Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1991"
TL;DR: The authors analyzes the philosophical assumptions underlying instructional systems technology and its behavioral and cognitive foundations, each of which is primarily objectivistic, which means that knowing and learning are processes for representing and mirroring reality.
Abstract: Many scholars in the instructional systems field have addressed the paradigm shift in the field of learning psychology and its implications for instructional systems technology (IST). This article analyzes the philosophical assumptions underlying IST and its behavioral and cognitive foundations, each of which is primarily objectivistic, which means that knowing and learning are processes for representing and mirroring reality. The philosophical assumptions of objectivism are then contrasted with constructivism, which holds that knowing is a process of actively interpreting and constructing individual knowledge representations. The implications of constructivism for IST provide a context for asking the reader to consider to what extent our field should consider this philosophical paradigm shift.
1,523 citations
TL;DR: The authors reviewed nine teaching programs developed by cognitive psychologists over the last ten years and found that Collins' cognitive apprenticeship model has the most explicit prescriptions for instructional design, including problem solving versus skill orientation, detailed versus broad cognitive task analysis, learner versus system control and error-restricted versus error-driven instruction.
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to review from an instructional-design (ID) perspective nine teaching programs developed by cognitive psychologists over the last ten years. Among these models, Collins' cognitive apprenticeship model has the most explicit prescriptions for instructional design. In the article, the cognitive apprenticeship model is analyzed, then components of the model are used as an organizing framework for understanding the remaining models. Differences in approach are noted between traditional ID prescriptions and the cognitive teaching models. Surprisingly, no design strategies were found to be common to all the model programs. Key differences among programs included: (1) problem solving versus skill orientation, (2) detailed versus broad cognitive task analysis, (3) learner versus system control, and (4) error-restricted versus error-driven instruction. The article concludes with an argument for the utility of continuing dialogue between cognitive psychologists and instructional designers.
198 citations
TL;DR: Investigating the effects of cooperative group composition, student ability, and learning accountability on achievement, interaction, and instructional efficiency during computer-based instruction found Cooperation was significantly related to achievement for heterogeneous ability groups, but not for either homogeneous high- or low-ability students.
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of cooperative group composition, student ability, and learning accountability on achievement, interaction, and instructional efficiency during computer-based instruction. A total of 125 sixth- and seventh-grade students were randomly assigned to heterogeneous or homogeneous dyads. Groups were designated as having either group or individual account-ability for mastery of lesson content. Cooperative dyads completed a tutorial on a novel symbolic mathematics topic, featuring basic symbol learning and application of the symbols. Indicators of ongoing cooperation were collected during instruction. Five days later, students completed a posttest. Low-ability students interacted more and completed the instruction more efficiently in heterogeneous than in homogeneous groups. High-ability students completed the instruction more efficiently in homogeneous than in heterogeneous groups. Cooperation was significantly related to achievement for heterogeneous ability groups, but not for either homogeneous high- or low-ability students.
150 citations
TL;DR: Findings related to achievement, patterns of study, social interchange, motivation, and gender are discussed and guidelines on the implementation of cooperative CBI that have been gleaned from the literature are presented.
Abstract: High equipment and materials costs, limited access to computers for instruction in many schools, and the success of cooperative learning strategies in traditional classroom instruction have prompted researchers to examine the potential of cooperative computer-based instruction (CBI). In this article, recent research on cooperative CBI is reviewed and findings related to achievement, patterns of study, social interchange, motivation, and gender are discussed. In addition, guidelines on the implementation of cooperative CBI that have been gleaned from the literature are presented.
119 citations
TL;DR: This paper reviewed the mounting evidence documenting the existence of a gender gap, which, if ignored, could render large numbers of female students unprepared to meet the technological challenges of the future and made recommendations for ameliorating the technological gender gap.
Abstract: The term “technological gender gap” refers to the idea that males and females have different technology-related attitudes, behaviors, and skills This article reviews the mounting evidence documenting the existence of a gender gap, which, if ignored, could render large numbers of female students unprepared to meet the technological challenges of the future Recommendations for ameliorating the technological gender gap are presented for educators and computer-based instruction (CBI) designers who are interested in providing equitable educational opportunities for male and female students
110 citations
TL;DR: In this article, hypertext is compared with instructional design principles and processes in that both share theoretical foundations in cognitive and systems theory and practical elements of learning environment design.
Abstract: In this article, hypertext is compared with instructional design principles and processes. Contrary to initial perceptions, hypertext can be considered to be theoretically and operationally consistent with instructional design in that both share theoretical foundations in cognitive and systems theory and practical elements of learning environment design. The ability to tailor and extend the functionality of hypertext systems makes them powerful environments for authoring, designing, and displaying most instructional designs. Hypertext systems also can combine the roles of designer and learner by creating a collaborative environment in which the learner can annotate, amend, or author both content and structural elements of the hypertext.
102 citations
TL;DR: Results showed significant benefits for feedback over no feedback, with AUC becoming more advantageous and delayed feedback less so as lesson-posttest question similarity decreased and with decreased question similarity and the availability of supporting text, overall feedback effects tended to decrease.
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of using different forms of computer-based feedback on high school students' learning of science material. The basic design consisted of two conditions of instructional support (text and questions vs. questions only), two testings (immediate vs. retention), five levels of similarity between lesson and posttest questions, and five feedback conditions: knowledge of correct response (KCR), delayed KCR, answer until correct (AUC), questions only (no feedback), and no questions. Results showed significant benefits for feedback over no feedback, with AUC becoming more advantageous and delayed feedback less so as lesson-posttest question similarity decreased. Also, with decreased question similarity and the availability of supporting text, overall feedback effects tended to decrease. The results are discussed in terms of the information processing effects of the different feedback forms, a factor that CBI designers often fail to exploit in planning feedback conditions.
80 citations
TL;DR: Results indicated that subjects who received elaboration feedback during instruction performed better than students who received verification feedback, and when subjects selected feedback for items answered incorrectly during instruction, subjects under learner control/elaboration performed better on the posttest than subjects under learning control/verification.
Abstract: Although considerable research has been conducted on both learner control and feedback, very little research has addressed the effect of giving learners control over the feedback that they receive. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of learner control over feedback in a CAI lesson. Subjects used one of four CAI programs which provided either program control or learner control over verification or elaboration feedback. Results indicated that subjects who received elaboration feedback during instruction performed better than students who received verification feedback. Type of control did not have a significant influence on performance. However, when subjects selected feedback for items answered incorrectly during instruction, subjects under learner control/elaboration performed better on the posttest than subjects under learner control/verification. Implications for the design of CAI are discussed.
69 citations
TL;DR: Results showed that students given animated presentations of lesson content outperformed students receiving static presentations, but only when the animated lesson frames were presented in groups, or “chunks,” of textual and visual sequences.
Abstract: The effects of visual grouping strategies involving animated and static graphic presentations on selective attention were studied. Also studied was the ability of students to learn a scientific rule presented incidentally in an animated sequence. A total of 39 fourth-graders participated in an introductory lesson on Newton's laws of motion. Two levels of Visual Presentation (Static Graphic, Animated Graphic) were crossed with two levels of Visual Grouping (Grouped, Ungrouped). A within-subjects factor consisted of two levels of Learning Intent (Intentional, Incidental). Results showed that students given animated presentations of lesson content outperformed students receiving static presentations, but only when the animated lesson frames were presented in groups, or “chunks,” of textual and visual sequences. Results also showed that students were able to successfully extract information pertaining to an application of Newton's second law incidentally presented in animated sequences. These latter results replicate earlier findings.
68 citations
TL;DR: Students in the small group were more satisfied, while those using the individual learning station were more strongly agreed that they controlled the pace and sequence of their own instruction, and content scores were not significantly different.
Abstract: This study was conducted to investigate the effects of variations in the design and delivery of interactive multimedia (IMM) on the learning and attitudes of elementary education majors. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted with three independent variables—small group or individualized format, inductive or deductive design of instruction, and match of learner style to instruction—and four dependent variables—content scores, observation skill scores, overall satisfaction, and attitude toward learner control of instruction. Scores on the observation skills evaluation were significantly higher when the student's learning style was matched with the design of instruction. Satisfaction and attitude outcomes were significantly different for format: students in the small group were more satisfied, while those using the individual learning station were more strongly agreed that they controlled the pace and sequence of their own instruction. Content scores were not significantly different. In the future, the use of interactive multimedia with various formats and designs may serve to meet the needs of students with differing learning styles and at different developmental levels.
57 citations
TL;DR: In two experiments, university students solved kinship problems as they studied family trees or lists of statements about who was whose parent as support for an account of diagram interpretation based on the facilitation of search and computation through the spatial arrangement of concepts.
Abstract: In two experiments, university students solved kinship problems as they studied family trees or lists of statements about who was whose parent. Subjects were given problems to solve requiring the application of rules to the statements or trees. In the first experiment, response latency was less for subjects seeing trees than for those seeing statements. It was also found that latency increased as the problems became more difficult. In the second experiment, response latencies for subjects seeing no rules were less on difficult problems than for subjects working with rules involving English and nonsense kinship terms. This difference disappeared with practice. These findings provided support for an account of diagram interpretation based on the facilitation of search and computation through the spatial arrangement of concepts.
TL;DR: This article investigated learner preconceptions of the difficulty of interactive video, instructional television, and television and examined the effects of actively or covertly responding to practice questions on perceived mental effort, recall, and inferences.
Abstract: Recommendations for the design of interactive video materials are often based on the premise that interactive video may overcome learners' preconceptions of television as “easy.” This study investigated learner preconceptions of the difficulty of interactive video, instructional television, and television, and examined the effects of actively or covertly responding to practice questions on perceived mental effort, recall, and inferences.
TL;DR: The data from this study suggest that there are four major components of effectiveness in distance education programs: instruction, management, telecommuting, and support.
Abstract: The study described in this article takes the view that distance education programs are dynamic systems with multiple constituencies. Literature on distance education programs as complex systems and on the critical constituency approach to program evaluation was used to guide the development of a questionnaire designed to assess the components of a distance education program. Instrument development was conducted in four phases using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The data from this study suggest that there are four major components of effectiveness in distance education programs: instruction, management, telecommuting, and support. Within each of these components there are from two to five subcomponents, 14 components in all, which can be used to assess distance education programs. The assessment scale which was developed measures these four components and their subcomponents.
TL;DR: The authors compared stories watched on television with printed stories read by children and found that children who read the printed version were easier to understand because story characters were referred to more specifically and references to the story elements contained more descriptive details.
Abstract: Following on studies that compared cognitive processing of stories presented either on television or radio, an exploratory study was carried out to compare stories watched on television with printed stories read by children. Children aged 10 to 12 (N = 127) either watched a television film or read a print version of the same story. Afterwards, each child retold the story in writing. Children exposed to the television film reproduced the story more completely and made fewer errors. Written reproductions of the story by children who read the printed version were easier to understand because story characters were referred to more specifically and references to the story elements contained more descriptive details.
TL;DR: In this article, a naturalistic study investigated the interactions of learning disabled students and their teachers with instructional elements of commercial courseware and found that students' problems and strategies with verbal, numeric, graphics, and problem-solving courseware were explored to elucidate the role of courseware design in students' pervasive reading difficulties, overreliance on teacher assistance, introduction of competition to provide motivation, and limited strategies for using courseware independently.
Abstract: A naturalistic study investigated the interactions of learning disabled students and their teachers with instructional elements of commercial courseware. During two academic years, 62 students aged 9 to 18 and seven teachers from five subject areas were observed and interviewed with regard to their day-to-day uses of 26 packages. Findings reported here relate to students' interactions with the stimulus, response, and feedback/reinforcement dimensions inherent in those packages. Details of students' problems and strategies with verbal, numeric, graphics, and problem-solving courseware are explored to elucidate the role of courseware design in students' pervasive reading difficulties, overreliance on teacher assistance, introduction of competition to provide motivation, and limited strategies for using courseware independently. Implications are noted for improving course-ware design not only for LD students, but also for others who would profit from more carefully designed packages. The relationship of design to the overarching issues of student independence, motivation, and strategy development for computer-based instruction is discussed.
TL;DR: The process involved in designing a course using ID Expert is demonstrated, and the instructional design theory underlying the system is discussed.
Abstract: ID Expert is a prototype instructional design expert system that assists an instructional designer in developing instructional materials. The primary purposes for developing ID Expert are to provide tools for making instructional design more efficient and effective and to develop a more precise instructional design theory. The theory underlying ID Expert integrates much of the existing work in instructional design, learning theory, and cognitive science. A set of declarative constructs and prescriptive rules for this theory has been identified and partially implemented as a prototype version of ID Expert. In this article, the process involved in designing a course using ID Expert is demonstrated, and the instructional design theory underlying the system is discussed.
TL;DR: This article examined the extent to which systematic planning techniques were incorporated into the written and mental planning practices of two experienced teachers, one who had received formal training in the use of those techniques and another who had not.
Abstract: The primary purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which systematic planning techniques were incorporated into the written and mental planning practices of two experienced teachers, one who had received formal training in the use of those techniques and one who had not. In order to accomplish this goal, a questionnaire was administered to the teachers and they were interviewed and observed as they went about planning and implementing an instructional unit. Results indicated that the teacher who had been trained to use systematic planning techniques did employ them, and that the other teacher adhered to the principle that instructional activities should be planned with objectives clearly in mind. These findings call into question some of the conclusions drawn by researchers who have previously examined the planning practices of teachers.
TL;DR: The purposes of this article are to identify factors that might influence the effectiveness of computer software designed to teach problem solving and the research literature related to the acquisition of problem-solving abilities and the capabilities of computers for delivering problem-Solving instruction.
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to identify factors that might influence the effectiveness of computer software designed to teach problem solving. Problem solving is defined and the research literature related to the acquisition of problem-solving abilities and the capabilities of computers for delivering problem-solving instruction are reviewed. The factors critical to the acquisition of problem-solving abilities and the attributes of computers that make them potential tools in problem-solving instruction are identified. These items are synthesized into a list of factors that are expected to influence the effectiveness of computer software designed to teach problem solving.
TL;DR: In this article, a study was conducted to examine preservice teacher success in acquiring and applying principles of learning and instructional design and found that most of the teachers were successful in using these principles.
Abstract: Although many instructional technologists have suggested that teachers should be trained in using instructional design models, few studies have been conducted to determine if teachers can be successful in acquiring and applying these models. The purpose of this study was to examine preservice teacher success in acquiring and applying principles of learning and instructional design. Preservice teachers enrolled in a professional teacher preparation program were taught the essentials of learning and competency-based instruction and were required to plan a lesson using these concepts. Results indicate that most of the preservice teachers were successful in acquiring and using the principles of learning and instructional design.
TL;DR: Findings indicate that individuals who are now full professors have a higher publication rate than faculty at lower ranks in instructional systems/educational technology programs and individuals in educational psychology programs published more applied, basic, and overall research than faculty in other academic affiliations.
Abstract: The resumes of 132 instructional technology (IT) faculty were analyzed in an effort to assess the scholarly productivity of IT faculty. Faculty were surveyed to identify leading basic and applied IT journals and to determine overall publication patterns. The findings indicate that individuals who are now full professors have a higher publication rate than faculty at lower ranks in instructional systems/educational technology programs. On an annual basis, individuals in educational psychology programs published more applied, basic, and overall research than faculty in other academic affiliations.
TL;DR: In this article, a study described in this article was designed to gather information about teachers' perspectives on achievement testing and to describe where the competency-based testing in Continuous Uniform Evaluation Systems (CUES) programs fits into teachers' overall plans for teaching and assessing students.
Abstract: The study described in this article was designed to gather information about teachers' perspectives on achievement testing and to describe where the competency-based testing in Continuous Uniform Evaluation Systems (CUES) programs fits into teachers' overall plans for teaching and assessing students.
TL;DR: A conceptual model for focused, fictional instructional design and development case materials is presented and a call for the establishment of an Instructional Design Case Materials Clearinghouse is made.
Abstract: A conceptual model for focused, fictional instructional design and development case materials is presented in this article. The author suggests that the scarcity of suitable case materials for use in instructional design and development courses may be due to the lack of a suitable model for their construction. After presenting a definition of the case method of instruction and an overview of the use of case studies in other fields, the author identifies types of case materials and provides a description and rationale for the use of fictional case materials in instructional design courses. A model consisting of five steps or parts is outlined, with a description of each part included. An abbreviated, sample case study is also included. The author concludes with a call for the establishment of an Instructional Design Case Materials Clearinghouse.
TL;DR: A required computer literacy course for preservice teachers was redesigned to include substantial components to teach instructional design and end-of-course measures indicated that the preservICE teachers learned the essential principles of instructional design.
Abstract: Knowledge of instructional design principles can help teachers integrate technology such as computers into their classroom instruction. This article describes a required computer literacy course for preservice teachers which was redesigned to include substantial components to teach instructional design. Also described are the results of a study conducted to examine the effectiveness of the instructional design training. End-of-course measures indicated that the preservice teachers learned the essential principles of instructional design and believed that the instruction would help them develop better lesson plans for effective use of computers in their classroom instruction.
TL;DR: This article examined the school achievement and adjustment by at-risk students one year following their participation as fifth and sixth graders in computer-intensive classrooms using the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) program.
Abstract: This evaluation study examined the school achievement and adjustment by at-risk students one year following their participation as fifth and sixth graders in computer-intensive classrooms using the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) program. Comparisons between the former ACOT subjects and a matched control group who had attended the same elementary school were made on attitudes toward school, teacher evaluations, grades, computer skills, and standardized test scores. Results showed some advantages for the ACOT students in the seventh grade, but on most measures they were indistinguishable from the control group. Specifically, both groups appeared to remain at risk based on their poor performance and relatively poor adjustment. A key factor in interpreting outcomes for the ACOT group was the limited availability of computers in the seventh grade, which thus restricted their opportunities to apply or transfer the skills they had learned.
TL;DR: Research results indicate that a full orientation providing information, examples, practice, and feedback for various program options can lead to greater levels of user comfort than a more limited type of orientation providing brief information and single examples, and with equally positive user attitudes.
Abstract: The design and evaluation of an interactive informational program is outlined in this article. Also reported is an integrated research study which examines the effects of differing levels of orientation to an interactive informational program on user confidence and attitudes.
TL;DR: A generic method for developing context-dependent test item sets is proposed and several examples are provided, and the procedure is useful for developing a larger number of test items that can be used for any of the three uses of tests.
Abstract: Modern instructional theory and research suggest that the content of instruction should be closely linked with testing. The content of an instructional program should not focus solely on memorization of facts but should also include higher level thinking. Three uses of tests within any instructional program are: (1) practice on objectives, (2) feedback about mastery of those objectives, and (3) summative evaluation. The context-dependent item set is proposed as a useful tool for measuring many higher level objectives. A generic method for developing context-dependent test item sets is proposed, and several examples are provided. The procedure is useful for developing a larger number of test items that can be used for any of the three uses of tests. The procedure also seems to apply to a wide variety of subject matter.
TL;DR: This paper examined whether instructional material revised by teachers will be more effective and adopted more readily than materials revised by designers and material that is not revised and found that teachers were no more favorably disposed to the designer-revised version than to the original version.
Abstract: This study examined whether instructional material revised by teachers will be more effective and adopted more readily than material revised by designers and material that is not revised. Teachers from a vocational school were randomly assigned to review one version of the material and complete an Instructional Materials Acceptance Questionnaire. Students were asked to read the chapter randomly assigned to them and complete a posttest. Contrary to expectations, the teacher-revised material was as effective as the designer-revised material and more effective than the original material, yet it was not more acceptable to teachers. As expected, the designer-revised material was more effective than the original material. However, teachers were no more favorably disposed to the designer-revised version than to the original version. Possible reasons for these findings are described and suggestions for future research are offered.
TL;DR: Results indicate that the advance organizer may have confused rather than clarified the more difficult material for the subjects, and it is suggested that the post-organizer may be a more effective tool for enhancing computing instruction in the primary grades, in that it provides learners with a tool for review and recall of learned material.
Abstract: An advance organizer is introductory material presented prior to accompanying learning material as a means to facilitate learning and retention. Although there have been many studies on using advance organizers to teach children various types of subject matter, none has examined computer programming as the subject matter.