Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1994"
TL;DR: The authors discuss the impact of media and attributes of media on learning, motivation and efficiency gains from instruction and respond to Robert Kozma's criticism of my earlier discussion of media effects on instruction.
Abstract: The purpose of this discussion is to explain and sharpen different points of view about the impact of media and attributes of media on learning, motivation and efficiency gains from instruction. This paper is an attempt to summarize my arguments about the research and theory in this area and to respond to Robert Kozma's criticism of my earlier discussion of these issues. I will first briefly summarize my arguments about media effects; next I will attempt to characterize the many reactions to the controversial claim that media do not influence learning or motivation. Finally, I will respond to the specific criticisms advanced by Robert Kozma this issue.
1,779 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reframed the questions raised by Clark to explore the conditions under which media will influence learning, and examined the implications of this approach for media theory, research and practice.
Abstract: This article addresses the position taken by Clark (1983) that media do not influence learning under any conditions. The article reframes the questions raised by Clark to explore the conditions under which media will influence learning. Specifically, it posits the need to consider the capabilities of media, and the methods that employ them, as they interact with the cognitive and social processes by which knowledge is constructed. This approach is examined within the context of two major media-based projects, one which uses computers and the other, video. The article discusses the implications of this approach for media theory, research and practice.
1,099 citations
277 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a catalogues of book to open to show the benefits of reading a book, which is very appropriate for the people with great curiosity and develop their countless minds.
Abstract: Now, we come to offer you the right catalogues of book to open. design at work cooperative design of computer systems is one of the literary work in this world in suitable to be reading material. That's not only this book gives reference, but also it will show you the amazing benefits of reading a book. Developing your countless minds is needed; moreover you are kind of people with great curiosity. So, the book is very appropriate for you.
273 citations
TL;DR: This study was an investigation of the effects of learner control and of advisement in a hypertext learning environment with second-grade students who had different levels of prior knowledge about the content.
Abstract: This study was an investigation of the effects of learner control and of advisement in a hypertext learning environment with second-grade students who had different levels of prior knowledge about the content. Four treatment conditions crossing two variables, learner control (free access representing network structuring of hypertext vs. limited access representing hierarchical structuring of hypertext), and advisement (advisement vs. no-advisement), were established. From the quantitative and qualitative data, results indicated that: (a) for low prior knowledge (PK) students, the limited-access condition was more effective than the free-access condition, whereas high-PK students were able to function equally well in both conditions; (b) the free-access group reported a higher positive attitude for advisement than for no advisement, but the limited-access group showed no such difference in preference; (c) the low-PK group completed the lesson more quickly without advisement than with advisement, whereas the high-PK group's completion times did not vary across advisement conditions; and (d) analysis of the path data indicated that advisement was helpful in preventing disorientation in the free-access condition.
179 citations
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170 citations
TL;DR: An approach to research is illustrated that allows us to look at the cognitive mechanisms by which learners interact with instructional designs and use media and methods to construct understanding.
Abstract: Media and methods together influence learning. This article illustrates an approach to research that allows us to look at the cognitive mechanisms by which learners interact with instructional designs and use media and methods to construct understanding. It critiques Clark's (1994) replaceability challenge.
151 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of experience on attitudes toward computers and judgments of confidence, or selfefficacy, for specific computer technologies were investigated, and the results showed that the quality rather than thequantity of computer experience may be most critical.
Abstract: The effects of experience on attitudes toward computers and judgments of confidence, or self-efficacy, for specific computer technologies were investigated Thirty-two students in a “computer applications in physical education” course participated in the study The Computer Technologies Survey was used as a pretest and posttest measure to assess students' attitudes toward computers and perceived self-efficacy for electronic mail (e-mail) and word processing Treatment conditions required the students to communicate with the instructor via e-mail, a word-processed note, or handwritten note These conditions manipulated experience with e-mail and word processing while keeping instructor-student interaction constant Students' judgments of computer capability significantly increased from pretest to posttest across all treatments A direct relationship between time-on-task and levels of confidence was not found which suggests that “quality” rather than “quantity” of computer experience may be most critical
112 citations
TL;DR: A framework is presented here which is intended to provide a conceptual tool for determining appropriate instructional design applications and to assess the potential success of any instructional design model.
Abstract: Instructional design (ID) professionals typically employ models that guide their practice. However, it is unclear how a specific model is selected for an instructional situation. Andrews and Goodson (1980) provided a valuable procedure for comparing instructional design models, but because of the proliferation of variations in instructional design applications during the past decade, the introduction of instructional design into new learning contexts and the emergence of alternative approaches to instructional design, there has emerged a need for a new framework which assesses the potential success of any instructional design model. A framework is presented here which is intended to provide a conceptual tool for determining appropriate instructional design applications.
95 citations
TL;DR: The authors examine the issues raised by Clark,1 and try to do so from the perspective of an instructional designer, rather than a researcher or theorist (although the three terms are certainly not mutually exclusive).
Abstract: responded sooner, but I've been very busy designing instruction. Nonetheless, I'm finally accepting his invitation. In this paper, I will examine the issues raised by Clark,1 and I will try to do so from the perspective of an instructional designer, rather than a researcher or theorist (although the three terms are certainly not mutually exclusive). By examining the debate from a slightly different viewpoint, I hope to shed some new light on the issues that have been raised. However, I must note that given all that has been said about the matter over the past eleven years, there is not much new to be added. This is particularly true in light of two insightful articles Robert Kozma (1991, 1994) has written.
76 citations
TL;DR: ThinkerTools as mentioned in this paper allows students to manipulate computer objects that behave according to rules derived from Newtonian mechanics, and the results support the effectiveness of ThinkerTools as measured by a posttest.
Abstract: ate his point. The first is ThinkerTools (White, 1984, 1993) and the Jasper Woodbury Series (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992). These two studies, however, suggest that the issue is not reframing Clark's question, but asking a different question. According to Kozma, ThinkerTools allows students to manipulate computer objects that behave according to rules derived from Newtonian mechanics. The study Kozma cites (White, 1993) compared sixth-grade students who used ThinkerTools to a similar group of sixth graders studying a standard curriculum unit on inventions. The experimental group was also compared to a high school physics class who had studied Newtonian mechanics using traditional methods and a high school class who had not studied the topic. The results support the effectiveness of ThinkerTools to teach Newtonian mechanics as measured by a posttest. The study, however, is inappropriately designed for interpretation as a basic research study to provide evidence for the contribution of the media to learning. Kozma suggests that it was the ability of the computer to present motion and react to the learners' input. One must ask, however, what would have been the result if the instructor had taken the
TL;DR: The debate regarding the influence of media on learning is not the instructional technologists' version of "how many angels can dance on the head of a pin"; I disagree with those who are impatient with the argument and who wish to dismiss it as unimportant as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: O Reading the Kozma and Clark pieces in this issue has convinced me of at least one point: the debate regarding the influence of media on learning is not the instructional technologists' version of "how many angels can dance on the head of a pin"; I disagree with those who are impatient with the argument and who wish to dismiss it as unimportant. The debate has merit because it helps us to clarify who we are, what we are trying to do, what we know, and how we might best invest the limited resources devoted to future research.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a curriculum project in which principles of instructional design are integrated with real-world experiences in a corporate environment, and the course instructor acted as project leader.
Abstract: This paper reports on a curriculum project in which principles of instructional design are integrated with real-world experiences in a corporate environment. Working in design teams, graduate students served as instructional developers in a corporate environment. The course instructor acted as project leader. Initially, both the client organization and design teams expressed confusion concerning their roles in relation to the course instructor. Design teams initially used technical language not readily understood by the client. The lack of guidance in instructional models on the development of appropriate instructional strategies was noted by all teams. Design teams concluded that knowledge of instructional design principles is a necessary but not sufficient preparation for professional activity as instructional developers. By the end of the three-month project, both the client organization and the design teams expressed strong satisfaction with the process and the outcome.
TL;DR: This article sums up the current state of the media debate by comparing and contrasting the seven positions presented in the ETR&D special issue by presenting an example of an integrated approach that deals directly with the role of media in learning.
Abstract: This article sums up the current state of the media debate by comparing and contrasting the seven positions presented in the ETR&D special issue (Vol. 42(2), 1994). Presented first is a review of the science-wide conflict between advocates of a given approach versus proponents of integrated approaches to the solving of complex problems. Advocates of a given approach are characterized as offering a “big wrench” (i.e., panacea) solution that can be generalized across problems. While in contrast are integrated approaches (e.g., the Swiss knife) that attempt to solve problems by bringing together a variety of variables and conditions. In section two is presented an example of an integrated approach that deals directly with the role of media in learning. Finally, the positions of the seven authors are compared and contrasted employing eight instructional design variables.
TL;DR: The assumptions and methods of conventional instructional media research are examined to gauge its sufficiency as a basis for issuing the controversial finding that media do not influence learning and as an inquiry model for documenting media's educational effects generally.
Abstract: This article examines the assumptions and methods of conventional instructional media research to gauge its sufficiency as a basis for issuing the controversial finding that media do not influence learning and as an inquiry model for documenting media's educational effects generally. Examples of complex media effects are given and emerging media application paradigms are identified to support the argument that both a new conceptualization of the media and learning question and new approaches to its study are needed. An alternative values framework for guiding research on the effects of modern interactive technologies in complex learning environments is offered.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigate the effect direct and unrestricted access to the Internet had on a group of high school teachers and find that teachers require ongoing Internet training, technical support, home Internet access, and time in which to learn and incorporate the Internet into their classes.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect direct and unrestricted access to the Internet had on a group of high school teachers. Based on the naturalistic inquiry paradigm, this study explored the barriers these teachers encountered when using the Internet, how and when they elected to use the Internet, the factors that influenced their continued use of the Internet, and the transitions they experienced from using the Internet. Data collection was based on Patton's (1990) three approaches to interviewing; data analysis was based in part on Miles and Huberman's (1984) model of data reduction and display and on Spradley's (1979) task of domain analysis. Findings suggested: that teachers require ongoing Internet training, technical support, home Internet access, and time in which to learn and incorporate the Internet into their classes; that Internet use can increase teachers' self-esteem and improve their attitudes toward computers and education; and that use of the Internet by teachers encourages them to restructure their classes and schedules to accommodate Internet resources within their classrooms.
TL;DR: The key features of various methods that software evaluation organizations employ to evaluate instructional software and the role of students as participants in the evaluation process are discussed, and the benefits that may be derived from placing students in that role.
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the key features of various methods that software evaluation organizations employ to evaluate instructional software. Who conducts the evaluations, the processes they use for doing so, and the software features they evaluate are among the topics that are discussed. Some of the problems associated with many of the evaluation methods are also described, as is an alternate method designed to overcome some of the identified problems. Special emphasis is placed on the role of students as participants in the evaluation process, and the benefits that may be derived from placing students in that role.
TL;DR: This article investigated the effect of curiosity on learning art education facts and concepts by first-and second-graders in computer-based interactive learner control environments with and without advisement.
Abstract: This study investigated the effect of curiosity on learning art education facts and concepts by first- and second-graders in computer-based interactive learner control environments with and without advisement. High-curious subjects, who generally prefer a higher degree of unfamiliarity and uncertainty, were predicted to perform better in either learner control environment than low-curious children. All children regardless of curiosity level were expected to perform better in the advisement condition than in the no-advisement condition. As predicted, a significant difference in achievement scores favored the high-curious children in both conditions. Although there was no main treatment effect, exploratory analyses revealed an unpredicted significant interaction between grade level and treatment. First-graders performed significantly better with advisement than without advisement while second-graders performed better without. Examination of treatment usage data indicated that first-graders followed advisement more than did second-graders.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the effect of orienting activities and type of practice on achievement, continuing motivation, and student behaviors in a cooperative learning environment and found that participants who worked in groups that received intellectual skills practice performed better on the application portion of the post test than those who received verbal information practice.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of orienting activities and type of practice on achievement, continuing motivation, and student behaviors in a cooperative learning environment. Eighty graduate education majors were assigned to cooperative groups and required to learn instructional design principles from three instructional television lessons. Each lesson included specific orienting activities (advance organizers or objectives) and different types of practice (verbal information or intellectual skills). Results indicated that subjects who worked in groups that received intellectual skills practice performed better on the application portion of the posttest than those who received verbal information practice. Knowledge acquisition and student behaviors were affected by a combination of type of practice and orienting activity. Groups that received intellectual skills practice discussed more content, gave more help to their fellow group members, and exhibited less individual behavior than groups that received verbal information practice. Groups given objectives discussed significantly more content than groups given advance organizers.
TL;DR: Perceptions of teachers and educational technologists about the following areas are investigated: instructional design, cooperative learning, learner control, school reform, computers and media, and implementation of a key practice in each area in their teaching.
Abstract: This study investigated perceptions of teachers and educational technologists about the following areas: instructional design, cooperative learning, learner control, school reform, computers and media, and implementation of a key practice in each area in their teaching. Subjects were 477 individuals representing four respondent groups: educational technology faculty, educational technology graduate students, K-8 teachers, and 9–12 teachers. Data were collected using a 30-item, five-choice Likert-type questionnaire containing five items per topic area. Significant differences between groups were found on 16 items, with an overall total of 32 significant between-group differences. Nineteen of the 32 differences were between K-8 teachers and either the educational technology faculty or the graduate students. K-8 teachers had significantly more positive perceptions than one or both of the educational technology groups on all five of the cooperative learning items and on three of the five learner control items. The results suggest approaches that educational technologists can use in teaching instructional design courses and in designing instructional programs for the schools.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of multimedia on learning and memory have been examined from the joint perspective of neuroscience and mass communication, and it is proposed that research evidence from both fields should be used in the design and interpretation of studies.
Abstract: How media affects learning and memory has not been carefully examined from the joint perspective of research in neuroscience and mass communication. This article reviews selected literature from both neuroscience and communication and relates research findings to interactive multimedia. It is proposed that research evidence from both fields should be used in the design and interpretation of studies on the effects of media on learning and memory. Neurological research may also have implications for interactive learning in classrooms and other contexts. Incorporating evidence from neurological studies of learning and memory into multimedia research may help us better understand the effects of interactive multimedia on short-term and longer-term student learning.
TL;DR: The emerging interface between computer technology and cognitive psychology for performance assessment in science education is explored and the technology-psychology interface may be a base for building an alternative assessment technology.
Abstract: The emerging interface between computer technology and cognitive psychology for performance assessment in science education is explored. Cognitive theories of learning offer promises to transform computer technology from a test administration tool into a process assessment tool, and computer technology offers a medium for studying the cognitive processes of learning. Interface theories and interface technologies are briefly discussed. The technology-psychology interface may be a base for building an alternative assessment technology. Some prototype projects in this line of inquiry are presented. As in any other novel approaches to testing, there are several questions that need to be answered in establishing the role of the technology-psychology interface in performance assessment.
TL;DR: Data is presented suggesting that systematically designed videodisc exhibits can attract and hold visitors' attention for longer periods of time than conventional exhibits.
Abstract: Technologists working in informal educational settings must adapt instructional design models to special needs. This article describes the analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation of an interactive videodisc exhibit at a natural history museum. Advantages of using an existing videodisc are discussed and design requirements for museum environments and interactive videodisc-based exhibits are examined. Data are presented suggesting that systematically designed videodisc exhibits can attract and hold visitors' attention for longer periods of time than conventional exhibits.
TL;DR: In this article, the percentage of women publishing in journals in instructional technology showed no indication of consistency or trends of increase or decrease over the five-year period and averaged 34%, with an annual mean ranging from 27% to 54%.
Abstract: Eleven leading instructional technology journals were examined to determine the percentage of articles written by women during a five-year period, 1988–1992. In addition, where women were either first or second author, the articles were analyzed to identify their main topic and categorized based on the categories used by Ely (1992) in determining the trends of the field. Results of this study indicate that the percentage of women publishing in journals in instructional technology showed no indication of consistency or trends of increase or decrease over the five-year period and averaged 34%, with an annual mean ranging from 27% to 54%. Content analysis revealed that women's publications in instructional technology journals were primarily of a technological nature in educational contexts.
TL;DR: The various literacies and modes of thinking required in an information society will challenge the capacities of every person and how the authors respond to them will determine their collective future in a world grown closer through mutual dependence upon shared intellectual resources.
Abstract: The various literacies and modes of thinking required in an information society will challenge the capacities of every person. While a variety of means are being found to help build and maintain these information resources, new vistas of capability lie before us. These opportunities and how we respond to them will determine our collective future in a world grown closer through mutual dependence upon shared intellectual resources.
TL;DR: In this paper, the ISD procedures involved in task/learning analyses and formative evaluation are presented as particularly beneficial for those who want to develop constructivist instruction, as well as how ISD can help constructivists in developing constructivism instruction.
Abstract: Constructivists often present their ideas as the solution to most ills in education. Sometimes explicitly, but often implicitly, instructional systems design (ISD) is blamed for these ills. There is some irony to this as ISD advocates often lament the dearth of ISD in education. Be that as it may, ISD does have limitations and there is much to be learned from constructivism. However, is a paradigm switch the answer? This paper will take a different approach as it will indicate how ISD can help those who want to develop constructivist instruction. The ISD procedures involved in task/learning analyses and formative evaluation are presented as particularly beneficial.
TL;DR: Techniques developed by students in an open-ended computer activity are analyzed, learning styles of inventive students are examined, and use of student-generated mathematical techniques in developing new software to cultivate mathematical inventiveness in more students is discussed.
Abstract: Dynamic computer environments can facilitate students' active participation in the construction of mathematical concepts and techniques—a long-standing goal among educational reformers. This paper analyzes techniques developed by students in an open-ended computer activity, examines learning styles of inventive students, and discusses use of student-generated mathematical techniques in developing new software to (1) cultivate mathematical inventiveness in more students and (2) encourage students to relate their own techniques to more general mathematical ideas. New software was designed to provide an informal, interactive introduction to functions and related algebraic ideas. A fundamentally constructivist approach was supplemented with coaching available upon student request. Each type of function was targeted with a sequence of challenges, hints to support the challenges, and games for synthesis and application. Students combined algebraic techniques to construct functions and manipulated the functions to cause specific behaviors in their graphs. The software succeeded in accommodating diverse student learning styles, initiating students into use of a wider variety of techniques, and inducing students to take an interactive approach to constructing mathematical knowledge.