Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1989"
TL;DR: This study investigated the effects of learner control and program control on the achievement and continuing motivation of high school students and revealed a highly significant difference in continuing motivation favoring learner over program control.
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of learner control and program control on the achievement and continuing motivation of high school students. The influence of the availability of computer-delivered instruction on student motivation was also examined. Continuing motivation was measured by student choice of learner control or program control as the mode for a second instructional program after subjects completed an initial program under their randomly assigned mode. Results revealed a highly significant difference in continuing motivation favoring learner over program control. The differences in posttest performance and performance during instruction between learner and program control were not significant. The data also revealed significant preferences to study both science and an alternative subject when they are presented by computer over when they are not.
127 citations
TL;DR: An integrated meta-model derived from both CBI and non-CBI research and theory is presented, which reflects a more reflective view on the relationship among learner, learning task and performance requirements, and the selective use of media capabilities.
Abstract: Although considerable research has been published concerning learning and cognition in general, little impact has been reported on the design of computer-based instruction (CBI). In addition, CBI designs have been influenced negatively by technocentric perspectives, where technological capabilities dictate lesson activities, rather than a more reflective view on the relationship among learner, learning task and performance requirements, and the selective use of media capabilities. Attempts to extrapolate the relevance of non-CBI research and theory to advance a comprehensive and integrated view of the design of CBI have been rare. An integrated meta-model derived from both CBI and non-CBI research and theory is presented in this article.
127 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors advocated the external validity of studies to increase the relevance of findings to applied technologies, usage of media replications to test the generalizability of findings obtained with individual media and to demonstrate delivery applications; and learner control as a potentially effective and practical means of adapting validated instructional strategies to individuals.
Abstract: Due in part to the diverse characteristics and training of its researchers, the field of instructional technology is currently plagued by much uncertainty regarding meaningful research questions and accepted paradigms for investigating them. Major areas in which these uncertainties are manifested concern the degree of emphasis to be placed on basic versus developmental research and considerations involving the separation of media from methods in research designs. To help researchers achieve a “happier medium” in balancing instructional technology goals with the performance of well-designed and scientifically sound studies, greater attention to three concerns is advocated: the external validity of studies to increase the relevance of findings to applied technologies; usage of media replications to test the generalizability of findings obtained with individual media and to demonstrate delivery applications; and learner control as a potentially effective and practical means of adapting validated instructional strategies to individuals. Each of these issues is discussed in relation to research conducted by the authors and to suggested designs for future studies.
126 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors trace the evolution of the theory of common elements from its mentalistic beginnings, through the behaviorist view of elements as stimuli and responses related by the mechanism of conditioning, to the contemporary view of mental representations, knowledge, and strategies operated on by cognitive mechanisms including automatization, inferential reasoning, and metacognitive monitoring.
Abstract: Transfer of teaching is central to education In this article, the evolution of the sole viable theory of transfer—the theory of common elements—is traced from its mentalistic beginnings, through the behaviorist view of elements as stimuli and responses related by the mechanism of conditioning, to the contemporary view of elements as mental representations, knowledge, and strategies operated on by cognitive mechanisms including automatization, inferential reasoning, and metacognitive monitoring Second, the cognitive theory of elements and mechanisms is used to answer three educationally crucial questions: (1) How do students select, from all they have learned, particular knowledge and skills for use in new situations? (2) What determines the utility of the knowledge and skills selected? (3) When selected knowledge and skills are not useful, what determines whether and how learners cope? Third, the authors identify what they view as needed refinements in experimental methods of studying transfer, in the theory of common elements, in basic and applied research, and in the uses of technology in education
112 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the performance and attitudes toward instruction of learners working individually on a computer-based sex education lesson were compared with learners working cooperatively in dyads, and the results indicated that students who worked cooperatively significantly outperformed those who worked individually.
Abstract: In this study, the performance and attitudes toward instruction of learners working individually on a computer-based sex education lesson were compared with those of learners working cooperatively in dyads A tatal of 60 eighth-graders received treatments that either required individual work or encouraged cooperation with a partner Results indicated that students who worked cooperatively significantly outperformed those who worked individually On an attitude measure, interactions were detected between instructional method and gender, as well as among instructional method, gender, and ability High-ability males and females reported comparable attitudes toward each instructional method, but ratings for low-ability students were differentiated according to instructional method: Low-ability males responded most favorably, while low-ability females responded least favorably to individualized methods, and low-ability females responded most favorably and low-ability males least favorably to cooperative methods
111 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the identity crisis in educational technology, and what new directions educational technologists need to pursue to improve the health and value of their field and their knowledge base.
Abstract: Educational technology seems to be suffering from an identity crisis. Many exciting things are happening in the field, but increasingly we educational technologists find ourselves on the sidelines in our own ballgame. People from other disciplines are taking an interest in educational technology, but they show little interest in our knowledge base (often even little awareness that it exists!) and little interest in our professional organizations and publications. Why is this happening? What can we do about it? To what extent might our mindset be the problem? What new directions do we need to pursue to improve the health and value of our field? These are the central issues which this article discusses.
94 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, two perspectives on the status of current research are offered: (1) In the past 15 years, the field has made extraordinary advances in the technical excellence of research studies, and yet our analytical investment at the front end of research planning has not kept pace.
Abstract: Two perspectives on the status of current research are offered: (1) In the past 15 years, the field has made extraordinary advances in the technical excellence of research studies, and yet (2) our analytical investment at the front end of research planning has not kept pace. An analysis of present problems is accompanied by two suggestions for future developments in instructional technology research: (1) we need to go beyond descriptive research methods and adoptprescriptive research methodology; and (2) researchers should seek broader and deeper knowledge of previous research in both instructional design and development before they conduct studies.
82 citations
75 citations
TL;DR: Findings showed that learners who received preferred contexts (i.e., learner-control-context subjects) selected a greater number of examples than those who received prescribed contexts.
Abstract: The present study examines uses and effects of learner-control of the context or theme of practice examples on a statistics lesson in combination with learner control of the number of examples examined. Subjects were 227 undergraduate students assigned to 15 treatments formed by crossing five context conditions (learner control, education, business, sports, no-context) with three instructional support conditions (learner-control, maximum, minimum). No differences in achievement were attained as a function of either treatment variable. Findings showed, however, that learners who received preferred contexts (i.e., learner-control-context subjects) selected a greater number of examples than those who received prescribed contexts. In addition, achievement was positively related to the frequency with which subjects varied the number of examples selected across lessons. Despite the absence of achievement benefits, the learner-control-context strategy elicited highly favorable student reactions as a learning orientation.
66 citations
TL;DR: It is concluded that hypermedia has strengths and weaknesses and that it may become merely hyped media unless good teaching applications are developed.
Abstract: Hypermedia and its educational applications are discussed in this article. Background information is provided, and software, knowledge representation, navigation, and authoring issues are described. Issues about hypermedia's role in learning also are examined, and hypotheses are advanced about when it may be an effective teaching approach. One conclusion is that hypermedia has strengths and weaknesses and that it may become merely hyped media unless good teaching applications are developed.
56 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the most significant theoretical assumptions of the naturalistic paradigm as they relate to the nature of computer-based instruction and to the current needs of the field and describe several methods of naturalistic data collection and analysis that can be operationalized in an investigation of students' and teachers' interactions with instructional dimensions of courseware.
Abstract: The naturalistic paradigm offers exceptional promise for gaining the detailed, context-bound information necessary to understand the effectiveness of computer-based instruction (CBI) as it is experienced in classroom settings. Such an understanding is critical to the development of principles for designing courseware that meets the needs of the teachers and students who are its ultimate consumers. In this article, the author discusses the most significant theoretical assumptions of the paradigm as they relate to the nature of CBI and to the current needs of the field. Also described are several methods of naturalistic data collection and analysis that can be operationalized in an investigation of students' and teachers' interactions with instructional dimensions of courseware. The author suggests the kinds of insights the naturalistic paradigm can yield and the ways in which those insights can be incorporated into empirically based principles of courseware design.
TL;DR: The assumption that technologists and teachers make about educational technology and about teaching now diverge markedly as mentioned in this paper, and new reform proposals have suggested ways to restructure schools that would enhance the role of teachers as instructional decision-makers and offer them more control over their professional work life.
Abstract: Educational technologists have increasingly moved away from direct involvement in the world of the classroom teacher in recent years. The assumptions that technologists and teachers make about educational technology and about teaching now diverge markedly. At the same time, new reform proposals have suggested ways to restructure schools that would enhance the role of teachers as instructional decision-makers and offer them more control over their professional work life. Elements of the reform agenda are characterized, and ways are described in which educational technologists might work together with teachers in pursuit of reform goals. These include: (1) preparation of models for teaching-with-technology; (2) design of intelligent software; (3) creation of technologically based tools to support teachers' professional work and development; and (4) improvement of research about technology in education.
TL;DR: According to Salomon's (1981) model, children usually invest less effort in television viewing than in book reading, with the result that information from television is less deeply processed than information from books as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: According to Salomon's (1981) model, children usually invest less effort in television viewing than in book reading, with the result that information from television is less deeply processed than information from books. The amount of invested mental effort, in its turn, is assumed to depend on the way a medium is perceived. Most children perceive television as an easy medium and books as a difficult one. In this article, Salomon's model and the research in which the model was tested are discussed, and a replication study is presented. The study determines the internal structure of the Dutch versions of Salomon's instruments and tests some predictions following from the model. Unlike their American peers, Dutch children do not unconditionally perceive television as an easy medium.
TL;DR: Within selected periods of extrinsic reward availability, subjects were shown to select problems which were most efficiently solved, thus maximizing extrinsics reward; however, repeated task exposure produced selections that increased the task's challenge levels and its subsequent intrinsic interest.
Abstract: The choice behavior of 24 college-age subjects within a computer problem-solving task was investigated as they controlled and selected problem difficulty levels which either maximized intrinsic interest or extrinsic reward. While playing a computerized version of the game “Mastermind,” subjects selected and attempted problems from a variety of difficulty levels during 18 15-minute sessions. Within selected periods of extrinsic reward availability, subjects were shown to select problems which were most efficiently solved, thus maximizing extrinsic reward; however, repeated task exposure produced selections that increased the task's challenge levels and its subsequent intrinsic interest. Following the removal of the extrinsic rewards, subjects immediately returned to their pre-reward intervention levels of difficulty.
TL;DR: This article investigated achievement and motivation effects related to locus of control (internal and external) and three levels of learner control (no control, moderate control, and high control) and found that no control is more effective than moderate control.
Abstract: This study investigated achievement and motivation effects related to locus of control (internal and external) and three levels of learner control (no control, moderate control, and high control).
TL;DR: Students were given a series of increasingly more complex tasks and the computer became the receiver of the students' inputs and strategies and served as a model and structure on which to gain access to their own personal problem solving strategies.
Abstract: The development and enhancement of self-regulation, learning to learn, and adaptive problem solving are predicated on the ability to access and engage one's metacognitive skills. In this study, 3rd, 5th, and 8th grade students were given a series of increasingly more complex tasks which they had to perform themselves and then “teach” the computer to perform. The computer became the receiver of the students' inputs and strategies and served as a model and structure on which to gain access to their own personal problem solving strategies. Students analyzed, criticized, adapted, and changed those strategies as needed. Proficiency increased and strategies were more easily adopted and adapted to other tasks and problems. Completion of tasks increased significantly and nonproductive steps (errors) and number of trials (redos) decreased. There were no differences by sex except in the types of errors made. Evidence of self-regulation development was also shown in the types of questioning used by students.
TL;DR: In this paper, two versions of a technical film, captioned at approximately 8th-and 11th-grade reading levels, were shown to 32 hearing-impaired college students.
Abstract: Two versions of a technical film, captioned at approximately 8th- and 11th-grade reading levels, were shown to 32 hearing-impaired college students. Fifteen of these students also received supplementary instruction from a teacher. Data from a comprehension test were analyzed with a four-factor experimental design to determine effects of instruction, level of captioning, test type (recall or recognition), and subject reading ability. Significant effects were found for instruction, test type, and reading ability. In addition, there was a significant three-way interaction between instruction, caption level, and reading ability. While both high and low reading groups benefited from instruction when students viewed 8th-grade level, modified captions, only the high reading group benefited from instruction when they viewed the 11th-grade level, original captions.
TL;DR: The first issue of ETR&D as discussed by the authors was published in 1989 and the issues and process that led to the decision by the AECT Executive Board to co-publish ECTJ and theJournal of Instructional Development (JID) in a new journal were reviewed.
Abstract: This is the introductory article for the first issue ofEducational Technology Research and Development (ETR&D). The authors review the issues and process that led to the decision by the AECT Executive Board to co-publishEducational Communication and Technology Journal (ECTJ) and theJournal of Instructional Development (JID) in a new journal. The results of analyses of ECTJ and JID by Schwen and Middendorf (1987) and Dick and Dick (1989) are briefly summarized. The authors then report their own survey of AECT members to determine the topics and types of articles the members would prefer to read in ETR&D. Member preferences are compared with the actual content of the last ten issues of ECTJ and JID. Finally, the authors briefly discuss their own perspectives on ETR&D.
TL;DR: A schematic model is proposed to help ICAI developers identify the types of required expertise and integrate them into a system and a multidisciplinary cooperative effort is reemphasized in the conclusion.
Abstract: Development of an intelligent computer-assisted instructional (ICAI) system requires a multidisciplinary team effort. A schematic model is proposed to help ICAI developers identify the types of required expertise and integrate them into a system. Three types of expertise are discussed in the model: (a) domain expertise, (b) domain engineering expertise, (c) and instructional expertise. Domain expertise is classified into two types: conceptual knowledge and performance (procedural) expertise. Specific knowledge representation methods are proposed to represent the two types of domain—semantic network for conceptual knowledge and production rules for procedural knowledge—and frames-scripts for the combined domain of the two types. For domain engineering expertise, three technical methods are discussed: knowledge acquisition, task analysis, and knowledge representation. For instructional expertise, conceptual issues and technical methods to model student learning and to select instructional strategies are discussed. A multidisciplinary cooperative effort is reemphasized in the conclusion.
TL;DR: In the years following World War II, there has been extraordinary expansion of educational opportunity in both industrialized and developing nations as discussed by the authors, and this has resulted in near universal enrollment of children.
Abstract: Robert M. Morgan is with the Learning Systems Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306. 0 One motive which seems to be common to all societies is the desire to provide more and better education for their children. In the years following World War II, there has been extraordinary expansion of educational opportunity in both industrialized and developing nations. In the industrialized states, this has resulted in near universal enrollment of
TL;DR: A review of knowledge engineering focusing on knowledge representation and knowledge acquisition suggests ways in which these methods could be adapted to developing instructional systems.
Abstract: Knowledge engineering techniques for developing expert systems may also be useful for instructional development. A review of knowledge engineering focusing on knowledge representation and knowledge acquisition suggests ways in which these methods could be adapted to developing instructional systems. As further work is done on intelligent computer-assisted instructional systems and other complex instructional development projects, knowledge engineering skills may become more important for the instructional developer.
TL;DR: It is suggested that, to be effective advocates of the new technology, instructional developers must address the ideological dimensions of learning system design and make deliberate decisions regarding the educational values these designs are to embody.
Abstract: Predictions that technology will soon bring about a revolution in teaching are now common. Some see this occurring as an inevitable result of the information storage and processing capabilities that new technologies possess; others believe that changes in values and technology application strategies will be more significant factors. This article argues that technologies affect education greatly by shaping attitudes about the nature of teaching and learning, and presents a simple model to illustrate this process. Also, it suggests that, to be effective advocates of the new technology, instructional developers must address the ideological dimensions of learning system design and make deliberate decisions regarding the educational values these designs are to embody.
TL;DR: Learner preferences for varying screen density levels were examined and suggested the use of realistic and nonrealistic content for the stimulus materials as well as implications of using externally and internally valid screen designs for future research on computer-based instruction screen design are provided.
Abstract: Learner preferences for varying screen density levels were examined using multiple screen designs (high external validity) and single screen designs (high internal validity). When viewing multiple screens for each design in Study 1, subjects indicated the highest preference for medium-density screens while tending to select higher-density over lower density screens in individual comparisons. When viewing only the first screen of each density level in Study 2, subjects again expressed preferences for higher-density over lower-density designs. Suggestions are provided concerning the use of realistic and nonrealistic content for the stimulus materials as well as implications of using externally and internally valid screen designs for future research on computer-based instruction screen design.
TL;DR: A method is described for isolating factors which influence the ability of a reader to comprehend the message of an illustration, and it is suggested that a flow chart or model can be constructed from these factors to highlight potential problem stages in an author's design of an illustrations.
Abstract: A method is described for isolating factors which influence the ability of a reader to comprehend the message of an illustration. It is suggested that a flow chart or model can be constructed from these factors to highlight potential problem stages in an author's design of an illustration. The model is constructed using data from comprehension trials and critical commentary with readers, incorporating a set of factors which would be of use to prospective authors of illustrations. The procedure is largely non-experimental and intended to demonstrate a procedure for model building.
TL;DR: It is proposed that knowledge should be made available to performers on the job through computer-based advisors instead of off theJob through training.
Abstract: of their rapid spread throughout business and industry abound. It is no surprise, therefore, that recommendations are being made that instructional developers use expert systems as intelligent job aids to replace or augment instruction. It is proposed that knowledge should be made available to performers on the job through computer-based advisors instead of off the job through training. Nevertheless, it is easy to sense that the excitement about expert systems comes more from expectations about what they can do than from what they have already done. The technology is still new and changing rapidly. Except for a few large systems, the real "bottom-line" benefit of the technology, especially on microcomputers, has yet to be widely proven. Evidence even exists that many systems may not realize their full potential until additional advances in hardware
TL;DR: Media-selection decisions of 30 instructional development graduate students were studied under intuitive and model-directed decision-making conditions and indicated that there was no correlation between the correct use of the formal selection process and making correct media- selection decisions.
Abstract: Media-selection decisions of 30 instructional development graduate students were studied under intuitive and model-directed decision-making conditions. Students were given three media-selection problems and were directed to select an appropriate medium for each problem and to write a rationale for the medium selected. The students used thier intuitions to select media for the first problem. They used a formal media selection process to select media for the other two problems. Results indicated that the proportion of students who made correct media selections when they used their intuition was not significantly different from the proportion who made correct selections the first time they used the formal selection process. The proportion of students who made correct selections the second time they used the formal process was significantly greater than the proportion who made correct selection decisions when using their intuition and when using the formal selection process the first time. Subsequent analysis, however, indicated that there was no correlation between the correct use of the formal selection process and making correct media-selection decisions. Implications for the design and use of formal media selection processes in instructional development are described.
TL;DR: A way instructional designers can overcome some of the resistance to following theid process is described.
Abstract: The instructional development (id) process sometimes is perceived as being too time-intensive and as delaying instructional materials development. Course writers holding these perceptions may resist following a formalid process or give only cursory attention to early stages in the process. Such a situation can create conflict between course writers and instructional designers responsible for implementing a particularid model. This article describes a way instructional designers can overcome some of the resistance to following theid process.
TL;DR: In early October of last year, I had the opportunity to participate in a conference on "Computers, Education, and Children,"' sponsored jointly by the Association for the Development of Computer-Based Instructional Systems (ADCIS) and the Soviet Academy of Sciences.
Abstract: O During early October of last year, I had the opportunity to participate in a conference on "Computers, Education, and Children,"' sponsored jointly by the Association for the Development of Computer-Based Instructional Systems (ADCIS) and the Soviet Academy of Sciences. This conference, held about an hour's bus ride from Moscow, featured approximately 30 prominent computer educators from the United States, West Germany, Canada, and the Netherlands, and their Soviet and Bulgarian counterparts. In this article I describe what I learned about the
TL;DR: The fifth meeting of the Professors of Instructional Design and Technology provided a forum for members of the IDT academic community to discuss the trends, issues, and problems facing the field.
Abstract: The fifth meeting of the Professors of Instructional Design and Technology provided a forum for members of the IDT academic community to discuss the trends, issues, and problems facing the field The meeting was successful in that it helped to facilitate the exchange of information among PIDT members from a variety of programs and settings The meeting also encouraged the enhancement of academic programs in IDT