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Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1999"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The relationship between first- and second-order barriers is discussed and specific strategies for circumventing, overcoming, and eliminating the changing barriers teachers face as they work to achieve technology integration are described.
Abstract: Although teachers today recognize the importance of integrating technology into their curricula, efforts are often limited by both external (first-order) and internal (second-order) barriers. Traditionally, technology training, for both preservice and inservice teachers, has focused on helping teachers overcome first-order barriers (e.g., acquiring technical skills needed to operate a computer). More recently, training programs have incorporated pedagogical models of technology use as one means of addressing second-order barriers. However, little discussion has occurred that clarifies the relationship between these different types of barriers or that delineates effective strategies for addressing different barriers. If pre- and inservice teachers are to become effective users of technology, they will need practical strategies for dealing with the different types of barriers they will face. In this paper, I discuss the relationship between first- and second-order barriers and then describe specific strategies for circumventing, overcoming, and eliminating the changing barriers teachers face as they work to achieve technology integration.

1,834 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper argues that activity theory provides an appropriate framework for analyzing needs, tasks, and outcomes for designing constructivist learning environments (CLEs) and describes a process for using activity theory as a framework for describing the components of an activity system that can be modeled in CLEs.
Abstract: The epistemic assumptions of constructive learning are different from those of traditional instruction, so classical methods of needs and task analysis are inappropriate for designing constructivist learning environments (CLEs). This paper argues that activity theory provides an appropriate framework for analyzing needs, tasks, and outcomes for designing CLEs. Activity theory is a socio-cultural, socio-historical lens through which designers can analyze human activity systems. It focuses on the interaction of human activity and consciousness within its relevant environmental context. Since conscious learning emerges from activity (performance), not as a precursor to it, CLEs should attempt to replicate the activity structures, tools and sign systems, socio-cultural rules, and community expectations that performers must accommodate while acting on some object of learning. After explicating assumptions of activity theory and briefly describing the components of CLEs, this paper describes a process for using activity theory as a framework for describing the components of an activity system that can be modeled in CLEs.

1,087 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued that a systems approach that combines different scaffolding techniques may be even more powerful than current approaches, and a discussion of design issues that should be considered in the future.
Abstract: Technology can play a powerful role in supporting student reflection. Sociocognitive theories provide a conceptual framework that we use to consider systems that afford reflective thinking. Reflective thinking involves actively monitoring, evaluating, and modifying one's thinking and comparing it to both expert models and peers. This requires a combination of both individual and collaborative reflection. These theoretical frameworks suggest four ways that technology can provide powerful scaffolding for reflection: (a) process displays, (b) process prompts, (c) process models, and (d) a forum for reflective social discourse. Each approach is presented with specific examples illustrating its design features. We argue that a systems approach that combines these different scaffolding techniques may be even more powerful. Modern technologies can provide students with rich resources for reflection and help students develop adaptive learning expertise through reflective practice. We conclude with a discussion of design issues that should be considered in the future.

347 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Vocabulary acquisition and recognition of English words were highest in the subtitled condition, indicating that Dutch elementary school children can incidentally acquire vocabulary in a foreign language through watching subtitled television programs.
Abstract: Subtitled television programs seem to provide a rich context for foreign language acquisition. Moreover, viewers are generally quite motivated to understand what is shown and said on television. The present study investigated whether children in Grades 4 and 6 (N = 246) learn English words through watching a television program with an English soundtrack and Dutch subtitles. Children were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: (a) watching an English television program with Dutch subtitles, (b) watching the same English program without subtitles, and (c) watching a Dutch television program (control). The study was carried out using a 15-min documentary about grizzly bears. Vocabulary acquisition and recognition of English words were highest in the subtitled condition, indicating that Dutch elementary school children can incidentally acquire vocabulary in a foreign language through watching subtitled television programs.

266 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the current status of technology in our schools, what we know about professional development in the area of technology, and research on efforts to increase preservice teacher use of technology.
Abstract: This article examines technology professional development for preservice and inservice teachers. It reviews the current status of technology in our schools, what we know about professional development in the area of technology, and research on efforts to increase preservice teacher use of technology in appropriate ways.

245 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focused on efforts in four colleges of education deemed exemplary in their approaches to prepare preservice teachers to use technology and found that the informed leadership of deans and other administrative and faculty leaders appears to be especially critical to sustain and expand technology-integration efforts.
Abstract: This study focused on efforts in four colleges of education deemed exemplary in their approaches to prepare preservice teachers to use technology. The study addressed one over-arching question: What are the important pieces of the puzzle that make up the current technology integration efforts at these exemplary sites? Data were gathered during the 1997–98 academic year. Findings suggest that there is a web of enabling factors that supports student learning opportunities and desired technology-related outcomes for preservice teachers. The informed leadership of deans and other administrative and faculty leaders appears to be especially critical to sustain and expand technology-integration efforts. Leadership issues, along with a wide range of other factors, are systematically examined across the four case studies. The authors conclude that while each of the four cases is unique, many of the recommended practices explored in this study would likely prove beneficial if employed in other settings.

231 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This work describes how a STAR.Legacy constructed for an educational psychology course helped preservice teachers design and learn about effective inquiry-based instruction.
Abstract: Inquiry-based instruction including problem-, project-, and case-based methods often incorporate complex sets of learning activities. The numerous activities run the risk of becoming disconnected in the minds of learners and teachers. STAR.Legacy is a software shell that can help designers organize learning activities into an inquiry cycle that is easy to understand and pedagogically sound. To ensure that classroom teachers can adapt the inquiry activities according to their local resources and needs, STAR.Legacy was built upon four types of design principles: learner centered, knowledge centered, assessment centered, and community centered. We describe how a STAR.Legacy constructed for an educational psychology course helped preservice teachers design and learn about effective inquiry-based instruction.

154 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a review of information technology in teacher education (ITTE) and suggest the need for more sharing of information of "islands of excellence" in work on ITTE, more case studies on diffusion of innovation, more emphasis on bias-related findings from critical theory, and more development and dissemination of resources and tools for using technology effectively in TE.
Abstract: Within the context of a brief history of information technology in teacher education (ITTE), current research on ITTE is reviewed. It is argued that ITTE research can be categorized into three paradigms: empirical, critical, and interpretive. The need for a clear, multi-paradigmatic approach for future work is emphasized. Examples of exemplary work are cited. Conclusions suggest needs for more sharing of information of “islands of excellence” in work on technology in teacher education, more case studies on diffusion of innovation, more emphasis on bias-related findings from critical theory, and more development and dissemination of resources and tools for using technology effectively in teacher education. Recommendations for further work in the area also include emphasizing instructional design (ID) work to create innovations and recognizing the need for grounded, reflective papers on innovative approaches that have been implemented and studied over several years.

108 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Students learning English for academic purposes in the Sultanate of Oman followed one of two approaches to vocabulary expansion, learning pre-encoded dictionary definitions of words, or constructing definitions for themselves using an adapted version of the computational tools of lexicographers.
Abstract: Constructivist learning theory predicts that knowledge encoded from data by learners themselves will be more flexible, transferable, and useful than knowledge encoded for them by experts and transmitted to them by an instructor or other delivery agent If this prediction is correct, then learners should be modeled as scientists and use the reasoning and technologies of scientists to construct their own knowledge However, it cannot be taken for granted that the prediction is correct, or correct in every knowledge domain The present study attempts to establish conditions in which the prediction can be operationalized and tested It reports on the adaptation of constructivist principles to instructional design in a particular domain, second language vocabulary acquisition Students learning English for academic purposes in the Sultanate of Oman followed one of two approaches to vocabulary expansion, learning pre-encoded dictionary definitions of words, or constructing definitions for themselves using an adapted version of the computational tools of lexicographers After 12 weeks, both groups were equal in definitional knowledge of target words, but lexicography group students were more able to transfer their word knowledge to novel contexts

95 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present an analysis of the research design of media comparison studies for measuring the effectiveness of instructional technology in distance education and show that such a methodology is an inappropriate approach to such an investigation.
Abstract: Media comparison studies have long been criticized as an inappropriate research design for measuring the effectiveness of instructional technology. However, a resurgence in their use has recently been noted in distance education for program evaluation purposes. An analysis of the research design will detail why such a methodology is an inappropriate approach to such an investigation. Increased access to such programming does not seem to serve as a satisfactory benefit for the implementation of distance education efforts. Stakeholders desire to prove that participants in distance-delivered courses receive the same quality of instruction off-campus as those involved in the “traditional” classroom setting. However, the desire to prove that the quality of such distributed offerings is equal to the quality of on-campus programming often results in comparisons of achievement between the two groups of student participants. Statistically, such a research design almost guarantees that the desired outcome will be attained—that indeed distance learners perform as well as campus-based students.

94 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper describes a theoretically and empirically based framework for how users formulate and employ information-seeking strategies in open-ended information systems (OEISs) and implications for practice and research are offered.
Abstract: Technologies such as the Internet and World Wide Web are changing our conceptions of information systems, from who uses them and how they are used, to how the systems are created and who is doing the creating. Everyday users are afforded the same information retrieval opportunities as information scientists or librarians by using emerging information systems such as the Web. Yet, defining best practices for assisting users in finding the information they seek remains an unrealized goal. Discovering how users engage in information retrieval and strategy building while searching for information in open-ended systems such as the Web is an area in need of exploration if these systems are to fulfill their potential as tools for information seeking and learning. This paper describes a theoretically and empirically based framework for how users formulate and employ information-seeking strategies in open-ended information systems (OEISs). Background information and challenges related to OEISs are provided. OEIS theoretical and user perspectives are described. An example based on a recent research study is provided to illustrate use of the OEIS information-seeking framework. Implications for practice and research are offered.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the cognitive processes involved in learning information presented in multimedia and text format using electroencephalographic (EEG) measures, and found that the alpha power measures showed higher amplitudes (less mental activity) over the occipital and temporal lobes, and less alpha power over the frontal lobes.
Abstract: This study investigated the cognitive processes involved in learning information presented in multimedia and text format using electroencephalographic (EEG) measures. Thirty-eight students (19 gifted, and 19 average) learned material presented with text (text); text, sound, and picture (picture); and text, sound and video (video), while their EEG was recorded. Alpha power, which is inversely related to mental effort, was analyzed. For thetext presentation, the alpha power measures showed higher amplitudes (less mental activity) over the occipital and temporal lobes, and less alpha power (higher mental activity) over the frontal lobes. The results support the assumption that thevideo andpicture presentations induced visualization strategies, whereas thetext presentation mainly generated processes related to verbal processing. The results further showed that gifted students displayed less mental activity during all three formats of presentation. These differences were especially pronounced for thevideo format. No gender-related differences in EEG patterns related to the format of presentation were observed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe how science education partnerships composed of educational researchers, technologists, classroom teachers, natural scientists, and pedagogy experts can create effective instructional innovations using Internet technologies.
Abstract: We describe how science education partnerships composed of educational researchers, technologists, classroom teachers, natural scientists, and pedagogy experts can create effective instructional innovations using Internet technologies. We show that our Scaffolded Knowledge Integration framework gives partnerships a head start on effective designs. We illustrate this process with the Deformed Frogs partnership and the Rats in Space partnership. We conclude with suggestions for future partnerships.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a university-elementary school partnership was formed to provide ongoing professional, instructional, and technical support to teachers at one elementary school by training 18 third-to-fifth-grade students to serve as technology experts.
Abstract: Although administrators are scrambling to bring technology into their schools, the introduction of computers into individual classrooms has created challenges for both experienced and inexperienced teachers. Recognizing that teachers' use of technology is likely to increase when support is more readily available, a university-elementary school partnership was formed to provide ongoing professional, instructional, and technical support to teachers at one elementary school. Professional support was provided through monthly meetings and ongoing interactions initiated by teachers' changing technology needs. Instructional support was provided through two teacher inservice workshops that emphasized practical ideas for infusion. Technical support was provided, at least in part, by training 18 third- to fifth-grade students to serve as technology “experts” for the school. Survey and interview data from teachers, students, the principal, and the library media specialist were used to examine the impact of these efforts. Findings describe perceived increases in teachers' levels of instructional and professional uses, and in students' confidence, self-esteem, and computer skills. Although participants described changes in the school's overall approach to technology use, use of student-trainers was limited.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The rationale and operations of the Center, and first-year progress in defining a set of CILT partnership projects with many other institutions that came out of the authors' national theme-team workshops are described.
Abstract: The National Science Foundation-funded Center for Innovative Learning Technologies (CILT) is designed to be a national resource for stimulating research and development of technology-enabled solutions to critical problems in K-14 science, math, engineering and technology learning. The Center, launched at the end of 1997, is organized around four themes identified as areas where research is likely to result in major gains in teaching and learning, and sponsors research across disciplines and institutions in its four theme areas. CILT brings together experts in the fields of cognitive science, educational technologies, computer science, subject matter learning, and engineering. It engages business through an Industry Alliance Program and is also training postdoctoral students. CILT's founding organizations are SRI International's Center for Technology in Learning, University of California at Berkeley (School of Education and Department of Computer Science), Vanderbilt University's Learning Technology Center, and the Concord Consortium. Through its programs, CILT seeks to reach beyond these organizations to create a web of organizations, individuals, industries, schools, foundations, government agencies, and labs, that is devoted to the production, sharing and use of new knowledge about how learning technologies can dramatically improve the processes and outcomes of learning and teaching. This paper describes the rationale and operations of the Center, and first-year progress in defining a set of CILT partnership projects with many other institutions that came out of our national theme-team workshops.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper describes how a multimedia design team at Wayne State University incorporated Keller's ARCS model into the design and development of a computer-based instructional (CBI) module for a college engineering course in economics.
Abstract: This paper describes how a multimedia design team at Wayne State University, working on an engineering education project funded by the National Science Foundation, incorporated Keller's ARCS (attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction) model into the design and development of a computer-based instructional (CBI) module for a college engineering course in economics. A discussion of how and why the components were incorporated into the traditional instructional design phases of definition, design, development, implementation, and evaluation is presented.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Investigation of the effects of implementing individual and small group learning structures with a computer simulation in accounting indicated that performance scores were high regardless of learning structure, however, students who worked alone expressed significantly more continuing motivation for their learning structure.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of implementing individual and small group learning structures with a computer simulation in accounting. College students used one of three learning structures with the simulation: (a) an individual structure, (b) a small group structure with extensive interaction, or (c) a small group structure with occasional interaction. Results indicated that performance scores were high regardless of learning structure. However, students who worked alone expressed significantly more continuing motivation for their learning structure than students who worked with a partner. Responses to student interviews revealed somewhat mixed feelings for the small group structures. Observation data indicated that students who used the extensive small group structure exhibited significantly more discussion and provided more answers to their partners' questions than students who used the occasional group structure. Implications for implementing small group structures with computer-based instruction are provided.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the current state of research paradigms in the field of instructional technology from the perspective of research standards and paradigmologies recommended by Leslie J. Briggs in the early 1980s is reviewed.
Abstract: In this paper, we review the current state of research paradigms in the field of instructional technology from the perspective of research standards and paradigms recommended by Leslie J. Briggs in the early 1980s. Our analysis of articles published in Educational Technology Research and Development from 1992 to 1996 revealed that relatively few research paradigms were used and that studies did not, for the most part, adhere to Briggs's (1984) Culture Four standards. Perhaps the most startling result was that more than half the articles published were not empirical studies at all. We discuss some reasons for these findings and suggest that instructional technology (IT) researchers make a renewed commitment to Briggs's standards. IT researchers can again advance knowledge in the field in significant ways by collaborating with partners in the field and focusing on questions related to instructional design processes, questions that require the use of more developmental research methods.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined a course at a large, Midwestern university to examine how educational theory translates into classroom practice, and found that most students were highly satisfied with the course, that some transferred learning, and that students developed skills and knowledge with instructional design, educational theory, and technology.
Abstract: According to prominent learning theorists, learning is much more than gathering information in a well-designed, teacher-centered environment; learning is promoted when students pursue individual interests, when they build on prior knowledge, and when they engage in hands-on and authentic activity. Although a great deal of literature exists describing ideals such as these, research examining the implementation of these ideals in classrooms is scarce, and using technology for more than information giving is even scarcer. The purpose of this study was to examine a graduate course at a large, Midwestern university to discern how educational theory translates into classroom practice. In the course, students learned about educational theory by designing and creating a hypermedia chapter for a World Wide Web-based book. Qualitative data were collected across a 16-week semester and revealed both student and teacher perspectives regarding the course, including the strengths and limitations of a student-as-multimedia-author approach. The findings indicated that most all students were highly satisfied with the course, that some transferred learning, and that students developed skills and knowledge with instructional design, educational theory, and technology.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a growing number of practitioners in the field of educational technology consider themselves constructivists, but their epistemological position conflicts with that of technical rationality, and they must currently find a warrant for their practice outside the field.
Abstract: Educational technology is an instantiation of technical rationality. Technical rationality depends on an objectivist epistemology and a representational model of mind. Currently, a growing number of practitioners in the field of educational technology consider themselves constructivists. Because their epistemological position conflicts with that of technical rationality, these practitioners must currently find a warrant for their practice outside the field. However, a warrant for a strong form of constructivism (enactive constructivism) can be located in recent developments in systems theory, one of the foundational pillars of educational technology. These developments have the potential to provide practitioners a philosophical mooring within the field itself. One of these developments, autonomous systems theory, with its rejection of the representational model of mind, is described, and implications of its application to educational technology are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The evolution of multimedia technology is discussed and current alternatives for authoring multimedia programs are described and issues related to analyzing authoring tool requirements and selecting software are presented.
Abstract: Computer systems, interactive technologies, and the software tools for authoring multimedia programs have evolved over the past several decades. The evolution of multimedia technology is discussed and current alternatives for authoring multimedia programs are described. Issues related to analyzing authoring tool requirements and selecting software are presented and trends in the evolution of authoring tools are identified. Many factors affecting the selection and use of authoring software are exogenous to the technology itself. Both technological trends and market forces must be considered.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results of this study suggest that the use of CASCADE could improve the consistency of formative evaluation plans and activities; motivate developers by elevating their confidence in using formative Evaluation activities; save time; and help to provide justifications for decisions made.
Abstract: Information and communication technology tools currently permeate almost every professional domain. Those geared toward the field of instructional development have emerged in recent years. This article explores the potential for linking the domains of computer support and instructional development. This article reports on the design and evaluation of CASCADE (Computer Assisted Curriculum Analysis, Design and Evaluation), a computer system that supports instructional developers during formative evaluation efforts. Five prototypes of CASCADE were created and evaluated on the basis of their validity (reflection of state-of-the-art knowledge and internal consistency); practicality (ability to meet the needs, wishes and contextual constraints of the target group); and effectiveness (improved user task performance). The results of this study suggest that the use of CASCADE could: (a) improve the consistency of formative evaluation plans and activities; (b) motivate developers by elevating their confidence in using formative evaluation activities; (c) save time; and (d) help to provide justifications for decisions made.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper looks at instructional design issues in what might be considered unusually complex settings, when attention is focused on the learning environment at large, rather than the search for specific responses to relatively neatly defined learning needs within that environment.
Abstract: This paper looks at instructional design issues in what might be considered unusually complex settings. Such settings, however, become relevant when attention is focused on the learning environment at large, rather than the search for specific responses to relatively neatly defined learning needs of limited scope within that environment. The development of sustainable livelihoods in an international development context generally requires approaches that take such complexity into account. Such approaches are equally necessary whenever serious attempts are made to reconceptuali ze the learning environment in a large-scale fashion. The first part of this paper presents a conceptual framework to situate the problem under discussion. Subsequently, five cases are briefly presented, four of which from developing countries. These cases are analyzed against the backdrop of the conceptual framework. Finally, conclusions are drawn and principles derived the concurrent application of which is argued to be necessary in order to create an open and responsive learning environment.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The theory and procedures for an innovative needs reassessment approach, the CODE system, are explained and some empirical data is provided on the potential value of the CODE process for decisions about the reallocation of instructional resources in existing training programs.
Abstract: Needs assessments are traditionally based on an optimals-actuals deficiency model that is utilized before instruction is implemented However, in some cases an existing training program may be reassessed to determine what training needs still exist These situations could benefit from an excess-based model, where the assessment effort is designed to identify instructional excesses as well as deficiencies This article explains the theory and procedures for an innovative needs reassessment approach, the CODE system The article also provides some empirical data on the potential value of the CODE process for decisions about the reallocation of instructional resources in existing training programs Two exploratory studies were conducted that provide evidence of the validity of the CODE system: (a) a needs reassessment of a corporate training program, and (b) a medical training program reassessment






Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The disconnect between IT and teacher education programs is exaggerated, but political and economic realities have forced a blurring of the lines between the two fields that should be separate.
Abstract: Teacher education was a completely separate academic unit-usually located somewhere in the nether regions of the university where the faculty put in numerous hours training and supervising preservice teachers. The two lived quite happily in separate worlds, neither really knowing-or caring to know-what the other was doing. You may recognize some traces of truth in my exaggerated depiction of the disconnect between IT and teacher education programs. Some of the separation is quite understandable, even predictable. Each discipline is distinct and driven by very different missions. But political and economic realities have forced a blurring of the lines between the two fields that should be