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Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1996"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A brief overview of the history, research, and theory related to play can be found in this article, where a hybrid interactive learning environment is suggested based on the constructivist concept of a microworld and supported with elements of both games and simulations.
Abstract: Little attention has been given to the psychological and sociological value of play despite its many advantages to guiding the design of interactive multimedia learning environments for children and adults. This paper provides a brief overview of the history, research, and theory related to play. Research from education, psychology, and anthropology suggests that play is a powerful mediator for learning throughout a person's life. The time has come to couple the ever increasing processing capabilities of computers with the advantages of play. The design of hybrid interactive learning environments is suggested based on the constructivist concept of a microworld and supported with elements of both games and simulations.

931 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors argue that cultural context is the very stuff, the scaffolding, of instructional design if users are to be positioned as active participants who are given and take responsibility in the learning-teaching paradigm.
Abstract: Instructional design is socially and culturally constructed. This article explores the proposition that the selective traditions of instructional design consist of values, ideologies and images which act in the interests of particular cultural (class and gendered) groups. It examines this premise and argues for multiple cultural, rather than multicultural, contextualisation of instructional design. It situates the multiple cultural model in an eclectic paradigm that appropriately combines elements from (a) behaviourist, constructivist, and critical theory paradigms and (b) weak and strong culturally contextualised design strategies. Cultural context is the very stuff, the scaffolding, of instructional design if users are to be positioned as active participants who are given and take responsibility in the learning-teaching paradigm.

204 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe a rationale for, and conceptual framework of, learning via open-ended learning via OELEs, and describe the processes used by learners to build and evolve their understanding.
Abstract: Open-ended learning involves learning processes that are mediated by the unique intentions and purposes of individuals. Open-ended learning environments (OELEs) have been touted to support the building and evolving processes associated with self-directed learning. OELEs provide technological tools and resources for manipulating and exploring concepts. Whereas previous research has provided descriptions of OELE designs and case studies, little insight exists as to the processes used by learners to build and evolve their understanding. This paper describes a rationale for, and conceptual framework of, learning via open-ended environments.

161 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper reviewed the changes that have occurred to the Dick and Carey model in the 20 years since its original publication and identified various influences that may determine whether it will continue to be useful in the years ahead.
Abstract: Many instructional designers and numerous organizations have adapted the Dick and Carey model for use in their training functions. This article reviews the changes that have occurred to the model in the 20 years since its original publication, and identifies various influences that may determine whether it will continue to be useful in the years ahead. Consideration is given to alternative instructional design textbooks and the potential decline in interest in instructional design within academic programs. The influence of constructivist theory on the 1996 version of the Dick and Carey model is described, and the long term impact of constructivist and objectivist models on public education and business and industry is assessed.

124 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Poor performance by subjects with low SRLS under learner control indicates a strong need for learners to possess self-regulatory learning strategies to achieve success underLearner control.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of self-regulated learning strategies (SRLS) on performance in a learner-controlled and a program-controlled computer-based instruction (CBI). SRLS was measured using a self-regulated learning strategies questionnaire. Seventh-grade subjects were divided into high and low levels of SRLS and then randomly assigned to one of two versions of a CBI lesson: one allowing learner control over the sequence and content of the instruction and the other having the learners follow a linear instructional sequence. Results revealed that the performance differences between learners with high SRLS and those with low SRLS were greater under learner control than under program control (p<.05). Poor performance by subjects with low SRLS under learner control indicates a strong need for learners to possess self-regulatory learning strategies to achieve success under learner control. Program control, however, seems to minimize the performance differences between low and high levels of SRLS.

120 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Results showed that subjects learned more tacit knowledge when provided with animated graphical feedback than with textual feedback, although gains in explicit understanding of these science principles did not depend on the way the feedback was represented.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore how users interact and learn during a computer-based simulation given graphical and textual forms of feedback. In two experiments, university students interacted with a simple simulation that modeled the relationship between acceleration and velocity. Subjects interacted with the computer simulation using a discovery-based approach: no formal instruction on the science concepts was presented. Subjects had control over the acceleration of a simple screen object—a ball—in a game-like context. Three simulation conditions were studied, each differing on how feedback of the ball's speed, direction, and position was represented: graphical feedback, textual feedback, and graphical plus textual feedback. Results showed that subjects learned more tacit knowledge when provided with animated graphical feedback than with textual feedback, although gains in explicit understanding of these science principles did not depend on the way the feedback was represented. Patterns of interactivity and frustration are also discussed.

92 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper investigated the effects of search tools and learner cognitive styles on performance in searches for information within a hypermedia database and found that field-independent learners performed significantly better than field-dependent learners under the index/find and map treatments.
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of search tools and learner cognitive styles on performance in searches for information within a hypermedia database. Seventy-five students in a university English as a Second Language (ESL) program were blocked for field dependence and assigned to one of four treatments: browser, index/find, map, and all tools. Subjects searched the hypermedia database, EarthQuest, for facts to answer practice and posttest questions on science topics. Results revealed a significant interaction between search tool and cognitive style. Field-independent learners performed significantly better than field-dependent learners under the index/find and map treatments. Subjects in the four treatment groups accessed information from the database differently. Furthermore, cognitive style was significantly related to achievement, tool use, and attitude. Implications for the design and instructional use of hypermedia databases are provided.

72 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors use cognitive apprenticeship as a framework for designs that address the needs of a distributed learning environment, which can partially replace the learning and motivation ordinarily provided by mentors and community through the marriage of a constructivist cognitive teaching model and contemporary delivery platforms.
Abstract: Remote learning solutions should account for important yet neglected aspects of contemporary learning environments, such as the activities that occur during mentor relationships, or the affect of community on cognition. It may be possible to partially replace the learning and motivation ordinarily provided by mentors and community through the marriage of a constructivist cognitive teaching model and contemporary delivery platforms, such as cognitive apprenticeship and multimedia. This approach is used in Convection Initiation, a multimedia training course designed to help weather forecasters interpret Doppler radar. The course is discussed in this paper to illustrate how cognitive apprenticeship can be used as a framework for designs that address the needs of a distributed learning environment.

53 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The elaboration theory of instruction offers guidelines for several patterns of simple-to-complex sequencing which were developed primarily from cognitive theory, especially schema theory, but there has been relatively little empirical research on the theory.
Abstract: The elaboration theory of instruction offers guidelines for several patterns of simple-to-complex sequencing which were developed primarily from cognitive theory, especially schema theory. However, there has been relatively little empirical research on the theory. This study helps fill this void by conducting formative research to identify weaknesses in the theory and possible ways of overcoming those weaknesses. Four chapters in a text on electrical circuit analysis were revised according to the theory. The first phase of the study used interactive data collection for immediate, detailed reactions and suggestions on the sequence. Phase 2 utilized non-interactive data collection to assess the external validity of the results. Qualitative data analysis provided insights into ways to improve the theory. None of the results indicated that elements should be deleted. Weaknesses indicated new methods that should be added to the theory and existing methods that should be modified and/or enhanced.

52 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A number of dimensions of effective interactive learning with telematics are suggested: (a) collaboration, (b) generative learning, (c) contextual engagement, (d) personal autonomy, and (e) motivation.
Abstract: Increasingly, telematics is being used for distance education in Australia. Two forms of telematics, audiographics and live interactive television, are described. Audiographics involves two telecommunications links, one which connects computers via modems and a second link which provides an audioconferencing medium through a normal telephone connection. Live interactive television involves the combination of a one-way television signal with a toll-free callback telephone enabling students to communicate directly with the teacher during program transmission. Research and evaluation studies indicate that the interactivity currently implemented via telematics is minimal and that it does not support higher-order cognition among students. In light of our investigations and contemporary cognitive learning theory, a number of dimensions of effective interactive learning with telematics are suggested: (a) collaboration, (b) generative learning, (c) contextual engagement, (d) personal autonomy, and (e) motivation.

52 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a case study which was undertaken to study issues fundamental to a computer-assisted, multicultural education was presented, which indicated that students of different ethnic backgrounds may have different attitudes about and knowledge of computers, cross-cultural communication patterns, and learning processes when working with computers.
Abstract: This paper reports on a case study which was undertaken to study issues fundamental to a computer-assisted, multicultural education. During the study, a group of Asian American middle-school students corresponded with culturally dissimilar students using telecommunications. The data reported reflect the Asian American students' experience. Results concerning three themes of the research are discussed: computer knowledge, learning processes, and communication patterns. Findings indicate that students of different ethnic backgrounds may have different attitudes about and knowledge of computers, cross-cultural communication patterns, and learning processes when working with computers. These differences should be taken into account when planning a computer-assisted, multicultural curriculum.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report a study on the characteristics of the interactions in the public conferences on TeleNex during its first 16 months of full operation and the possible factors contributing to these characteristics.
Abstract: “TeleNex” is a computer network set up to enhance the professional development of inservice English teachers in Hong Kong by allowing them to access and share curriculum materials and to communicate with teacher educators at The University of Hong Kong and fellow teachers in other schools. This paper reports a study on the characteristics of the interactions in the public conferences on “TeleNex” during its first 16 months of full operation and the possible factors contributing to these characteristics. In order to analyze the various aspects of conference interactions, including teacher participation, initiation and response, response patterns and message types, a framework of message analysis was developed, drawing on concepts in conversational and discourse analysis. To investigate the possible contributing factors, a questionnaire was designed and administered to all users at the end of the 16-month period. The interaction analysis results and the questionnaire results confirmed the findings in previous studies carried out by the authors that social and psychological factors were very important in shaping the network interactions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of color on acuity and color harmony are discussed. And the authors provide an overview of research on color and learning, including effects of colour on attention, search tasks, other objective and non-objective measures of learning, and the use of color for cathode ray tube displays.
Abstract: This paper is divided into three major sections: Color as Seen—Physiological; Color as Seen—Psychological; and Color and Learning. The first section deals with color adaptations and the effects of color on acuity and relates these to the design of instructional materials. The second section covers color meanings and preferences, as well as color harmony and the relationships of these factors to the design of instructional materials. The third section provides an overview of research on color and learning. It includes the effects of color on attention, search tasks, other objective and non-objective measures of learning, and the use of color for cathode ray tube (CRT) displays. Although the measurable effects of color may be slight, colored materials are preferred and they are used almost universally. Therefore, designers of instructional materials need to use color wisely by paying attention to the physiological and psychological effects of color and the effect of color on learning.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The design and development of a set of Internet-based instructional materials on frog dissection and anatomy are described, and the effectiveness of Internet delivery for encouraging high levels of use and user satisfaction is reported on.
Abstract: While valuable instructional products are available for development and distribution via a variety of media, the Internet provides one of the most effective delivery mediums to date. In this paper, we describe the design and development of a set of Internet-based instructional materials on frog dissection and anatomy, and report on the effectiveness of Internet delivery for encouraging high levels of use and user satisfaction.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Results showed that learning occurred using the satellite medium and that there were slight but statistically significant differences between satellite and classroom instruction for learning job-related skills.
Abstract: Businesses and educational institutions use satellite technology to transmit information for a number of purposes, including training. This study assessed the effectiveness of a satellite training program for achieving various learning requirements ranging from recognition and recall of information to the performance of a specific job procedure. This study also compared satellite training with traditional classroom training for two courses in which the same material was taught using both media. Results showed that learning occurred using the satellite medium and that there were slight but statistically significant differences between satellite and classroom instruction for learning job-related skills.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The development process of CORAL including analysis, design, development, and evaluation is reported and the first comprehensive and networked courseware written in Chinese is reported.
Abstract: This article focuses on the Cooperative Remotely Accessible Learning (CORAL) system to promote cooperative constructive distance learning currently under development at National Chiao Tung University in Taiwan. The CORAL system is a collective and collaborative project intended to integrate four major components in concept and construction: an interactive learning environment, educational foundations and implications, domain knowledge, and research efforts. The CORAL system provides the first comprehensive and networked courseware written in Chinese. The development process of CORAL including analysis, design, development, and evaluation is reported. Research issues are also addressed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The course design requirements used to develop the interactive video courseware for the Florida Teletraining Project are described and the results of the performance tests and reactions of the students and some of the instructional personnel to the instructional methods used in the courses are presented.
Abstract: The Florida Teletraining Project was an evaluation study that sought to test the feasibility of providing various military courses to the Reserve Components using community college personnel. Delivery was via a two-way interactive system, TNET, one of the Army's teletraining networks. Five courses were delivered and evaluated in the project. This article describes the course design requirements used to develop the interactive video courseware for the project. It also presents the results of the performance tests and reactions of the students and some of the instructional personnel to the instructional methods used in the courses. Results showed that all students passed the performance tests (consistent with the U.S. Army's mastery requirements) and over 90% passed on the first attempt. Students and instructional personnel were positive about the strategies that were designed for the video teletraining courses. They rated the learning methods, including the interactivity provided, to be useful and effective.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper reports data obtained on practicing teachers' thinking as they interacted with a professional development interactive multimedia (IMM) courseware package to develop a classification system that provides a conceptualization of the major components, as perceived by the participating teachers, that relate to instructional design.
Abstract: This paper reports data obtained on practicing teachers' thinking as they interacted with a professional development interactive multimedia (IMM) courseware package. The data were obtained from 11 participating teachers via stimulated-recall interviews. Two types of thinking are detailed and discussed. The first type is those mediating processes engaged in by teachers during study sessions that related to the academic and professional content of the IMM package. The second type is those evaluative thoughts reported by teachers that related to instructional design aspects of the IMM courseware. The latter data were used to develop a classification system that provides a conceptualization of the major components, as perceived by the participating teachers, that relate to instructional design.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Investigation of the priorities instructional designers establish among data sources when they revise written materials and the relationship of their practice to standard models of formative evaluation shows that instructional designers were significantly more likely to incorporate their own knowledge into revisions than to use feedback data.
Abstract: The objective of the study was to investigate the priorities instructional designers establish among data sources when they revise written materials and the relationship of their practice to standard models of formative evaluation. Two modules of printed instructional material were revised by each of eight experienced instructional designers under three treatment conditions, using a counterbalanced design. Data were collected using a think-aloud procedure. The think-aloud protocol was segmented, coded and analysed. Results show that instructional designers were significantly more likely to incorporate their own knowledge into revisions than to use feedback data, and when they did use feedback data, they preferred learner comments. They did not accurately assess their use of their own knowledge or of feedback data; they thought they used feedback data more than the results showed. These instructional designers reflected some aspects of the standard instructional design model when they revised instructional materials, but their experience has caused many of the procedures to become internalized, so they are invisible in the protocols. This research was funded in part by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article investigated the differential effects of strategy orientations (memory strategy, organization strategy, application strategy, and read-and-study control) orthogonally crossed with learner activity (guided versus active) and outcomes (memory, organization and application).
Abstract: Investigated were the differential effects of strategy orientations (memory strategy, organization strategy, application strategy, and read-and-study control) orthogonally crossed with learner activity (guided versus active) and outcomes (memory, organization, and application). Subjects were 136 undergraduates, randomly assigned to 1 of 8 treatments. One day after they studied a passage on the topic of radar, outcome measures were completed. Guided activities were found to be superior to the learner-active counterparts on a composite achievement score. The hypothesized interaction of strategy orientation and kind of measure was supported. Performance was highest, in every comparison, on the outcome measure that paralleled the strategy-orientation treatment. The main effect of strategy orientation on the total achievement score was not significant. These findings were discussed in terms of the transfer-appropriate processing theory, the encoding specificity principle, and generative learning theory, with implications for further research and instructional design.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The innovative computer tool discussed in this paper uses the macro-command language of a full-featured word processor to enact strategic support designed to help writers with their written work.
Abstract: Recent research into composing processes has focused on instructional intervention strategies that promote effective composition practices within computerized writing environments. The field of computers and composition has benefitted both from advances in computing tools and developments in learning theory. The innovative computer tool discussed in this paper uses the macro-command language of a full-featured word processor to enact strategic support designed to help writers with their written work. From a theoretical standpoint, this tool created a writing environment based on Vygotskian theory of mediated learning and was grounded in an instructional strategy known as “procedural facilitation.” To evaluate the effectiveness of this computerprompting tool, a second macro application was used to log student keystrokes, thereby tracking student writing development, revisionary practices, and keystroke reactions to the prompting partner. Students using the prompting tool enacted divergent and convergent thinking assistance that appeared at the bottom of their computer screens while the system saved a process record of their keystrokes. Procedures for creating macro-driven prompting programs and keystroke-logging devices are discussed. Additionally, a catalog of prompts and summary of keystroke-mapping benefits are provided. Finally, our research using the macro-driven prompting partner and keystroke-register tool is detailed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, an application of an integrated learning system (ILS) that takes into account learning theory research, principles of instructional design, and other factors related to human learning is described.
Abstract: The development of integrated learning systems (ILSs) holds great promise for enhancing the instructional process and for improving student learning. This article describes an application of an ILS that takes into account learning theory research, principles of instructional design, and other factors related to human learning. The application presented utilizes IBM's “Advanced Technology Classroom” to verify the efficacy of integrated learning systems from both a student-user perspective and the perspective of instructors in a university setting.

Journal ArticleDOI
Ricky Telg1
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined what distance education-related skills and knowledge television production specialists had to learn in order to perform their jobs and found that television production experts had to acquire skills in two major areas: technical skills and personal/interpersonal skills.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine what distance education-related skills and knowledge television production specialists had to learn in order to perform their jobs. The purposive sample for this study consisted of 12 full-time television production specialists who develop live, interactive, video-based educational programs at American universities. However, prior to employment at their respective universities, these television production specialists had no experience or educational background in the field of distance education. Qualitative methods were used to collect data. The analysis gave rise to the finding that television production specialists had to learn skills in two major areas—technical skills and personal/interpersonal skills—and knowledge of instructional design methods.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The integration of technology in the writing curriculum is often done by using word processors as mentioned in this paper and they have been reported as a good way to facilitate the direct input of ideas, help writers concentrate on the writing process, release writers from concerns regarding low-level text production, support nonlinear approaches to writing, and improve creativity.
Abstract: [] The integration of technology in the writing curriculum is often done by using word processors. By 1991, word processing programs had already been identified as the most commonly available and dominantly used software in United States schools (Ely, 1991). Furthermore, as writing tools, they have been reported as a good way to facilitate the direct input of ideas, help writers concentrate on the writing process, release writers from concerns regarding low-level text production, support nonlinear approaches to writing, and improve creativity (Underwood & Underwood, 1990).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper presented an analysis of learning styles of a sample of Sri Lankan Open University students using the LSI and found that the program of study is more likely to influence learning style than gender.
Abstract: This study presented an analysis of learning styles of a sample of Sri Lankan Open University students using the LSI. Results indicate that the program of study is more likely to influence learning style than gender. It could also be assumed that the older students who were employed specifically in the PGDE program were influenced by the type of employment they were engaged in, as well as by the type of program they were enrolled in.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Clark as discussed by the authors pointed out that no significant difference is expected from the type of medium used, but it is methods which influence learning irrespective of the medium, and that learning is influenced more by the content and instructional strategy than by the types of medium.
Abstract: I-3 The promise of improved learning with new media never fails to attract the interest of educators (Clark, 1983; p.447). Schramm (1977) claimed that learning is influenced more by the content and instructional strategy than by the type of medium. Clark (1983) observed that no significant difference is expected from the type of medium used, but it is methods which influence learning irrespective of the medium. This s ta tement has sparked much debate as Ross (1994) observes in an introductory note to a special issue on this debate in the Educational Technology Research and Development journal. Clark (1994) has noted that there is no compelling evidence in 70 years of published and unpublished research to prove that media cause learning increases.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper describes an integrated authoring environment, AIDA (Ambiente Integrado de Desenvolvimento de Aplicações educacionais), an open tool giving the author a high degree of freedom both in package characteristics and design methodologies used.
Abstract: This paper describes an integrated authoring environment, AIDA (Ambiente Integrado de Desenvolvimento de Aplicacoes educacionais). It is an open tool, giving the author a high degree of freedom both in package characteristics and design methodologies used. This environment integrates several modules. The core of the design module is a prototyping tool, allowing the creation of evolutionary prototypes. These prototypes can include several types of multimedia components and can be used as part of the final package. The AIDA environment also includes other options that support evaluation, learning materials re-use, communication between authoring team members and translation and cultural adaptation of packages to work in different environments. An experimental version of this authoring environment was implemented and the results of its evaluation are encouraging. In this paper we also present an example of a package created with the AIDA authoring environment.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors outline some of the many opportunities available for competent educational technology professionals to contribute their knowledge and skills in international settings beyond the North American borders, and present a review of educational technology in the international domain.
Abstract: An International Review section within this special international issue may seem redundant. This regular department usually features articles on research and/or development in countries outside of North America. This “review”, however, does not highlight any one country or program but views the entire world as an appropriate domain for educational technology practitioners. The purpose of this paper is to outline some of the many opportunities available for competent educational technology professionals to contribute their knowledge and skills in international settings beyond the North American borders.