984; Schlechty, 1976; Lortie, 1975; Jackson, 1968; Waller, 1961). Bracey (2009b) noted that educational research should focus on the way teachers and students interact and how teachers structure learning environments to promote these interactions. Research that focuses on how the average student or average teacher functions on an isolated task misses the significance of understanding how teachers and students interact in the learning environment and how the internal relationships in a classroom impact both student and teacher behavior. The purpose of this study was to conduct a comparative analysis in order to determine what life is like for students and teachers in classrooms where teachers have been categorized as strong by their principals vis-a-vis those classrooms where teachers have been categorized as needs improvement by the same principals. Specifically, the relationship existing between student and teacher interactions and student and teacher time-on-task was analyzed. The reported findings have significant implications for teacher educators who are guiding pre-service and in-service teachers in their development of productive learning environments. Review of Literature Teachers have varied opinions regarding what they believe are effective techniques for managing children's behavior in a classroom setting. In fact, classroom management may be the most discussed topic among teachers at all grade levels and career stages. A number of studies suggest that a direct link exists between teachers' ability to manage classroom behavior and their students' learning. For example, Baugous and Bendery (2000) suggested students are on task more in classrooms that have fewer management problems; it has been reported that such management problems tend to distract both teachers and students making it difficult for either to focus on learning experiences (Clough, Smassal, & Clough, 1994). Prater (1992) reported, the optimal teaching and learning environment is one where the teacher puts an emphasis on preventing management disruptions because such an environment will likely increase student time-on-task and, of course, learning. Finally, Rimm-Kaufmann, La Paro, Downer, and Pianta (2005) found that high classroom quality was most consistently related to a low number of management problems. Additionally, management problems can affect the amount and quality of interactions in the classroom. It has been reported that teachers are less apt to have positive interactions with behaviorally challenging students and even avoid contact with these students as stress levels increase (Abidin & Kmetz, 1997). Schlechty's classic work (1976) described a similar type of teacher behavior as retreating; that is, the teacher failed to react when students' violated previously written or stated rules for conduct. The Research Project Recently, the authors conducted a study to examine life in two distinctly different types of classrooms: those with teachers categorized as strong and those categorized as needs improvement. It is important to note that, during the data collection phase of this project, the researchers had no knowledge as to how the teachers had been categorized. …

The Effects of Cooperative Learning Experience on Eighth Grade Students' Achievement and Attitude toward Science.

Abstract: Introduction Cooperative learning activities are frequently employed in different parts of the world in order to enable active learning and realize learning as a social activity. The reason lying behind the frequent use of it is that traditional approaches in teaching and learning do not give ample opportunities for students to improve simultaneously in different aspects such as knowledge, skill, attitude and so on (Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Kagan, 1990). Cooperative learning is an educational process in which speaking, listening, writing, and reflection--as crucial tools of active learning--take place. In this process, students are asked to use their social skills and to cooperate with peers, which, in the long run, contribute to the development of their cognitive and affective learning outcomes (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Social interaction indeed meets various kinds of interests of students and enables them to use their mental abilities in having critical decisions concerning themselves (Acikgoz, 1992; Kagan, 1990). Students study together in a small group through an organized activity in cooperative learning. Each individual in a group bears his or her individual responsibilities while carrying out other responsibilities toward group members. In a cooperative learning setting, the groups are formed in such a way that each member of a group should perform his or her task for the purpose that the group will achieve (Acikgoz, 1992). In other words, the achievement of the group depends on that of each member. The students learn how to work in cooperation via face-to-face and group activities. The assignment of the students to groups and the construction of tasks are not the only necessary provisions to practice cooperative learning. In order for the cooperative learning to be effective, it is vital that the students properly understand what is expected from them and how they will interact with each other (Johnson & Johnson, 1990). Aftermath of the cooperative learning activity, the performance of the group is evaluated as a whole (Acikgoz, 1992; Kagan, 1990). In cooperative learning, the gains and benefits for students are multi-dimensional. It is highly likely that the students improve interpersonal skills in cooperative settings and that the low-achievers build up better self-esteem within a setting in which responsibilities are shared (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992). What is more, it is known that cooperative learning is effective in developing students' upper level mental abilities, communicative skills, achievement, retention, recall, transfer, motivation, and attitude; also, it is more preferable inasmuch as it is inexpensive and practical (Acikgoz, 1992; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Kagan, 1990). It is also revealed in the previous studies that the cooperative learning enhances students' self-esteem (Box & Little, 2003), motivation (Johnson & Johnson, 1999), social development (Gillies, 2004; Jordan & Le Metaias, 1997), and abilities to express their thoughts (Shachar & Sharan, 1994). The studies investigating the effects of cooperative learning (e.g., Bilgin, 2006; Bilgin & Geban, 2004; Jones, 1990; Lazarowitz, 1991; Slavin, 1995; Smith, Hinckley & Volt, 1991; Wachanga & Mwangi, 2004; Zacharia & Barton, 2004) indicate that students who are working together in small groups learn better, retain more information, and build up better relationships with classmates and group mates. As reported by Herreid (1998), Johnson and Johnson made a meta-analysis of more than 1200 studies evaluating the differences between the performances of students who learn via traditional methods and cooperative learning activities. As a result of their study, it is concluded that the students who learn via cooperative learning are better at verbal, mathematical and social skills than those who learn via individual and competitive learning methods. It is further indicated that students gain more experience, improve better attitudes toward the subject matter, develop their social skills, and learn to respect different points of views. …

Mathematics Anxiety According to Middle School Students' Achievement Motivation and Social Comparison

Abstract: Introduction Students' achievement for a course is related to variables relevant to both students, and teaching and learning processes. Variables affecting achievement are multidimensional, especially if the course is mathematics. One of the most significant reasons preventing mathematics achievement is mathematics anxiety. According to Meece, Wigfield, and Eccles (1990), mathematics anxiety is most directly related to students' math ability perceptions, performance expectancies, and value perceptions. Jackson and Leffingwell (1999) point out that if the students have bad experiences in mathematics during elementary and secondary schools, mathematics anxiety occurs and they list mathematics teachers' behaviors and attitudes causing mathematics anxiety as hostile or insensitive, behaving prejudiced towards genders, an uncaring attitude, expressing anger, unrealistic expectations, embarrassing students in front of peers, communication and language barriers, quality of instruction, evaluation methods, and difficulty of material. Wigfield and Meece (1988) indicate the affective component of math anxiety related more strongly and negatively than the worry component to children's ability perceptions, performance perceptions, and math performance. Furner and Duffy (2002) state school system, gender, socioeconomic status, and parental background may affect mathematics anxiety. Oberlin (1982) points out that using common teaching techniques, such as using the same teaching method for all students and teaching just one method to solve problems, leads to mathematics anxiety. Similary, Harper and Dane (1998) relate mathematics anxiety and mathematics avoidance up to the secondary level with students who have encountered negative experiences during formal education, in addition to a lower self confidence, depending upon these negative experiences. On the other hand, Cates and Rhymer (2003) associate mathematics anxiety with a variety of variables, such as working memory, age, sex, self-efficacy, mathematics attitudes, test anxiety, and general anxiety. As seen in the literature above, when mathematics anxiety is examined, there are many variables that affect mathematics anxiety. Especially, student's achievement motivation may play a significant role in the existence of mathematics anxiety. Achievement Motivation Theory, developed by Atkinson and McClelland, is defined as the required tendency of the individuals in task (for achievement) to achieve success and avoid unachievement (Atkinson, 1957; Atkinson, 1964; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953). In Achievement Theory, McCleland (1962) underlines three needs--achievement, power, and close relationship--that are significantly important variables to determine the behaviors of the individuals. Murray (1938) explains the need for achievement as overcoming a difficult task, becoming skilled, overcoming drawbacks and promoting, and being perfect, orienting, and regulating oneself. Nathawat, Singh, and Singh (1997) stress individuals with low and high levels of need for achievement. They state the participants, who have a low need for achievement, attribute negative outcomes to factors more internal, stable, and global than those cited by the participants with a high need for achievement. Weiner (1974, 1985) maintains that need for achievement is closely related to the perception of the importance of achievement and unachievement. A low need for achievement is thought to be associated with a sense of low competence, low expectations, and an orientation towards failure (Atkinson, 1964; Atkinson, 1975; Nicholls, 1976). White (1959) states that the Theory of Competence Motivation plays a considerable role on unification of an individual's cognitive and social (intrapersonal/interpersonal) development. According to White, contradiction stems from the fact that although individualization, crisis, and commitment are considered as unique variables explaining motivation, such types of concepts lack competency, which is very beneficial for understanding the concept of motivation. …

Classroom Physical Design Influencing Student Learning and Evaluations of College Instructors: A Review of Literature.

Abstract: Introduction Today's classrooms, including studios, laboratories, auditoriums, and other indoor environments, have a wide variety of physical structures that support and facilitate student learning. There is no perfect classroom physical design to accommodate all types of academic activities. Because students learn in diverse ways, higher education administrators must realize that classrooms should be designed to promote various ways in which students acquire knowledge (The L-Shaped Classroom, 2007). Well-designed classrooms not only promote teamwork and interest in student learning, but also encourage active class participation (Niemeyer, 2003). Although college classrooms with permanently attached seating and furnishings are beyond the instructors' control, they may partially influence student evaluations of college instructors in terms of the overall teaching effectiveness and performance (Safer et al., 2005). Students are not the only ones who feel helpless and hopeless when the built classroom environment is beyond their control (Veltri et al., 2006). Faculty also feel helpless and sometimes even fearful (Veltri et al., 2006). Niemeyer (2001) does not believe faculty should be fearful of their teaching environment. Unfortunately, classrooms are not always a location that empowers faculty and that is conducive to student learning. Physical settings and factors can motivate or discourage many room occupants (Lackney, 1999). Hence, a classroom's arrangement of visual, furniture, and equipment should be carefully considered in order to empower both instructors and students (Niemeyer, 2001). College classrooms can be viewed from a physical perspective such as size, shape, interior lightning, finishes-color, thermal condition, noise level, furniture and seating arrangement, as well as location and availability of modern technology (Table 1). The objective of this paper is to review specific classroom physical attributes that profoundly impact student learning and their overall ratings of college instructors. Major Classroom Physical Attributes Size and Shape Student assessments of the teaching performance and effectiveness of their college instructors are influenced by physical structures of the classroom while taking into account the number of enrolled students (Safer et al., 2005). Good chalkboards or whiteboards and latest teaching technologies are important, but so are the size and shape of the room (Safer et al, 2005). Large, vault-like classrooms remain architecturally splendid, but are inadequate in providing the basic interaction required by instructors and students (Planning a Classroom, 2007). Students often have experienced great difficulty making eye contact with the instructor. A friendlier and more functional classroom shape would be a broad rather than a long room, so that student-instructor eye contact is possible, thus reducing the distance between students and instructors (Niemeyer, 2003). Furniture and Seating Arrangement Furniture arrangement in classrooms may influence student learning and adversely impact student evaluations of college instructors. Uncomfortable or inadequate furnishings may shift students' focus away from instructors or learning materials being presented (Veltri et al., 2006). Creating flexible classrooms imply that designing spaces with proportions to accommodate a variety of academic functions. Designing classroom space should exhibit column-free space and minimizing permanently attached hardware-desks, seating, and even today's latest technology (Calcara, 1999; The L-Shaped Classroom, 2007). In terms of seating arrangement, students sitting in front of classrooms have a greater visibility to instructors, chalkboards or whiteboards, and projector screens compared to students sitting far away (Planning a Classroom, 2007). A greater number of rows and seats in classrooms can lower the average student evaluations of overall teaching effectiveness (Safer et al. …

Three Phase Ranking Framework for Assessing Conceptual Understanding in Algebra Using Multiple Representations.

Abstract: Introduction The concept of unknown and operations with unknowns are central to teaching and learning middle school algebra. Learning about linear relationship with one unknown, students may often demonstrate a certain degree of proficiency manipulating algebraic symbols. When encouraged, they can often verbalize and explain the steps they performed, thereby demonstrating awareness of well-known procedures with symbols according to fixed rules. These students show a certain level of "operational conception" (Sfard, 1991, p. 4) or "process conception" (Dubinsky, 1991; Dubinsky & McDonald, 1991, p. 3). It is well known and documented (Herscovics, 1996; Herscovics & Linchevski, 1994; Hiebert, 1988; Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992; Kieran, 1989, 1990, 1992; Kieran & Chalouh, 1993; Langrall & Swafford, 1997) that correct and seemingly fluent demonstration of a procedure does not predictably indicate conceptual understanding or as Skemp (1976) suggested "relational understanding" (p. 21). In order to make informed decisions and avoid relying on subjective perceptions and feelings whether students learn algebraic concepts beyond procedures, educators are searching for consistent and dependable tools to objectively assess student thinking and behaviours. What would be a reliable indicator that could serve as relatively trustworthy and consistent measure of students' conceptual understanding? When does the transition from 'operational' or 'process conception' to 'structural' or 'object conception' take place? To answer these questions and to extend our knowledge of the processes related to developing conceptual understanding in algebra, the researcher launched a longitudinal study which led to the formation of the three phase ranking framework of conceptual understanding of linear relationship with one unknown described in this paper. Background Three key ideas served as the foundation of this research study: a) the role of multiple representations in probing understanding of mathematics learning, b) the theory of reducing level of abstraction as a mental process of coping with abstraction level of a given concept or task, and c) the idea of adaptation to abstraction and the development of conceptual understanding as one's ability to cope with higher levels of abstraction. These ideas guided the researcher's observations, analysis, and generation of the language that helped communicating some features of the development of conceptual understanding of linear relationship with one unknown. This section briefly outlines major theoretical positions and research that pertain to and serve as a background for this research study. i) Algebraic reasoning and conceptual understanding in algebra The term algebraic reasoning has been used to describe mathematical processes of generalizing a pattern and modeling problems with various representations (Driscoll, 1999; Herbert & Brown, 1997; NCTM, 2000). Driscoll (1999) defined algebraic reasoning as the "capacity to represent quantitative situations so that relations among variables become apparent" (p. 1). For Langrall and Swafford (1997) algebraic reasoning is "the ability to operate on an unknown quantity as if the quantity is known" (p. 2). Vance (1998) characterized algebraic reasoning as a way of reasoning involving variables, generalizations, different modes of representation, and abstracting from computations. Kaput (1993) viewed algebraic reasoning as a process of construction and representation of patterns and regularities, deliberate generalization, and active exploration and conjecture. These definitions will serve as a basis to explain conceptual understanding in algebra in this paper. Understanding is a logical power manifested by abstract thought. Piaget (1995) suggested that understanding in general and in mathematics in particular is a highly complex process of abstraction. He proposed the term reflective abstraction (Piaget, 1970, p. …

Promoting Resiliency among Native American Students to Prevent Dropouts.

Abstract: For this paper, the terms Native American and American Indian are used interchangeably, as their usage is often a matter of preference (Horse, 2005). Native American students face many at-risk factors that are related to high school dropout rates. These factors can be barriers to success in school and in future success after high school--college, careers, and life activities. Many high schools struggle to identify and address issues related to student dropout rates. This is especially true for at-risk youth. Resiliency of students may be a characteristic related to student success in schools (Davey, Eaker, & Waiters, 2003; Ungar, 2004). Resiliency Resiliency has an assortment of definitions that relate to individuals' responses to adverse conditions. Resiliency is the ability to cope with stress; a positive capacity of an individual to responds under pressure. Most studies of resiliency suggest that it is a dynamic process that enables the individual to respond or adapt under adverse conditions. These conditions could include social, emotional, economic, or personal aspects. Research tends to associate resiliency with positive outcomes independent of at-risk status, competent responses under adverse conditions, and recovery after trauma. In theory, resilient youth successfully adapt to the school environment independent or in spite of poverty, family factors, and/or social issues. The challenge facing schools is how to facilitate resiliency in youth. Educators and other stakeholders are working to facilitate success of youth at all levels; however, success in school is a marker for future success, which is especially important for at-risk youth. Common definitions of at-risk youth are associated with poverty, social economic status, and traumatic events. Resilient youth respond to such events or conditions in a proactive fashion. From an applied approach, resiliency is not a fixed characteristic of selected youth, but a form of a protection mechanism that shapes responses to potentially negative situations (Garmezy, 1991 a, 1991b; Rutter, 1987). Resiliency can be facilitated by educators and the school system in general. The interactions between resiliency and school success can provide a structural basis for planned interventions for students who are struggling in school. Often, the strains placed upon at-risk students make it difficult for them to advance through the educational pipelines. It is well-known that, without the proper support, students become overwhelmed, lose motivation, and ultimately give up on school. This phenomenon can be combated through the perseverance of key stakeholders--school, family, and community--as well as through the development of personal self-worth. For example, stakeholders can create a comfortable environment that fosters academic success and facilitates student resiliency. Resiliency is a characteristic that can be developed. Condly (2006) stated that "if a child grows up in a poor, violence ridden neighborhood and lives in a broken, dysfunctional family and yet manages to thrive, that child is labeled resilient [original emphasis]" (p. 221). Further, this author stated that it is important to think of resilience in continuous terms because resiliency can be learned and improved. Also, Arrington and Wilson (2000) noted that resiliency is the "exhibition of competence despite adversity" (p. 222). Although there are unique definitions of resiliency, there is no single definition for resiliency because of its complex, multidimensional nature. Still, with the definitions above, the commonly used framework by Garmezy (1991a, 1991b) identified three parts to resiliency that affect the resilient nature of students. This author found that the first factor was directed toward the individual, such as elements of intelligence and temperament. The second factor focused on the family and family support. And as the third factor, it was noted that external supports also have a critical role in resiliency. …

Attitudes of African American Males regarding Counseling in Four Texas Universities.

Abstract: Introduction Counseling African Americans provides counselors with a chance to become aware of the cultural issues that form a foundation for this particular client group (Ahia, 1997). Although issues such as mistrust, masculinity, and possible signs of weakness impact each African American differently, they underlie African American psychosocial development and are important in establishing a cultural context for counseling interaction (Ahia, 1984). The literature on the use of mental health services and facilities by different ethnic racial populations revealed that only a small number of African Americans utilize counseling services (O'Sullivan, Peterson, Cox, & Kirkeby, 1989; Snowden, 1999; Sue, 1977; Sussman, Robins, & Earls, 1987). African American males have many fears regarding mental health treatment. Fear of misdiagnosis, hospitalization, and treatment are just a few of the reasons they tend to avoid counseling (Whaley, 2001). The relationship between a counselor and a client is a crucial part of the counseling session. Harris (2001) found that counseling should be an effective tool to be used to help others gain insight to thinking, feeling, and behaving rationally, and the counselor should have the client's best interest in mind. African Americans have a different view of counseling. For African American men, counseling can seem taboo, and many will not participate in counseling sessions (Harris). Cross-cultural counseling is thought to be the most crucial and pertinent form of therapy in the area of counseling (Todisco & Salomone, 1991). Most of the time, counselors are involved with clients from different races than their own. Todisco and Salomone found that the usual scenario is for a Caucasian counselor to be in a therapeutic relationship with a minority client. Usually, when the counselor and client are from different races, there are increased levels of rejection, distrust, and misunderstanding (Pedersen, 1988; Todisco & Salomone). This occurs because minority clients often think the "white counselor" will report them to legal officials if they reveal too much information (Pedersen). Harris (2001) found that the relationship between a counselor and a client is very important in the therapeutic process. If therapy is to be effective, the client, according to Harris, must think and feel that he or she can trust the counselor. African Americans possess a trait called "healthy cultural paranoia," commonly known as cultural mistrust, which originated during periods of oppression experienced by African Americans (Terrell & Terrell, 1984). In 1999, Davis found that African American males were the most publicly seen group of individuals in the United States. It was unfortunate that what was remembered about them was in a negative connotation (Davis). Although much has been written about the counseling of men in recent years, very little literature has focused on specific issues concerning counseling African American men. The literature suggested that while there were issues common to men regarding counseling (Moore & Leafgren, 1990; Scher, Stevens, Good, & Eichenfield, 1987), the unique psychological and social pressures on African American men make mental health intervention with this client group particularly challenging (Lee, 1997). Research in the area of African American men and counseling concluded that, in general, most African American men do not seek counseling (Lee, 1997). Lee also found that, in most cases, African American men thought that seeking out counseling services was a sign of weakness or thought that others would consider them unmanly. In general, most men had this mindset; however, with African American men, this idea is taken to another level. Most African American men believed they already had a strike against them when it came to their public image. Doing something unmanly, such as attending counseling, would only threaten the masculine view that has already been diminished by society. …

Why Do They Teach? A Comparison of Elementary, High School, and College Teachers

Abstract: Introduction How satisfied are teachers? Why do they remain in the profession? By listening to the voices of elementary teachers, high school teachers, and college professors, we can gain insight into the profession and help increase job satisfaction and effectiveness, with positive outcomes for students. The purpose of the present study is to explore similarities and differences among three levels of teachers--elementary, high school and college--with respect to their satisfaction with teaching and their motivation to persist as classroom practitioners. The study represents a synthesis of the findings from earlier research that the author and her colleagues conducted with experienced elementary and high school teachers (Brunetti, 2001; Marston, Brunetti, & Courtney, 2005; Marston, Courtney, & Brunetti, 2006) and college professors (Marston & Brunetti, 2009). Theoretical Framework Life History In his seminal study, Huberman (1993) studied the lives of French-Swiss secondary teachers using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Like Huberman, I combined quantitative and qualitative in studying the lives of experienced teachers; and I incorporated a life-history approach as described by Goodson and Sikes (2001). Other researchers have also used life-history approaches in exploring the beliefs of teachers (Ball and Goodson, 1985; Knowles and Holt-Reynolds, 1994; Much more, 2001, 2004; Stanford, 2001; Williams, 2001). Elementary, High School and College Studies A review of research yielded few studies that focused specifically on the similarities and differences among elementary and high school teachers and college professors, although many studies have been conducted with one or another of these groups. Thompson, McNamara and Hoyle (1997) did a meta-analysis of job satisfaction findings of teachers and administrators at the three levels but did not compare across levels. Evans' 2001 study provides a comparative analysis of morale and job satisfaction among primary school teachers in the United Kingdom and a study of the effectiveness of teaching and learning in higher education. This study, which examined how leadership influences job related attitudes, reveals that Whether they realize it or not, it is their work contexts--not their leaders-upon which people are essentially reliant, and analysis of the findings of a parallel study, encompassing a wider perspective than that afforded by examination of the school teacher study only, demonstrated this to be the case (p. 305). The present study also provides a comparative analysis of separate studies that have been brought together to gain a wider perspective about teachers' motivations for remaining in the classroom. Methods Context Data for this study were collected from the following groups of teachers: 1) a high school sample from a large northern California school district, 2) an elementary school sample from the same California school district and an elementary school sample from two middle-sized school districts in eastern Pennsylvania, 3) a sample from a northern California college that is classified as comprehensive under the Carnegie categories but that has the "look and feel," in many ways, of an undergraduate liberal arts college. Data Sources Data for this study primarily came from two sources: Experienced Teacher Survey (Brunetti, 2001) (modified for use in higher education), and extended interview with select experienced teachers. Part 1: Experienced Teacher Survey (ETS). In each of these studies, the ETS was distributed to groups of experienced teachers--elementary, high school and college. Using a 4-point Likert scale, the ETS asked teachers to rate the importance of a variety of factors--18 in all: professional, practical, and social (Brunetti, 2001)--that influenced their decision to remain in their teaching positions. …

The seductive charms of a cross-curricular approach

Abstract: The Rose Review has been published to sort out all those nasty curriculum and pedagogical problems that have bewildered, frustrated and exhausted so many primary teachers over the recent past! This article addresses one aspect of the recommendations, namely, the role of cross-curricular approaches to strengthen teaching and learning. Perhaps this is the ‘Holy Grail’ for which we have eagerly waited. On the other hand, perhaps it is a ‘poisoned chalice’ to corrupt the sanctity of subject divisions and impose a modern version of project work on unsuspecting teachers and learners. Hopefully, it is a welcome flash of warm sunlight beaming through the dark clouds of curriculum prescription and government ‘recommended’ teaching methods. In this short article I offer a variety of perspectives on the place of the cross-curricular proposals and suggest that whatever our viewpoint, a curriculum review of any sort is an opportunity to interrogate the purpose of education for children and young people, who deserve ev...

Motivational Factors toward Pursuing a Career in Special Education.

Abstract: Motivational Factors toward Pursuing a Career in Special Education Chronic shortages in the field of special education continue to pose challenges for public schools across the United States (Billingsley, Carlson, & Klein, 2004; Boe, 2006; Billingsley & McLeskey, 2004; Brownell, Hirsch, Seo, 2004; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Strunk & Robinson, 2006; Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007). The limited number of individuals entering and/or remaining in the field of special education has resulted in school districts' inability to fill the necessary teaching positions; such shortages have been linked to difficulties in the recruitment and retention of qualified individuals (Olivarez & Arnold, 2006). Although difficulties with the recruitment of teachers, low retention, and high attrition rates are evident across all teaching professions, it is much more prevalent among special educators. Specifically, teachers of students with emotional/behavioral disorders exhibit the largest shortage, followed by those serving students with severe/profound disabilities, and learning disabilities (McLeskey, Tyler, & Flippin, 2004). Our national school districts are in a crisis. Specifically, districts are scrambling to find qualified special educators to fill the vacant teaching positions. According to Plash and Piotrowski (2006), a projected 611,550 positions in special education will need to be filled by the year 2010. However, the inability to recruit the necessary number of eligible individuals to fill positions continues to be a major problem for school administrators. An infinite number of research studies have been conducted in an attempt to identify barriers which deter people from entering the field (Billingsley, 2004; Gersten, Keating, Yovanoff, & Harniss, 2001; McLeskey et al., 2004; Olivarez & Arnold, 2006; Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007). Studies have identified perceptions of low social status associated with being a special educator, poor working conditions, high rates of stress, excessive paperwork, and low salaries with the decreased number of individuals entering the field of special education (Barmby, 2006; McLeskey et al., 2004; Rice, Goeling, & Peters, 2005). A vast amount of research also exists regarding factors which have contributed to the decisions of individuals to leave the field of special education (Billingsley, Carlson, & Klein, 2004; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007) and consequently contribute to the shortage of and high attrition rates of special education teachers (Barmby, 2006; Fish & Stephens, in press; McLeskey, Tyler, & Saunders, 2004). According to Plash and Piotrowski (2006), 13.2% of special education teachers leave their position each year. While six percent of special educators leave the field of education altogether, 7.2% transfer to general education positions. Prevalent variables identified as contributors to the exodus from the field include occupational stress, burnout (Botwinik, 2007; Greiner & Smith, 2006), weak support by administrators, unreasonable caseloads, large class size, low salaries (Darling-Hammond, 2003), testing and accountability pressures (Tye & O'Brien, 2002), and ineffective in-service programs (Kaufhold, Alverez, & Arnold, 2006; Plash & Piotrowski, 2006). A study conducted by Brownell, Smith, McNellis, and Lenk (1994) investigated the contextual variables related to teacher attrition. Findings indicated that those teachers who decided to stay in the field of special education were more committed to teaching students with disabilities, had a higher sense of efficacy, felt more prepared by their pre-service and initial teaching experiences, and exhibited more effective coping strategies than those who decided to leave the field. Two international studies were identified which focused on the motivating factors of individuals initially pursuing careers as general educators (Barmby, 2006; Watt & Richardson, 2007). …

Basic Factors that Affect General Academic Motivation Levels of Candidate Preschool Teachers.

Abstract: Introduction Education is a process of changing and improving behaviour at all levels of life. The portion of this process that takes place at educational institutions consists of goal, content, process of teaching-learning and testing stages. On the other hand, it is the teachers who take an active part in all these stages. Students' developing expected behaviour depends on the teacher. With the attitudes and behaviour that s/he demonstrates, a teacher can act as a model and may assist in the emergence of the desired human type. This circumstance reveals the relationship between the qualities of teachers and students. However, educating qualified teachers is no simple task and indeed the question of educating qualified teachers is one of the problems common to all developed and developing countries. Teachers' acquiring the proficiencies required by the profession makes it necessary that their pre-service educational needs be determined in a realistic manner and they be educated effectively during the pre-service education process. Moreover, educating qualified teachers or, to put it in another way, their acquisition of the desired behaviour during the pre-service education process depends on countless factors. Administration, financing, theory, guidance, curriculum development, assessment and measurement, instructional technology, method-technique, physical environment, tools, equipment and materials and manpower can be cited as the basic factors that involve thousands of these factors. One of the interfaces where these basic factors and their various sub problems is, without doubt, motivation (teacher / motivation, student / motivation, manager / motivation, environment / motivation, method /motivation etc.). A large number of studies are being conducted on motivation including many areas outside of education due to this recognized importance of motivation. Therefore, both the definitions and explanations regarding motivation present a huge diversity. On the basis of the common points of the definitions in the relevant literature, motivation can be defined as the psychological state that leads an individual to behave in a certain manner, that drives him/her to behave like that or makes him/her enthusiastic about performing a task. In other words, motivation is an individual's attempting an effort to perform a given task, to spend the required effort and continue that effort. The basic differences that distinguish motivated individuals from unmotivated ones are (1) continuity in taking an interest and paying attention, (2) enthusiasm to make an effort and spend the required time to perform the behaviour, (3) concentrating on the subject, devoting the self and relinquishing the desired behaviour in the face of a difficulty, persevering and showing determination to accomplish the desired end. Deci, 8,: Ryan (2000) classify motivation, in terms of its sources, under two categories, namely extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. Although both express an individual's determination in the process of performing behaviour, the factor that motivates the individual in the intrinsic motivation is the individual him/herself whereas in the extrinsic motivation factors external to the individual play a part. In the former, the individual performs the expected behaviour when s/he wishes to, but in the second one, s/he believes in the importance of the behaviour under the influence or influences of external stimuli and takes action. When the approaches and theories in the relevant literature concerning motivation are examined, it is acknowledged that a hidden mobilizing power, be it intrinsic or extrinsic, exists and that it is set in motion by some factors. The fundamental point of controversy, on the other hand, concerns what these mobilizing factors are. Despite differing views set forth in this regard, it is acknowledged by all approaches and theories that motivation is an important determinant in the learning process, and that the process of education may acquire the desired features through controlling motivation (Fidan, 1986; Acat, & Kosgeroglu, 2006). …

Active Citizenship through Sport Education.

Abstract: Sport education (SE) is an instruction model developed amid concerns about the lack of authentic, legitimate opportunities for young people to experience sport through physical education and was designed to facilitate enhanced links between experiences in physical education and those in the wider world of sport. The paper discusses how one UK primary school delivered key citizenship education learning through the use of SE. The research reported here is based on interviews with teachers and students in Year 6 at one co-education, state-run primary school. The paper highlights the possibilities for teaching citizenship through the medium of sport while recognising the central importance of the creative teaching approach rather than the subject matter of sport in facilitating the development of active citizenship. The possibilities for citizenship education through sport to be celebratory and supportive of real-world discourses are highlighted. As a solution to the overcrowded curriculum in primary schools,...

Student Perspectives on Homework.

Abstract: Introduction and Background Information Teachers are finding that a number of students do not complete homework assignments for various reasons, and have long experienced the frustration of students who do not or will not complete their homework assignments. This is not a new problem as this phenomenon has been researched for decades (Cooper, 2001). Teachers often complain that they cannot get their students to complete or attempt homework assignments. Darling-Hammond & Olivia (2006) share a number of reasons that students report why they do not complete homework assignments. One of the most frequently reported reasons is that students do not know how to do the work. Some students reported not knowing how to begin the homework assignment, and in some cases they do not understand the instructions for their assignment as given by the teacher. Secondly, Darling-Hammond & Olivia (2006) reports that students did not feel that the assignment was meaningful, and they did not understand how the work related to the lesson of the day. An additional reason students feel that homework was not meaningful is that they did not receive immediate or any feedback from the teacher regarding the homework assignment completed. If a teacher does not grade the homework and return it to the students the next day or quickly thereafter, the students report feeling like they have wasted their time on that activity. Students prefer that the teacher show how the homework has an impact on current subject matter and connect homework assignments to current lessons. This way, the students feel a sense of self-satisfaction, knowing that the completion of their homework assignment is applicable to their class activities. Pasi (2006) reports that students may not complete homework assignments which they feel are boring and routine; for example, repetitious worksheets and handouts. Teachers should make the homework relevant, but interesting and appealing to the students' learning style. Pasi also recommended that teachers consider incorporating project-based assignments in an effort to increase homework completion. Part-time jobs or baby-sitting siblings may interfere with the students' ability to complete their assignments. Extracurricular activities such as soccer, basketball, or football, may end late at night sending students home tired and unmotivated to complete their assigned homework tasks (D-Hammond & Olivia, 2006). Students reported becoming stressed from the volume of homework that was assigned by their collectives teachers within a day's time in high school and ultimately not getting all of their homework completed (Lacina-Gifford, L.J, & R. Gifford, 2004). Those same studies report that students need down time to relax after attending school, and that parents are requesting school boards to reduce the amount of homework that schools are required to give students. Researchers also report that teachers assign homework because some parents expect their children to come home with one or two tasks (Brock, Lapp, Flood, Fisher, & Han, 2007). These expectations typically come from students whose parents are 'professionals and upper-class' (Skinner, 2004). Professional and upper class parents want their children to be challenged to perform to the best of their ability and be prepared for success in the real world. Additionally, the current general consensus of most Americans' opinion on homework appears to retain the notion that the more the teacher assigns, the better the school. More homework is sometimes correlated with schools that offer 'rigor and challenge' (Brock et al., 2007). In opposition to the more homework, better school idea, some parents are complaining to school boards that their child receives too much homework from their teachers. Parents say that their child is burdened and overworked. Parents want to make sure that teachers follow the guidelines for assigning homework established by the district and that they are not exceeding those limits (Kohn, 2007). …

Non-Renewal of Probationary Teachers: Negative Retention

Abstract: All states differentiate between the requirements for ending the employment of teachers depending on their tenure status. Most importantly, a tenured teacher must be afforded certain procedural rights prior to dismissal or termination. These rights generally include notice of the grounds for the action and the opportunity to a hearing. Depending on the statutory protections of the state granting tenure, tenured teachers often must be provided with names of witnesses, the power of subpoena to compel production of documents and testimony of witnesses, the right to counsel at all stages of the process, and the right to appeal. Non-tenured, or probationary teachers, are not generally afforded the same due process rights as tenured teachers. Probationary teachers are considered to be "at-will" employees. They may be non-renewed without cause at the option of the employer upon proper notice of the intent not to renew by the employing school board at the end of any contract year. The legal precedent for this is found in Roth v Board of Regents, 408 U.S. 564 (1972). In this 1972 case the Court held that non-tenured teachers need not be given due process unless the non-renewal deprived the teacher of a property or liberty interest. A property interest means that a teacher has a legal expectation of continuing employment, which a probationary teacher on a one year renewable contract does not. A liberty interest is the right of a teacher not to have their reputation defamed. A contract renewal generally states no reason for a new contract not to be tendered (without cause). Therefore, there is no violation of a liberty interest for the probationary teacher as no reasons for non-renewal are made public. In each of the states analyzed in this study, teachers are placed on probationary status for three years before they are tendered a contract that grants them tenure or an expectation of continuing employment. Teacher contract non-renewal transpires for a variety of reasons. Common reasons may include excessive absenteeism and tardiness, neglect of duty, abusive language, administering corporal punishment, insubordination, unethical conduct, sexual misconduct, abuse of a controlled substance, theft or fraud, misuse of a school computer, criminal misconduct outside the work setting, and conduct unbecoming a teacher (Lawrence, Vashon, Leake, & Leake, 2005). Legal causes for teacher non-renewal are typically defined in state statutes, and often include incompetency, insubordination, immorality, good cause, reduction in force, and contract violations. In all cases, the school principal is expected to act in a reasonable manner and to avoid arbitrary and capricious behavior. This study investigated reasons for the contract non-renewal of probationary teachers. Targeted school principals from Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina responded to a mailed survey asking them to provide demographic information and to provide reasons they would be likely to recommend contract non-renewal for probationary teachers. Common Legal Reasons for Contract Non-Renewal Probationary teachers may have their contracts non-renewed without cause, however typical grounds exist. These most common legal reasons often include incompetence, insubordination, and immorality. The targeted principals were asked to identify the reasons that they would be most likely to recommend a contract non-renewal with the following answer choices provided: absenteeism, classroom management, ethical violations and inappropriate conduct, incompetence, professional demeanor, tardiness, and other (please specify). Teacher competence is viewed as a pattern of behavior rather than a single event. Alexander and Alexander (2009) most recently defined incompetence in the context of fitness to teach, noting that "fitness to teach is essential and contains a broad range of factors...lack of knowledge of subject matter, lack of discipline, unreasonable discipline, unprofessional conduct, and willful neglect of duty" (p. …

What We Can Learn from the First Digital Generation: Implications for Developing Twenty-First Century Learning and Thinking Skills in the Primary Grades.

Abstract: There is a growing body of research that provides evidence that today's late adolescents and college-age students have been affected in many ways, some adversely, by growing up in the ever-increasing technology-driven world – one in which they have been living, playing and communicating. The purpose of this article is to present recent research findings to assess what twenty-first century learning and thinking skills should be developed in young children to prepare them for the digital demands of daily life as they grow into pre-adolescence.

Professional Development and the Master Technology Teacher: The Evolution of One Partnership

Abstract: Introduction Technology use in the classroom has been and is often viewed as an "add on" or as a methodology teachers are encouraged to implement due to national and state standards and objectives set forth by accrediting bodies. Professional development programs that help teachers learn how to use technology have varied and have included the workshop model of "how" to use a tool to the more sophisticated professional learning group model that encourages sustainability and accountability across the curriculum (Jenson, Lewis, & Smith, 2002; Guhlin, Omelas, & Diem, 2002; Willis & Cifuentes, 2002). Much research has expounded upon the need for teachers to overcome barriers of using technology, such as the lack of time to learn technology and a lack of technology support and access (Bauer & Kenton, 2005; Butler & Sellbom, 2002; Fletcher, 2006). However, as some scholars have noted, simply becoming more comfortable with the technology and understanding a tool does not equal nor "ensure effective technologically facilitated teaching" (Harris & Hofer, 2009, p. 23). Most researchers and teachers agree that professional development for teachers in the area of technology integration must continue to evolve from the 2 hour "this is the technology and here is how to use it" workshop to a sustainable model from which teachers can "systemically change instruction" (Brock, 2009, p. 10) and learn from other educators' failures and successes over a period of time (Jenson, Lewis, & Smith, 2002). The integration of technology into content, as reflected by the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) should locus on the interplay of technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge. As noted by Mishra and Koehler, "Knowledge of technology, content, and pedagogy does not exist in a vacuum; it exists and functions within specific contexts" (2009, p. 16). Peer coaching and modeling technology lessons in teaching and learning (Joyce & Showers, 2002) may help teachers contextually overcome personal and classroom barriers, to think outside the box (Wright & Wilson, 2005-2006), and to develop "creative repurposing" (Mishra & Koehler, 2009, p. 16) to use a technology that is specific to the teacher's classroom and curricular needs. The Formation of MTT The University of Alabama (UA) initially formed the Master Technology Teacher (MTT) partnership in 2000 as part of the university's Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to Use Technology (PT3) grant initiative. This journey began as a response to a grant objective to create better inservice teacher training and learning opportunities for faculty and preservice teachers in our teacher education program (TEP) to understand and integrate technology in secondary education classrooms. The TEP's primary goal was to create a cohort of middle and high school inservice teachers to become our Master Technology Teachers; the MTTs would then serve as key partners in our PT3 grant objectives. Grant objectives were: (a) to establish collaborative opportunities which encourage use of technology by preservice teachers and inservice teachers in coursework and in field experiences; (b) to raise awareness and knowledge of emerging and innovative technologies; (c) to provide multiple professional development opportunities for faculty; and, (d) to encourage best practices of using technology to meet pedagogical needs. In order to meet these objectives, it was important to "recruit" inservice teachers from our two local school districts in the TEP's area content fields of English/Language Arts, Foreign Language, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. We did not recruit teachers based on their technology use, but rather for their desire to learn new ways to use technology to enhance teaching and learning. We wanted UA preservice teachers to collaborate with the MTTs to seek new ways to integrate technology into secondary classrooms. …

A Qualitative Research on the Teaching Strategies and Class Applications of the High School Teachers Who Teach English in Turkey as a Foreign Language.

Abstract: Introduction The first and the most important thing to do in language education and teaching is to evoke interest, desire and positive attitude in the students towards the target language. The viewpoint that is to be given to the students on the importance of the foreign language learning will directly affect the efficiency of the teachers in the language teaching activities. The teachers who have taught their students the importance of learning a foreign language will be more advantageous than the other teachers in terms of continuing their activities in accordance with the objectives. The continuance of the learning and teaching process in accordance with the objectives is dependent on the outlook, knowledge accumulation and occupational experience of the teacher. The teachers who make a good communication with their students; prepare their materials to be used beforehand; and act more professionally in determining the strategies, methods and techniques to be used are the ones who can perform their occupations consciously. With this understanding, the teachers who give importance to the physical infrastructure of the classroom and make the learning environment interesting for the students will be able to achieve their goals in a short time. The strategies which determine the methods and techniques to be used by the teachers in the class activities affect the success of the language teaching activities and accordingly the efficiency in education. There are basic principles which can assist to the strategy development, methods and techniques application studies in foreign language teaching. These principles can be listed as follows: * Listening, speaking, reading and writing skills must be taught together when teaching to use the language as a communication tool. * The visual and auditory tools make the teaching more effective in foreign language teaching. They attract the attention of the students to the lesson; create dialog environments for the students to use the learned language more effectively; and assist in forming the natural environment in the classroom. * Using the mother language in the classroom must not be a taboo. It must be used when necessary, but the students must hear and use the learned language more in the foreign language lessons. * How the information taught in the classroom is used in the daily communication must be showed to the students. In order for the class learning to become permanent, the examples must be given from daily life, and students must be given the opportunity to use what they learned. * Individual differences must be taken into account (Demirel, 1993, p. 23-27). * Before starting each lesson, the students must be informed on the objectives about what will be learned in that lesson, and they must be motivated for learning. The most important factors that guide the learning and teaching process and enable the students to gain acquisitions in accordance with the determined goals are the class and non-class applications. The application pattern emerges with the approaches, methods, techniques and tactics which are followed in the process. The approach (strategy) is actualized with the methods, and the methods are actualized with the techniques and tactics. The strategy is existent between the methods and techniques. According to this hierarchical order, there is a relationship in which the techniques actualize a method and this method is consistent in accordance with an approach (Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p. 14-30). The learning patterns formed by using the methods and techniques which are appropriate to the preferred strategy create an environment for the learning of different student masses. Forming skill earning environments for the acquisitions by using different approaches, methods and techniques, and presenting different learning styles for the students who have different features is also important for the equal opportunity in education. …

The Effects of Peer Training on the Social Interactions of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Abstract: Introduction The term "autism spectrum disorders" (ASD) represents a complex pervasive developmental disability marked by deficits in social interaction, communication skills, and play behaviors. The condition is often characterized by the presence of ritualistic or compulsive physical behavior (Loftin, Odom, & Lantz, 2008; Owen-DeSchryver, Carr, Cale, Blakeley-Smith, 2008, Thiemann & Goldstein, 2004). According to the Autism Society of America (ASA, 2008), symptoms of ASD may include any of the following in varying degrees: difficulty in expressing needs; using gestures or pointing instead of words; tantrums, often physical; reduced eye contact; refusal or no response to physical touch; inappropriate attachment to toys or objects; laughing or crying for no apparent reason; and repeating sentences or phrases rather than using standard mechanics of language. As with most disabilities, the severity of ASD may vary from a mild to severe (Gillberg & Coleman, 2000; Muhle, Trentacoste, & Rapin, 2004). There is strong evidence to suggest the number of children diagnosed with ASD is increasing rapidly (ASA, 2008; Bertrand et al., 2001; Shattuck, P., 2006; Stockstad, E., 2001; Fombonne, E., 2003). This finding has resulted in a significant increase in the diagnosis and treatment strategies for individuals suspected of having a disorder on the autism spectrum; however, many of the strategies are not based on scientifically obtained evidence to support their use with this population. A variety of interventions have been advocated for ASD in the literature. One of the most frequently cited intervention strategies incorporates the use of peer intervention or peer training. Peer assisted social intervention in its purest form is behavior modification with a normally developing peer, modeling predetermined appropriate social behavior. Using this approach, a number of behavioral modification techniques have been utilized. Stahmer (1995) developed the use of a multiple baseline intervention, pivotal response training (PRT), in which change of certain behaviors was thought to affect change in other associated behaviors, without specifically targeting them. A visual cuing system developed by Krantz and McClannahan (1998) involved a script-fading procedure to increase social initiations to a teacher. This technique proved most effective with older children with ASD. For higher functioning children with ASD, Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, and Frea (1992) taught children to self-monitor appropriate verbal responses to social situations by use of a wrist counter. Decreases in inappropriate behaviors as well as disruptive behavior were seen in all four subjects. Although each of these techniques targeted social communication, they differed in many ways such as age of the participants with ASD, type of social partners involved (e.g., child or adult), target behavior measured (e.g., initiation, response, etc.), and the intervention used. Research conducted by teams of collaborators over the past 20 years has shown that peer mediated techniques foster favorable results in skills acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of social interaction (Goldstein, Kaczmarek, Pennington, & Shafer, 1992; Odom et al., 1999; Odom & Strain, 1986; Strain ES., 1983; Strain & Danko, 1995; Strain, Kerr, & Ragland, 1979; Strain, Kohler, Storey, & Danko, 1994; & Strain, Shores, & Timm, 1977). Their work has provided substantial empirical support for a single type of social intervention for children with ASD, namely, peer assisted social intervention. Placement of children with ASD into an inclusive preschool or school setting has shifted away from conventional training toward the inclusion and influences of typically developing peers. Such an inclusion is thought to facilitate the development of appropriate social skills and interactions in children with ASD (Laushey & Heflin, 2000). The inclusion of peers into intervention programs for children with ASD can take several forms. …

Parent Involvement in School-Wide Social Skills Instruction: Perceptions of a Home Note Program.

Abstract: Social skills' training has traditionally been considered important for children with behavior or learning disorders (Townsend, 1994). Today many agree that schools should be attending to the social needs of all children (Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg, & Walberg, 2007); school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) has begun to address these needs (Sugai, Horner, & Gresham, 2002). However, social skills instruction has been challenged for its lack of generalization (Armstrong & McPherson 1991; Gresham, 1998; Townsend). One way schools may be able to improve the generalization of social skills is to include parents in the processes of instruction and reinforcement (Armstrong & McPherson; Budd & Itzkowitz, 1990). School-Wide Positive Behavior Support Positive school environments can be cultivated using preventative teaching strategies that are fundamental to positive behavior support (PBS) (Sugai et al., 2002). As a model of school reform that has experienced unprecedented growth (Muscott et al., 2008), school-wide PBS seeks to employ evidence-based practices to achieve socially important behavior goals as well as to improve academics (Sugai & Horner, 1999). PBS incorporates a three-tiered model to design interventions that meet the individual needs of students (Lane & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2004). Schoolwide PBS is based on research indicating that approximately 80% of students respond to universal or primary level interventions that explicitly teach and reinforce behavior expectations (such as social skills) to all students in a school (Horner & Sugai, 2002; Sugai & Horner). Recently more attention has centered on collaboration at the school-wide level with a focus on involving parents and others in the community (Scott & Eber, 2003). Epstein (1986) noted that teachers and parents share common goals for children, and both have roles in their socialization and education. Many teachers believe that they can be more effective in achieving learning goals when they have parental assistance (Epstein). This can be accomplished via learning activities in the home which can also promote desirable homeschool relationships. School-wide PBS, which underscores the importance of a strong working relationship between parents and educators (Muscott et al., 2008), can be used as a framework for parent involvement in school programs (Hendley, 2007). Social Competence and Skills Social skills are essential for educational and social achievement (Lane, Menzies, Barton-Arwood, Doukas, & Munton, 2005). The significance of social competence and social skills must not be underestimated; they are powerful predictors of school adjustment, school success, and lifelong success (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008; Siperstein & Bak, 1988). McArthur (2002) explained that teaching social skills communicates society's behavioral expectations. Children who lack social skills may face psychological consequences (Gresham, 1998; Utay & Utay, 2005), as well as poor relationships, academic and occupational failure, and despair (Merrell & Gimpel, 1998). It has been widely acknowledged that children with high incidence disabilities have deficits in social skills (Gresham, Sugai, & Horner, 2001). Involving these students in social skills instruction has become common practice in special education programs (Maag, 2006). However, many students in general education also have social deficits that disrupt their ability to be successful at school and in the community. Accordingly, social skills interventions are now being used school-wide with children who do not have identified disabilities (Merrell & Gimpel, 1998; Townsend, 1994). Unfortunately, many social skills programs have neglected to plan for generalization (Gresham, 1998). In their seminal article, Stokes and Baer (1977) found that many students have challenges generalizing skills which are taught in only one setting. …

Adult Illiteracy: The Root of African Underdevelopment

Abstract: Introduction African countries, without an exception, are generally categorized among "third world countries" which are characterized by underdevelopment of their human and natural resources and the poor quality of life of the majority of their citizenry. There is the general belief that education is an instrument for social, economic and political development. Evidence in support of this assertion can be found in the relationship between the level of educational development and the high standard of living in developed nations of the world, such as the United States of America, Britain, Canada and Japan, among others. They are industrialized, modern economics and democracies mainly because they have well-educated, enlightened, and skilled adult populations. Conversely, African countries remain underdeveloped due mainly to a large percentage of illiterates and unskilled worker force within the adult population. UNESCO World report (UNESCO 1991 and 1995) showed that the continents of Africa and Asia harboured the largest percentage of adult illiterates in the world. It is also in the two continents and South American that we found almost all the poor, underdeveloped nations. The main thrust of this paper is to show how Africa can step out of the stigma of underdevelopment to join the elites class of developed countries when it seriously tackles the problem of adult illiteracy. Surely many African governments have invested heavily to expand access to formal education and increased enrollments rates at primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. However, although there exist laudable policies and programmes for adult and non-formal education with a major emphasis on the eradication, or at least reduction of adult illiteracy, there appears to be a growing gap between theory and practice, policy and implementation. Africa is a big continent with over 52 countries, so there is some risk in generalizations since there are glaring differences between countries, for example, between those in North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as between Anglophone and Francophone, African Nations. The Dimensions of the dichotomy occur at the cultural, religious, educational, economic and political levels, and hence the countries are at different levels of underdevelopment. It is for these reasons that this paper will use the Nigerian situation as a case study. In some respects, Nigeria is a good sample because it is the largest African country with a population estimated at over 120 million. There is also great diversity among the people in terms of religion, ethnic groups with over 250 languages, and differences in stages of educational development. Indeed some states of the federation are officially classified as "educationally disadvantaged states" due to their having low enrollment ratios and high adult illiteracy rates. Nigerian policy in Adult and Non-formal education Every major educational policy or programme on education produced by the government of Nigeria has devoted some attention to the education of adults, nonformal education, and eradication of illiteracy. The constitution of the federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 1999) included in section 18 on Education Objectives, the provision of free adult literacy programmes. In section 6 of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004 edition), Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education was the subject matters. The Federal Ministry of Education in its Education Sector Status Report (FME 2004) examined in chapter 8 the progress made by the country in the implementation of policies and programmes on adult and non-formal education. To demonstrate how serious it was in the desire not only to reduce the rate of adult illiteracy in the country, but also to ensure that those adults who did not go beyond primary school education remain literate and improve themselves educationally, government enacted a law by Decree 17 of 1990 on the establishment of National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal education. …

Responding to children's drawings

Abstract: This article aims to explore the issues that face primary school teachers when responding to children's drawings. Assessment in art and design is an ongoing concern for teachers with limited experience and confidence in the area and, although children's drawings continue to be a focus of much research, the question of what it is that teachers say to young children that has a positive impact on the development of their drawing is under-explored. The article aims to identify the components of what constitutes children's competence in observational drawing through a detailed analysis of a drawing made by a 6-year-old child. Connections between the teaching of drawing and the teaching of literacy are highlighted, and the article concludes that children who are able make confident representations of the visual world are better placed to express their own ideas, thoughts and experiences through art.

Assessment Practices of Advanced Field Ecology Courses.

Abstract: Introduction Field trip experience is an essential part of student learning in an advanced ecology course. Learners enrolling in advanced ecology courses are comprised of upper-undergraduate and graduate students. The field ecology course introduces students to ecology research, with weekly field research projects emphasizing population ecology, interactions among species, and ecosystem processes. Classes meet weekly, with six hours of combined lecture, field, and laboratory work. The pre-requisite to this course is either introduction to ecological principles or principles of ecology course. Field trips help students comprehend concepts and develop research skills to a degree that cannot be accomplished by a combination of lectures and laboratories. Instructors' effect on students should be aspiring and motivational by using various strategies for teaching and assessment in field ecology courses (Lei, 2003). Field instructors' skill at information transfer would be increased by teaching experience, leadership ability, subject matter exposure, and familiarity of field trip setting. Field instructors may get students excited or worried about the upcoming field trips and associated learning activities (Lei, 2003). Learning activities are partially based on students' ability to perform proper field research techniques and report subsequent results in a coherent manner (Lei, 2003). Field trips provide a valuable learning tool for students, and are an important component of advanced field ecology courses. Before a semester starts, instructors must identify the most interesting topics within ecology for students, and must pre-select several ideal field sites in order to facilitate and maximize student learning. Before starting on any field trip, the instructor should emphasize significance of the trip and explain the field characteristics students were about to embark on (Manzanal, 1999). Instructors should clearly outline the following items: What students are expected to learn, how the trip ties into the current curriculum, and how the field destination and its activities relate to student research interests (McLoughlin, 2004). As Orion and Hofstein (1994) pointed out, the ability of students to conduct cognitive tasks during a field trip depends on psychological preparation, type and level of knowledge and skill, and familiarity of the field trip setting. Orion and Hofstein (1991) stated that there is the need for properly preparing the students, before taking a learning field trip, in order to reduce the gap between their expectations and the reality the will meet. Falk (1983) and Orion and Hofstein (1994) found that field trip learning was increased when students had proper preparatory lessons prior to the trip. Assuming students absorb knowledge by simply going on a field trip is too idealistic and simplistic to be an effective guide for field-based learning (McLoughlin, 2004). Instructors should actively seek out information that makes students think, compare it to what they already know, internalize new information, and question what seems problematic (McLoughlin, 2004). Instructors who want their students to connect with course content during a field trip must, therefore, plan interesting learning activities before, during, and after the trip in order to encourage students to hypothesize, compare, analyze, synthesize, create, and reflect on their experience (McLoughlin, 2004). These field activities can focus students on discovery learning, collaborative or individual learning, hypotheses testing, problem solving, critical and creative thinking, as well as other applications of course content and field research methods. The lines between instruction and assessment blur as these field activities serve to scaffold continuing student learning and assess that learning (McLoughlin, 2004). Assessment includes a full range of procedures to gain information about student learning (Miller et al. …

Cooperative Learning Technique through Internet Based Education: A Model Proposal

Abstract: 1. INTRODUCTION Scientific and technological changes directly affect the education process. These changes help in solving the educational problems, but they also create some new educational problems. Humans, who know how live together with the problems or are able to solve them, have developed and will continue to develop many models, approaches, methods and techniques to solve educational problems. One of the models that they developed is distance education model, which is based on the concepts of continuing education or "lifelong learning". Considering the structure of modern life which is gradually becoming more and more complex, humans have to develop more effective teaching practice models to solve educational problems. Many distance education programs in almost every field and at various levels are applied on the world. By 2001, 80% of colleges and universities and 60% of the companies in the USA have implemented at least one remote education practice. By 2005, the number of students who attended online distance education programs is 3.2 million, and the annual increase in the number of the students is about 360.000 (Allen ve Seaman, 2006). It can be said that the rapid developments in information and communication technologies have made the distance education practices widespread, and that these developments have diversified the nature of distance education practices. When we look at the distance education practices applied today, we find that there are practices such as open-university, Internet based education, web based education, etc. The competitive environment in the field of education, as in all the other fields, compels the educational institutions to search for new methods to provide educational facilities to more people without exceeding their budgets. As a result of these searches, new educational models, which may differ depending upon the intended use or tools, are developed. One of the models developed in accordance with distance education models is Internet based education model. Internet has the potential of being widely used in education. It is clear that Internet will inevitably become more and more valuable in the field of education, because Internet is becoming the most valuable learning environment for the people of information society. That the Internet provides written, oral and visual communication between the participants who are at different places, that it enables the students' interaction with other students and teachers, and that it does these so fast are the factors that support this idea. In addition, Internet based education which depends on written, oral and visual communication is becoming widely used especially at higher education. In this study, the concepts of internet based education, the ways of communication on the Internet and cooperative learning will be explained at first, and then, the issue of how to provide cooperative learning using Internet based education and the advantages of web based cooperative learning will be discussed. Lastly, "group research game technique" based on the cooperative learning will be proposed and how it can be employed will be explained. 2. METHOD This research is based on the literature survey methodology. Definitions, interpretations and evaluations regarding to the concepts studied in the study were explored through theoretical resources. Next, a theoretical model proposal is presented. 3. INTERNET BASED EDUCATION Internet, which is a global communication environment, is a communication system in which all the computers in the world (the number of these computers will be expressed in billions in the future) are connected to each other through a protocol (lP). There are millions, even billions, of systems connected to this communication network. In this system, along with personal computers, millions of commonly used systems communicate each other without taking time and place into account. …