Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1990"
TL;DR: It is argued that rapid prototyping is a viable model for instructional design, especially for computer-based instruction, and that recent theories of design offer plausible explanations for the apparent success of rapid prototypeing in software design.
Abstract: There is a design methodology calledrapid prototyping which has been used successfully in software engineering. Given the similarities between software design and instructional design, we argue that rapid prototyping is a viable model for instructional design, especially for computer-based instruction. Additionally, we argue that recent theories of design offer plausible explanations for the apparent success of rapid prototyping in software design. Such theories also support the notion that rapid prototyping is appropriate for instructional design. We offer guidelines for the use of rapid prototyping and list possible tradeoffs in its application.
460 citations
TL;DR: Current empirical evidence of the effectiveness of animated visuals in instruction is reviewed and tentative design recommendations resulting from this review are presented.
Abstract: Although the use of animated visuals is both common and popular amongCbi designers, the theoretical and empirical foundations for their use have not been firmly established. Animated visuals represent a subset of instructional visuals; for this reason, general conclusions from research on static visuals are thought to extend to animated visuals. The extent to which animated visual research represents elaborations or departures from static visual research is questioned, however. The purpose of this paper is to review current empirical evidence of the effectiveness of animated visuals in instruction. Tentative design recommendations resulting from this review are presented. Current applications of computer animations in instruction are discussed and a brief summary of static visuals research is also presented.
309 citations
TL;DR: The components of learner control, self-regulated learning, and continuing motivation are examined as possible requirements and benefits of effective interactive instruction and a theoretical framework is advanced which illustrates the interdependence and mutual importance of these three components.
Abstract: While educational technologies provide increasing opportunities for interactive exploration in a learning environment, crucial questions remain: Will learners be able to exercise control and effectively regulate their own learning in flexible learning systems? Will they be motivated enough really to explore? Theory and research suggest that learners can and will, if the instructional systems are well-designed and if the learners are adequately prepared. In this paper, the components of learner control, self-regulated learning, and continuing motivation are examined as possible requirements and benefits of effective interactive instruction. A theoretical framework is advanced which illustrates the interdependence and mutual importance of these three components. Educational research in each of these three areas is analyzed, inconsistencies are discussed, and further support is developed for consideration of these components within an instructional situation. Finally, recommendations are offered for future research, to develop further what we know about what makes instruction effective and learners successful.
190 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that instructional design procedures include provisions for the learning of enterprise schemas when the integration of multiple objectives is required.
Abstract: Finding considerable agreement in their previous writings regarding the singular types of learning outcomes, the authors affirm a need to identify learning goals that require an integration of multiple objectives. The occurrence of multiple objectives is frequently encountered when instruction must reach beyond the individual topic or single lesson to the module, section, or course. It is proposed that such integration of objectives be conceived in terms of the pursuit of a comprehensive purpose in which the learner is engaged, called anenterprise. Given such an integrative goal of performance resulting from instruction, the various single objectives are viewed as being integrated as constituents of anenterprise schema. Three varieties of enterprise and their associated enterprise schemas are described, designated by their goals asdenoting, manifesting, anddiscovering. It is suggested that instructional design procedures include provisions for the learning of enterprise schemas when the integration of multiple objectives is required. Such schemas are also seen as playing a facilitating role in transfer of training.
174 citations
TL;DR: A “layers-of-necessity” model of instructional design and development is introduced by recognizing that instruction evolves over time rather than emerges fully developed, the model offers an alternative means of achieving quality instruction.
Abstract: Instructional design and development models are sometimes criticized for being unnecessarily complex and for requiring an unrealistic amount of precision. To counter this criticism, some will argue that the complexity and precision are necessary to help ensure a quality instructional product. This article offers a solution to the problem of practicality versus precision by introducing a “layers-of-necessity” model of instructional design and development. By recognizing that instruction evolves over time rather than emerges fully developed, the model offers an alternative means of achieving quality instruction.
106 citations
TL;DR: The authors measured the effect of audio-video channel correspondence on attention and memory and found that high channel correspondence promoted the most efficient division of attention and the best memory scores on visual and factual recognition measures.
Abstract: This study measured the effect of audio-video channel correspondence on attention and memory. Three versions of four TV news stories were the stimuli. The high-correspondence version employed a specific audio-video semantic match, the medium-correspondence version a less specific match, and the no-correspondence version no match. High channel correspondence promoted the most efficient division of attention and the best memory scores on visual and factual recognition measures. The medium-correspondence version yielded significantly worse visual memory and attention scores, but factual attention and memory scores equal to those for the high-correspondence version. The no-correspondence version yielded high visual recognition scores, but the worst visual attention scores, suggesting that attentional capacity boundaries were overwhelmed by the stimulus. The results across all conditions suggest that when attentional capacity is exceeded, memory of the overall story is degraded.
98 citations
TL;DR: The concept of environment analysis is defined and the factors, questions, and tools that can be used to apply the process to instructional design projects are listed.
Abstract: Environment analysis is a recognized but undeveloped step in the instructional design process. To date, no systematic process or criteria exists for analyzing instructional environments. This paper defines the concept of environment analysis and lists the factors, questions, and tools that can be used to apply the process to instructional design projects.
79 citations
TL;DR: A theoretical and research-based foundation is summarized here which suggests answers that revolve around learner control, self-regulated learning, and continuing motivation.
Abstract: Hypermedia makes it possible for learners to explore interactive multimedia-based instructional systems. To realize the potential of hypermedia to increase student involvement and learning, important design and use issues will have to be addressed. For example, how can we ensure that learners will be able to effectively regulate their own learning as they exercise the control inherent in hypermedia-based systems? How can motivation be stimulated and maintained, so that individuals will go beyond superficial browsing to really explore and learn? A theoretical and research-based foundation is summarized here which suggests answers to these questions, answers that revolve around learner control, self-regulated learning, and continuing motivation. Recommendations are offered for the effective design of hypermedia systems and the appropriate preparation of learners who will use them.
54 citations
TL;DR: Martin and Clemente as mentioned in this paper reply to the commentary of Shrock and Higgins, which appears elsewhere in this issue, is a reply to their original article by Martin et al. that sparked the discussion appeared inEducational Technology Research and Development, Volume 38, Number 2 (pp. 61-75).
Abstract: This article is a reply to the commentary of Shrock and Higgins, which appears elsewhere in this issue. The original article by Martin and Clemente that sparked the discussion appeared inEducational Technology Research and Development, Volume 38, Number 2 (pp. 61–75).
48 citations
TL;DR: A new model for evaluating instructional software is described, which focuses on the extent to which students learn the skills a software package is intended to teach.
Abstract: This article describes a new model for evaluating instructional software. Also described is a study in which the new model was field tested. Unlike most such models, which focus on the instructional and technical characteristics of software, the model focuses on the extent to which students learn the skills a software package is intended to teach. It is argued that by using this approach, educators will be better able to reliably identify software that is instructionally effective.
37 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated the immediate and delayed attitudinal effects of presenting ninth-grade students with career information and role models in two media forms, slide/tape and print, and found that both the print and slide-tape treatments had a significant positive effect on student attitudes toward the suitability of nontraditional careers for both men and women.
Abstract: This study investigated the immediate and delayed attitudinal effects of presenting ninth-grade students with career information and role models in two media forms, slide/tape and print. On an immediate measure, both the slide/tape and print treatments had a significant positive effect on student attitudes toward the suitability of nontraditional careers for both men and women. Students also had more positive attitudes toward nontraditional careers included in their treatment than toward those not included. Attitudes of the print and slide/tape groups did not differ significantly from each other. None of the significant differences were sustained on a delayed test administered 8 days later. Several interactions related to gender of student and job were found. More comprehensive programs involving multiple role models and other career-related activities are recommended to increase the probability of long-term changes in attitudes toward the appropriateness of nontraditional careers.
TL;DR: Concept learning may be measured by concept use and inferences as well as classification and taught via analogies, learning strategies, use/inference practice, and rational-set generators.
Abstract: Current models of instructional design assume that concepts are (a) classifying rules, (b) components of a more complex network or schema in memory, and (c) evaluated/taught by classification performance. Based on current research and theory, however, concepts should be viewed as conceptual tools rather than classification rules. Concepts may be schemas or networks in themselves, as a complex arrangement of declarative, procedural, and inferential knowledge. Concept learning may be measured by concept use and inferences as well as classification and taught via analogies, learning strategies, use/inference practice, and rational-set generators.
TL;DR: The Children's Television Workshop (CTW) as discussed by the authors has incorporated research into the process of designing and producing educational materials, and the first CTW project to use this team approach was Sesame Street, the educational television series created for in-home viewing by preschoolers.
Abstract: Since its establishment in 1968, the Children's Television Workshop (CTW)—as a matter of policy—has incorporated research into the process of designing and producing educational materials. The first CTW project to use this team approach wasSesame Street, the educational television series created for in-home viewing by preschoolers. Today, the scope of CTW's efforts has widened dramatically to include other media (home video, print, computer software), other learning environments (schools, community organizations, afterschool child-care settings), and other national cultures. This article introduces this issue ofETR&D, which has been authored entirely by CTW researchers, producers, and executives. It describes CTW's approach to research and development, and sets out in broad terms the opportunities and constraints imposed by the environments in which the various projects and productions function.
TL;DR: A model for integrating research into the software design process is presented, based on the experience of the Interactive Technologies Division of the Children's Television Workshop, for using existing research literature to inform initial design decisions and suggest possible issues to be tested during the development of prototype products.
Abstract: This article presents a model for integrating research into the software design process, based on the experience of the Interactive Technologies Division of the Children's Television Workshop. The model has three components: (a) using existing research literature to inform initial design decisions and suggest possible issues to be tested during the development of prototype products, (b) conducting in-house basic research studies to provide information unavailable in the published literature, and (c) conducting formative research studies on products in development to assess their usability and to ensure their effectiveness as learning tools. Issues in interpreting published studies are considered, and insights from the results of basic and formative studies conducted by the Interactive Technologies Division are also reviewed.
TL;DR: For example, the authors found that females and especially males strongly preferred own-gender over opposite-gender protagonists in mathematics story problems with a male protagonist, a female protagonist, or both.
Abstract: Junior-high students solved mathematics story problems featuring a male protagonist, a female protagonist, or both. A total of 252 eighth-graders from a rural school and a suburban school participated. Females and especially males strongly preferred own-gender over opposite-gender protagonists. Female performance exceeded male performance overall, regardless of protagonist gender. For the rural sample only, and more so for high-ability than low-ability students, performance was higher for those who received preferred-protagonist problems. Problem-solving performance was strongly related to standardized mathematics achievement scores, but was not significantly related to race or socioeconomic status. The implications of the findings for using preferred contexts as a basis for instructional adaptation in mathematics education are discussed.
TL;DR: The authors examined the extent to which children in a 51-family, qualitative study used their home microcomputers for learning school subjects such as reading, mathematics, science, and social studies.
Abstract: This paper examines the extent to which children in a 51-family, qualitative study used their home microcomputers for learning school subjects such as reading, mathematics, science, and social studies. Logs and analytic documents gathered over two years were content analyzed. This analysis revealed that most of the children who used their home microcomputers were not using them for academic learning. The absence of home academic microcomputing by children was found to be associated with a set of factors which included the lack of parental pressure and support for home academic microcomputing, the schools' emphasis on programming and computer literacy, the unreceptivity of the children and their peers to home academic microcomputing, and the dearth of academic software in the homes. The implications of these findings for the fostering of home academic microcomputing are discussed.
TL;DR: A hierarchical analysis was carried out on expertise in language-arts teacher planning for a short story, depicting a complex pattern of prerequisite intellectual skills integrating knowledge of students, reading difficulty, strategies/activities, and the author.
Abstract: This paper describes the use of learning-hierarchy analysis in studies of expertise. A hierarchical analysis was carried out on expertise in language-arts teacher planning for a short story. The resulting hierarchy depicted a complex pattern of prerequisite intellectual skills integrating knowledge of students, reading difficulty, strategies/activities, and the author (Stephen Crane). Of particular interest was that each branch of the hierarchy included “fuzzy sets,” that is, complex conceptual knowledge that experts were usually unable to explain. All elements in the hierarchy were capabilities learned from experience as opposed to direct instruction. It was recommended that advice-strategies developed from hierarchical analysis could be used to facilitate the development of expertise. These strategies do not teach expertise directly but encourage the learner to glean the most from task-relevant experience.
TL;DR: Sesame Street, the Children's Television Workshop's pioneering educational television series for preschoolers, has become an international institution as mentioned in this paper and licensed versions, adaptations, and coproductions of the series have been seen in approximately 115 countries.
Abstract: Sesame Street, the Children's Television Workshop's pioneering educational television series for preschoolers, has become an international—as well as an American—institution. Licensed versions, adaptations, and coproductions of the series have been seen in approximately 115 countries. Children in 65 countries have viewed the series in its English-language form. In addition, the program has been coproduced in 13 other languages for broadcast in 50 countries. Each local adaptation ofSesame Street is unique, reflecting the varying educational, social, and cultural needs of children from country to country. This article documents the spread ofSesame Street—and the CTW research and development model—abroad, and includes several case studies of different foreign adaptations ofSesame Street.
TL;DR: The authors of this commentary take exception to several points made in an article that appeared in the most recent issue of this journal (ETR&D, Vol. 38, No. 2).
Abstract: The authors of this commentary take exception to several points made in an article that appeared in the most recent issue of this journal (ETR&D, Vol. 38, No. 2). Following this explanation of their concerns is a reply by the authors of the original article.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors employed a four-group, pre-post design to examine the learning consequences of a computer-administered mastery-testing approach in comparison with a seminar-discussion approach in a third-year university course.
Abstract: Mastery learning, it is claimed, is among the most successful practices in higher education. Evidence supporting this claim has recently been criticized as empirically weak. This experiment employed a four-group, pre-post design to examine the learning consequences of a computer-administered mastery-testing approach in comparison with a seminar-discussion approach in a third-year university course. The mastery-testing approach generated significantly higher learning achievement than did the seminar-discussion approach. Replication and extension of this research approach are recommended to support generalizations across mastery-testing techniques, delivery systems, and disciplines.
TL;DR: Sesame Street continues to be a television experiment designed to prepare preschool children, especially poor inner-city children, for school as discussed by the authors, and three institutional mechanisms create formal opportunities for producers and researchers to explore new topics and to learn more about preschool children and how they respond to the program.
Abstract: After 22 years,Sesame Street continues to be a television experiment designed to prepare preschool children, especially poor inner-city children, for school. The success ofSesame Street can be attributed to the unique partnership the Children's Television Workshop forged early on between producers and researchers on the project. Three institutional mechanisms—curriculum seminars, theWriters' Notebook, and extensive child testing—create formal opportunities for producers and researchers to explore new topics and to learn more about preschool children and how they respond to the program. This article describes each of these mechanisms and presents a case study that exemplifies how researchers, producers, and writers worked together to developSesame Street's new geography curriculum.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the relationship between technological and social change, the nature and significance of technological innovation and dissemination, and impacts on organizational life, and explore the role of higher education as well as strategies the university must adopt if it is to participate effectively in addressing the changes that are emerging as society moves from being production-and-material based to an information-based system.
Abstract: Technological change and social change are viewed as interdependent in this paper. At the same time technology's “push” is seen as outpacing the capability of social institutions to respond. Consequently, America risks losing its competitive edge economically and, further, is rapidly evolving toward a two-tiered occupational and social structure. This paper examines the relationship between technological and social change, the nature and significance of technological innovation and dissemination, and impacts on organizational life. Finally, the paper explores the role of higher education as well as strategies the university must adopt if it is to participate effectively in addressing the changes that are emerging as society moves from being production-and-material based to an information-based system.
TL;DR: This article addresses two crucial questions: Why have these major textbook-development projects ignored instructional development?
Abstract: Educational conditions for children in Third World countries are considerably inferior to conditions in industrialized countries. One important effort to improve conditions has been major textbook-development projects financed by international organizations, including the World Bank. This article looks at the success of such projects and the possible reasons for problems. Then it addresses two crucial questions: Why have these major textbook-development projects ignored instructional development? What could instructional development offer these projects?
TL;DR: This is a summary of data on doctoral dissertations completed in instructional design and technology programs over the period 1977–88, with a low of 106 in 1980 and a high of 149 in 1983 and 1985.
Abstract: This is a summary of data on doctoral dissertations completed in instructional design and technology programs over the period 1977–88. During this period, 1,518 dissertations were completed at 46 different institutions, with nearly half completed at only 7 institutions. The 1,518 dissertations were chaired by 286 different professors, but approximately half were chaired by just 39 professors. The number per professor ranged from 89 to 1. Output was fairly steady over the 12 years, averaging 127 per year, with a low of 106 in 1980 and a high of 149 in 1983 and 1985.
TL;DR: This article is an annotated bibliography of 36 formative, summative, and theoretical research studies on the four educational children's television series the Children's Television Workshop has produced since 1969.
Abstract: This article is an annotated bibliography of 36 formative, summative, and theoretical research studies on the four educational children's television series the Children's Television Workshop has produced since 1969:Sesame Street, The Electric Company, 3-2-1 Contact, andSquare One TV.
TL;DR: The mission of research within The Magazine Group of the Children's Television Workshop is fourfold: (a) to ensure that each editorial product is comprehensible to and developmentally appropriate for its intended target audience, (b) to conduct formative and summative evaluations of editorial material for the Group's editors, (c) to keep all staff members of the Magazine Group apprised of the latest academic research in child development and education, and (d) to serve as an in-house advertising and market-research arm for the publisher as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The mission of research within The Magazine Group of the Children's Television Workshop is fourfold: (a) to ensure that each editorial product is comprehensible to and developmentally appropriate for its intended target audience, (b) to conduct formative and summative evaluations of editorial material for the Group's editors, (c) to keep all staff members of The Magazine Group apprised of the latest academic research in child development and education, and (d) to serve as an in-house advertising and market-research arm for the publisher. This article provides case studies of how research serves each of these functions and concludes with observations on how to optimize the effectiveness of print materials for children, parents, and elementary school teachers.
TL;DR: Although competence in the area of interpersonal skills has long been recognized as important by those in the instructional development (ID) profession, few academic programs instruct students in those skills.
Abstract: Although competence in the area of interpersonal skills has long been recognized as important by those in the instructional development (ID) profession, few academic programs instruct students in those skills. As they enter the field, students from such programs soon discover that it takes more than ID skills to be an effective instructional designer-developer. Positive interaction with SMES, clients, and colleagues soon emerges as equally important to getting the job done successfully.
TL;DR: How CES works with parents, children, experts, and local groups to develop special multimedia products, four of which are discussed, were designed to teach young children how to protect themselves in life-threatening emergencies.
Abstract: The Community Education Services (CES) division of the Children's Television Workshop (CTW) is CTW's community-outreach arm. This article describes how CES works with parents, children, experts, and local groups to develop special multimedia products, four of which are discussed. Two of the products—a fire-safety kit and a natural-hazards packet—were designed to teach young children how to protect themselves in life-threatening emergencies. Two other products—CES'sSesame Street preschool education materials and its3-2-1 Contact andSquare One TV after-school materials—are attempts by CTW to respond to societal changes that have increasingly shifted the burden of child care onto preschool and after-school programs.
TL;DR: Both the technological and program-design barriers to wider use of television in classroom instruction are discussed and the steps that the Children's Television Workshop took to make3-2-1 Contact, its educational television science series, a more effective science teaching tool are details.
Abstract: Repackaging existing educational television series to fit the needs of more narrowly defined audiences is a cost-effective way of delivering high-quality educational television into the schools. This article discusses both the technological and program-design barriers to wider use of television in classroom instruction and details the steps that the Children's Television Workshop took to make3-2-1 Contact, its educational television science series, a more effective science teaching tool.
TL;DR: The Native Peoples of the Southwest curriculum as discussed by the authors is a set of instructional programs, designed to educate elementary school children about Native American cultures, which was developed over a 3-year period.
Abstract: This article reports on the development of a set of instructional programs, theNative Peoples of the Southwest curriculum, designed to educate elementary school children about Native American cultures. The curriculum, its components, development, and field testing over a 3-year period, is described. Based on the experience of the development process, guidelines are offered for the design of instructional programs about nonmainstream cultures.