Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 2008"

Environmental Detectives—the development of an augmented reality platform for environmental simulations

Abstract: The form factors of handheld computers make them increasingly popular among K-12 educators. Although some compelling examples of educational software for handhelds exist, we believe that the potential of this platform are just being discovered. This paper reviews innovative applications for mobile computing for both education and entertainment purposes, and then proposes a framework for approaching handheld applications we call “augmented reality educational gaming.” We then describe our development process in creating a development platform for augmented reality games that draws from rapid prototyping, learner-centered software, and contemporary game design methodologies. We provide a narrative case study of our development activities spread across five case studies with classrooms, and provide a design narrative explaining this development process and articulate an approach to designing educational software on emerging technology platforms. Pedagogical, design, and technical conclusions and implications are discussed.

Digital storytelling: a meaningful technology-integrated approach for engaged student learning

Abstract: Although research emphasizes the importance of integrating technology into the curriculum, the use of technology can only be effective if teachers themselves possess the expertise to use technology in a meaningful way in the classroom. The aim of this study was to assist Egyptian teachers in developing teaching and learning through the application of a particular digital technology. Students were encouraged to work through the process of producing their own digital stories using MS Photo Story, while being introduced to desktop production and editing tools. They also presented, published and shared their own stories with other students in the class. Quantitative and qualitative instruments, including digital story evaluation rubric, integration of technology observation instruments and interviews for evaluating the effectiveness of digital storytelling into learning were implemented to examine the extent to which students were engaged in authentic learning tasks using digital storytelling. The findings from the analysis of students-produced stories revealed that overall, students did well in their projects and their stories met many of the pedagogical and technical attributes of digital stories. The findings from classroom observations and interviews revealed that despite problems observed and reported by teachers, they believed that the digital storytelling projects could increase students' understanding of curricular content and they were willing to transform their pedagogy and curriculum to include digital storytelling.

Why is externally-facilitated regulated learning more effective than self-regulated learning with hypermedia?

Abstract: We examined how self-regulated learning (SRL) and externally-facilitated self-regulated learning (ERL) differentially affected adolescents’ learning about the circulatory system while using hypermedia. A total of 128 middle-school and high school students with little prior knowledge of the topic were randomly assigned to either the SRL or ERL condition. Learners in the SRL condition regulated their own learning, while learners in the ERL condition had access to a human tutor who facilitated their self-regulated learning. We converged product (pretest-posttest shifts in students’ mental models and declarative knowledge measures) with process (think-aloud protocols) data to examine the effectiveness of self- versus externally-facilitated regulated learning. Findings revealed that learners in the ERL condition gained statistically significantly more declarative knowledge and that a greater number of participants in this condition displayed a more advanced mental model on the posttest. Verbal protocol data indicated that learners in the ERL condition regulated their learning by activating prior knowledge, engaging in several monitoring activities, deploying several effective strategies, and engaging in adaptive help-seeking. By contrast, learners in the SRL condition used ineffective strategies and engaged in fewer monitoring activities. Based on these findings, we present design principles for adaptive hypermedia learning environments, engineered to foster students’ self-regulated learning about complex and challenging science topics.

Taking educational games seriously: using the RETAIN model to design endogenous fantasy into standalone educational games

Abstract: We are witnessing a mad rush to pour educational content into games in an ad hoc manner in hopes that player/learners are motivated simply because the content is housed inside a game. A failure to base educational game design on well-established learning and instructional theories increases the risk of the game failing to meet its intended educational goals, and yielding students who are entertained but who have not acquired any academic skills or knowledge. Our review of standalone educational games has shown that they are not always based on sound educational principles and theories. We contend that, if academic learning is to take place, a new design paradigm must be developed. This article discusses the RETAIN design and evaluation model for educational games that was developed to aide in the evaluation of how well academic content is endogenously immersed and embedded within the game’s fantasy and story context, promoters transfer of knowledge, and encourages repetitive usage to that content becomes available for use in an automatic way.

Computer games application within alternative classroom goal structures: cognitive, metacognitive, and affective evaluation

Abstract: This article reports findings on a study of educational computer games used within various classroom situations. Employing an across-stage, mixed method model, the study examined whether educational computer games, in comparison to traditional paper-and-pencil drills, would be more effective in facilitating comprehensive math learning outcomes, and whether alternative classroom goal structures would enhance or reduce the effects of computer games. The findings indicated that computer games, compared with paper-and-pencil drills, were significantly more effective in promoting learning motivation but not significantly different in facilitating cognitive math test performance and metacognitive awareness. Additionally, this study established that alternative classroom goal structures mediated the effects of computer games on mathematical learning outcomes. Cooperative goal structure, as opposed to competitive and individualistic structures, significantly enhanced the effects of computer games on attitudes toward math learning.

Gender differences in game activity preferences of middle school children: implications for educational game design

Abstract: Educators and learning theorists suggest that play is one of the most important venues for learning, and games a useful educational tool. This study considers game activity preferences of middle school-aged children, so that educational games might be made more appealing to them. Based on children’s activity modes identified in our prior research, we developed the Educational Game Preferences Survey, which collects information on children’s preferences for play activity modes, their attitudes about each activity mode, and their preferences for game characters, settings, and forms of help. Survey results suggest the appeal of the Explorative mode of play for all children, especially girls. Gender differences in children’s preferences and attitudes for Active, Strategic, and Creative play modes were also found. We close with recommendations for game design to appeal to both boys and girls, as well as for boys and girls individually, to build engagement and hopefully lead to learning.

Computer-mediated instruction: a comparison of online and face-to-face collaboration

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of collaboration mode and group composition during a computer-mediated collaborative (CMC) program. Six intact sections of a computer literacy course were assigned to either a face-to-face or a virtual, online collaboration treatment condition. Groups consisted of homogeneous lower-ability, homogeneous higher-ability, or heterogeneous-ability pairs. The study examined the effects of collaboration mode and group composition on individual posttest performance, group project performance, collaborative interaction behavior, and attitudes towards the instruction. Results indicated that virtual dyads exhibited significantly more questioning behaviors and significantly better project performance than those who collaborated face-to-face. By comparison, students in the face-to-face condition performed significantly better on the individual posttest than those in the virtual online condition. Findings suggest that both virtual and face-to-face collaboration can be effective in achieving learning goals. However, consideration should be given to the collaborative structure of the lesson and the type of task in the design of CMC environments.

A Scaffolding Framework to Support the Construction of Evidence-Based Arguments among Middle School Students

Abstract: Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach in which students in small groups engage in an authentic, ill-structured problem, and must (1) define, generate and pursue learning issues to understand the problem, (2) develop a possible solution, (3) provide evidence to support their solution, and (4) present their solution and the evidence that supports it (Barrows, How to design a problem-based curriculum for the preclinical years. Springer Publishing, New York, 1985). However, research has shown that novice problem-solvers and learners without deep content knowledge have difficulty developing strong evidence-based arguments (Krajcik et al., J Learn Sci 7:313–350, 1998a; Reiser, J Lear Sci 13(3):273–304, 2004). In this paper, we discuss the components of (e.g., claims and evidence) and processes of making (e.g., define problem and make claim) evidence-based arguments. Furthermore, we review various scaffolding models designed to help students perform various tasks associated with creating evidence-based arguments (e.g., link claims to evidence) and present guidelines for the development of computer-based scaffolds to help middle school students build evidence-based arguments.

Student evaluation of audience response technology in large lecture classes

Abstract: In the past few years, audience response technology (ART) has been widely adopted on college campuses, and is especially popular among instructors of large lecture classes. Claims regarding ART’s benefits to students have received only limited empirical evaluation, and prior studies exhibit methodological limitations. The current study provides a multi-dimensional evaluation, utilizing a newly-developed measure, the Audience Response Technology Questionnaire (ART-Q). Data were provided at three points during a semester by undergraduate students (n = 854) who used ART in three large lecture university courses. Results indicate moderately positive evaluations of ART on some dimensions (e.g., ease of use, impact on attendance), with less positive evaluations on others (e.g., influence on preparation for class). These evaluations showed some variability across time of semester and course, but were not substantially affected by gender, ethnicity, or year in school. Findings are discussed with respect to the need for future research on instructors’ techniques for using ART and their influence on student perceptions and outcomes.

The acquisition of skill and expertise in massively multiplayer online games

Abstract: Educational learning environments have changed dramatically in the last 20 years. Advances in technology have enabled the World Wide Web and a sundry of other tools. In response, many researchers have argued that one way to understand learning in a complex world is to examine user interactions within Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs) [Gee (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave/St. Martin's; Squire (2003). Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19–29; Young, Schrader, & Zheng, 2006]. However, few empirical investigations have explored MMOGs as a context for learning. As a result, a 20-item, Likert-type instrument was administered to 2140 participants who actively play MMOGs. Items were designed to measure players’ gaming experiences as they developed requisite skill sets and learned game content. Specifically, this investigation examined how participants’ age ranges and levels of expertise relate to behaviors, strategies, and skills exhibited with an MMOG environment. Although results are not necessarily conclusive, implications for understanding gaming expertise in contemporary educational environments are discussed.

Advances in scaffolding learning with hypertext and hypermedia: a summary and critical analysis

Abstract: Hypermedia learning environments such as the World Wide Web and CD based multi media encyclopedias are extensively used in education, frequently with the intent of helping students learn challenging educational subjects. However, we caution educators, instructional designers, and researchers not to be seduced by design approaches for hypermedia environments that allow learners to access, manipulate, or restructure multiple representations of information while receiving little or no scaffolding during learning. As the authors of this special issue demonstrate, learning with hypertext and hypermedia is challenging for learners of all ages and that systematic and carefully designed research is needed in order to contribute to our understanding of how to promote learning with non linear systems such as these. We further argue that hypermedia design approaches should be informed by empirical research with multiple methodologies from various disciplines rather than adopting ad hoc or intuition-based approaches to designing and evaluating educational hypermedia. Furthermore, our conceptions and formulations of scaffolding have deviated from the original conception (i.e., Wood et al. 1976) of the construct so much that there is some confusion and a general lack of synthesis regarding the nature, role, and effectiveness of scaffolding in learning with hypermedia (see Azevedo and Hadwin 2005; Jacobson, this volume). What we need is a concerted effort by researchers from various fields to conduct theoretically-driven laboratory and classroom research from which to draw scientifically-based principles for the design of hypermedia-based learning environments intended to foster students' learning about complex and challenging topics. The papers in this special issue hopefully represent principled steps towards addressing such issues. The goal of this article is to summarize the papers in this volume, and to

A catalyst for teaching critical thinking in a large university class in Taiwan: asynchronous online discussions with the facilitation of teaching assistants

Abstract: This study was designed to investigate the effects of teaching critical thinking skills (CTS) in a large class through asynchronous discussion forums (ADFs) with the facilitation of teaching assistants. A pretest and posttest quasi-experimental design with a comparison group was employed to validate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The independent variable was the structured ADFs with two levels—without Socratic dialogues, and with Socratic dialogues, modeled and facilitated by the teaching assistants via structured ADFs, while the dependent variable was the students’ levels of CTS as measured by two different evaluations: (a) the California Critical Thinking Skills Test, to holistically examine students’ gains in their CTS, and (b) the Coding Scheme for Evaluating Critical Thinking in Computer Conferencing, to investigate students’ interaction patterns and the depth of their critical thinking (CT) demonstrated via the ADF. The evaluation data were collected from 278 college students in Taiwan. The qualitative analysis provided a detailed description of how students’ discussions moved from the lower to the higher phases of CT. Results indicated that an inspired instructor and some energetic teaching assistants who use Socratic dialogues during small-group online discussions can successfully develop students’ CTS in a large university class.

Into the academy: preparing and mentoring international doctoral students

Abstract: This qualitative case study was an examination of a team-based faculty/mentor-led International Doctoral Student Support Group (IDSSG) designed specifically around issues in preparing and mentoring international doctoral students for careers in academia. Twelve participants were selected to participate in a support/focus group that met twice a month for an academic year to attend workshops and discuss their lives as doctoral students. The data set was comprised of two pre- and post-surveys and two in-depth pre- and post-interviews. Findings in the themes of international doctoral students’ graduate school experiences and the impact of the faculty-led support group are presented and discussed.

Do classroom exemplars promote the application of principles in teacher education? A comparison of videos, animations, and narratives

Abstract: Students learned about teaching principles with a multimedia program that either did not include a classroom exemplar illustrating how to apply the learned principles to the teaching practice (control group) or included a classroom exemplar in video, animation, or text format. Across two experiments, video and animation groups reported more favorable attitudes towards learning and were better able to apply the learned principles than the control group. Text and control groups did not differ in their learning or attitudes towards learning, suggesting that format is an important factor in determining the effectiveness of classroom exemplars as pedagogical tools for teacher education. Results encourage the use of visual classroom exemplars to promote the application of theory into practice.

Mixed methods for mixed reality: understanding users’ avatar activities in virtual worlds

Abstract: This paper examines the use of mixed methods for analyzing users’ avatar-related activities in a virtual world. Server logs recorded keystroke-level activity for 595 participants over a six-month period in Whyville.net, an informal science website. Participants also completed surveys and participated in interviews regarding their experiences. Additionally, the study included online ethnographic observations of Whyville and offline observations of a subset of 88 users in classroom and after-school settings during their participation. A mixed-methods analysis identified a major user emphasis on avatar appearance and customization that was invariant across user typologies. Implications for the use of mixed methods in online environments are discussed with regard to three challenges resolved during the study: (1) appropriate reduction of the vast quantity of data, (2) integrated analysis of online and offline events, and (3) interactions between qualitative and quantitative data.

Managing cognitive load in educational multi-user virtual environments: reflection on design practice

Abstract: In this paper, we explore how the application of multimedia design principles may inform the development of educational multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs). We look at design principles that have been shown to help learners manage cognitive load within multimedia environments and conduct a conjectural analysis of the extent to which such principles can help manage cognitive load in the highly immersive “beyond multimedia” environments that 3-D educational MUVEs represent. We frame our discussion as a design practice analysis of the River City MUVE, a science inquiry environment that has middle school students collaborating to develop and test hypotheses regarding illnesses sweeping a virtual town. We analyze the current River City interface design using a framework describing cognitive overload scenarios and associated approaches to manage cognitive load. We also discuss the potential difficulties that may be seen as multimedia principles are applied to 3-D MUVEs. Our discussion describes a blueprint for research implementations that we are undertaking to systematically investigate the effect of an educational MUVE interface design based on multimedia principles—implementations that we hope will provide an action framework for other MUVE researchers to use in their own studies.

Learner preferences and prior knowledge in learner-controlled computer-based instruction

Abstract: This study examined the effects of prior knowledge, learner preference for control, and type of control (learner or program) on the achievement of middle-school students in a computer-based instructional program on adding and subtracting integers. Students were blocked by preference-for-control scores and randomly assigned to either a learner-control or program-control version of instruction. A significant three-way interaction (prior knowledge × preference scores × type of control) revealed that students with high prior knowledge achieved better on the posttest when their preference for control was matched with the type of control they received, whereas students with low prior knowledge achieved better when their preference was mismatched. A significant three-way interaction on attitude reflected the same pattern found in the interaction for achievement scores. The overall results indicate that matching learner preference to the type of program they receive is an effective strategy for high-prior-knowledge students but not for those with low prior knowledge.

Designing effective supports for causal reasoning

Abstract: Causal reasoning represents one of the most basic and important cognitive processes that underpin all higher-order activities, such as conceptual understanding and problem solving. Hume called causality the “cement of the universe” [Hume (1739/2000). Causal reasoning is required for making predictions, drawing implications and inferences, and explaining phenomena. Causal relations are usually more complex than learners understand. In order to be able to understand and apply causal relationships, learners must be able to articulate numerous covariational attributes of causal relationships, including direction, valency, probability, duration, responsiveness, as well as mechanistic attributes, including process, conjunctions/disjunctions, and necessity/sufficiency. We describe different methods for supporting causal learning, including influence diagrams, simulations, questions, and different causal modeling tools, including expert systems, systems dynamics tools, and causal modeling tools. Extensive research is needed to validate and contrast these methods for supporting causal reasoning.

Information comparisons in example-based hypermedia environments: supporting learners with processing prompts and an interactive comparison tool

Abstract: Global comparisons of learning from hypertext/hypermedia and traditional presentation formats like text have yet failed to show major advantages concerning the effectiveness of hypermedia learning. Thus, it is proposed in the current paper to evaluate hypermedia environments more specifically with regard to their potential to implement and support well-defined learning approaches. According to this view, an effective hypermedia design needs to be based on thorough cognitive task analyses with regard to structures, processes, and resources that are required to benefit from a specific learning approach. This claim is illustrated by two experiments in which we explored the instructional potential of hypermedia environments for improving schema acquisition from worked-out examples. A cognitive task analysis was used to identify specific types of information comparisons that are crucial for successful schema induction and that might be effectively supported by suitably designed hypermedia environments. The experiments investigated two methods for enhancing comparison processes in hypermedia-assisted learning from worked-out examples, namely, elaboration prompts and an interactive comparison tool. Both methods improved performance for near-transfer problems. Ways of extending this task-analytical approach to facilitating far transfer are also discussed.

Hypermedia design as learner scaffolding

Abstract: A number of available resources offer guidance about hypermedia design strategies, many of which rely on principles of user-centered design. Many recent efforts, however, have focused more on developing learner-centered hypermedia. Learner-centered hypermedia is designed to help learners achieve their educational goals, rather than offer mere usability. Unfortunately, this endeavor is hamstrung by a lack of empirical research on the topic. Research conducted in my laboratory and others has provided some insight, however. It is now understood that several system and user characteristics influence outcomes of hypermedia-assisted learning (HAL). Among the most relevant factors are learners’ levels of metacognition and prior knowledge, and the interaction between these factors and hypermedia structure. By capitalizing on this research, it is possible to create hypermedia that scaffolds learners in their quest to build knowledge and understanding. The present article draws from empirical findings to suggest hypermedia design strategies aimed at scaffolding learners engaged in HAL. These guidelines target learners’ knowledge and metacognitive ability to structure hypermedia that maximizes learning potential.

A design framework for educational hypermedia systems: theory, research, and learning emerging scientific conceptual perspectives

Abstract: This paper focuses on theory and research issues associated with the use of hypermedia technologies in education. It is proposed that viewing hypermedia technologies as an enabling infrastructure for tools to support learning—in particular learning in problem-based pedagogical environments involving cases—has particular promise. After considering research issues with problem-based learning related to knowledge transfer and conceptual change, a design framework is discussed for a hypermedia system with scaffolding features intended to support and enhance problem-based learning with cases. Preliminary results are reported of research involving a new version of this hypermedia design approach with special ontological scaffolding to explore conceptual change and far knowledge transfer issues related to learning advanced scientific knowledge involving complex systems as well as the use of the system in a graduate seminar class. Overall, it is hoped that this program of research will stimulate further work on learning and cognitive sciences theoretical and research issues, on the characteristics of design features for robust and educationally powerful hypermedia systems, on ways that hypermedia systems might be used to support innovative pedagogical approaches being used in the schools, and on how particular designs for learning technologies might foster learning of conceptually difficult knowledge and skills that are increasingly necessary in the 21st century.

Computer-based instruction’s (CBI) rediscovered role in K-12: An evaluation case study of one high school’s use of CBI to improve pass rates on high-stakes tests

Abstract: Patriot High School (PHS) adopted a remediation strategy to help its 10th-grade students at risk of failing the Math portion of MCAS, the state’s end of year competency exam. The centerpiece of that strategy was a computer-based instructional (CBI) course. PHS used a commercially available CBI product to align the course content with the competencies covered on the MCAS exam. This case study examines the overall effectiveness of the PHS strategies, and in particular, the role of CBI. Participant MCAS scores and CBI performance (measured by module-mastery data) are analyzed, and an interview with the course instructor is summarized. Finally, PHS scores were compared to the overall state MCAS scores for the same years. Overall scores of all 10th graders increased significantly compared to their 8th-grade scores, students who participated in the CBI course improved more than the students who did not. The passing rate at PHS improved from 40% in 1999 to 84% in 2001, compared to an improvement of from 47% to 75% statewide. A significant correlation was identified between the MCAS scores and the program usage data, with student CBI module mastery correlated with higher MCAS scores. Overall, the instructor was positive about the impact of the course and believed that the course gave many under-performers a chance to succeed when more traditional methods had failed. It seems likely that CBI contributed to PHS’s success. Although we report herein on just one case, we argue that CBI might play an important a role in the high stakes test environment in the USA and eleswhere.

Project-based learning in an internship program: A qualitative study of related roles and their motivational attributes

Abstract: The roles of task, learner, and mentor in a successful project-based instructional technology (IT) internship program were studied in light of contemporary motivation theories. Interns in four different locations were asked to apply their academic experiences in constructing real projects at work under the supervision of their site mentors and academic advisor. Data included tape-recorded intern interviews, status-review notes, e-portfolios, mentor interviews, and mentor evaluations. Data were collected over 6 semesters, from 18 different cases, 4 of which are highlighted here. The study considered the roles of task, learner, and mentors as they are needed to make the most of project-based internship programs. Implications for the design and development of internship and capstone programs, and specifically successful student performance in internship programs, are considered.

Teacher, self and peer evaluation of lesson plans written by preservice teachers

Abstract: The study investigated the effects of three types of evaluation on preservice teachers’ performance, knowledge and attitudes related to writing lesson plans that incorporate technology. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the three treatment conditions: teacher-evaluation, self-evaluation or peer-evaluation. All groups completed three class periods of instruction on writing lesson plans, then each subject submitted his/her draft lesson plan. The drafts were evaluated by assigned evaluators (teacher, self or peer), who provided scores and written feedback on a 15-item rubric. Students then revised their lesson plans into final form. All three treatment groups improved their lesson plans significantly from draft version to final version, with the teacher-evaluation group showing significantly greater improvement and writing significantly better final lesson plans than each of the other two groups. Teacher-evaluation and self-evaluation groups had significantly higher scores on a knowledge-based posttest than the peer-evaluation group. Several suggestions are discussed for making further improvements in the self-evaluation and peer-evaluation processes.

Grounded design of web-enhanced case-based activity

Abstract: Cases have been used in education through a variety of methods, such as case written analysis, case discussion, and case development. Recent case definitions and uses have extended their traditional uses. In case-based reasoning, cases are considered to represent knowledge, and the use of cases is integral to an individual’s problem-solving process. Case-based activity (CBA) builds on CBR research and theory, emphasizing the transition of novices toward experts’ reasoning and applications. The purpose of this paper is to present the theoretical assumptions and principles for designing grounded, web-enhanced CBA. Findings from recent implementations and implications for design are presented.

Phases and patterns of group development in virtual learning teams

Abstract: With the advancement of Internet communication technologies, distributed work groups have great potential for remote collaboration and use of collective knowledge. Adopting the Complex Adaptive System (CAS) perspective (McGrath, Arrow, & Berdhal, Personal Soc Psychol Rev 4 (2000) 95), which views virtual learning teams as an adaptive and self-organizing entity, this study examined group development processes of seven intact virtual learning teams over 12 weeks using the multiple case study design. Content analysis revealed seven temporal group development phases: orientation, scheduling, exploration, work and decision, progress check and evaluation, refinement and formatting, and termination. The development pattern of each virtual learning team could be described as either Linear Progression, a straight movement through those phases, or Adaptive Progression, a backward movement to a previous phase for adaptation before proceeding. We also identify the factors that caused each team to develop in one way or the other and conclude with the implications of conceptualizing virtual teams as a CAS.

Controlling split attention and redundancy in physical therapy instruction

Abstract: In this study, we examined the effectiveness of instructional materials designed to control redundancy and split attention in the teaching of complex orthopedic physical therapy skills. Participants included 41 first-year physical therapy students. The modified instruction group received a modified unit of instruction designed to reduce cognitive load, while the control group received a traditionally designed unit of instruction. Four hypotheses were tested relating to achievement on cognitive and psychomotor tests, ratings of cognitive load, and task completion times. The multivariate analysis yielded significant results for three of the four hypotheses (ES = +0.52). As predicted, the participants receiving the modified instructional materials scored significantly higher on the written post-test and psychomotor tasks, while reporting a lower level of cognitive load on both tasks. These results suggest that designers can increase the germane cognitive load by reducing the extraneous cognitive load through good instructional and message design practices.

Cognitive load measurements and stimulated recall interviews for studying the effects of information and communications technology

Abstract: Many researchers use information and communications technology (ICT)-tools to augment learning in a great variety of tasks. Their effects are generally measured in terms of intended outcomes. This article argues for the use of additional, more general measures to obtain a more complete impression of the effects of ICT-tools. The first study presented in this article shows why tools should not only be studied in terms of their specific intended outcomes, but also in terms of their effects on working memory, and the cognitive mechanisms needed to achieve the intended outcomes. The second study uses cognitive load measurements and stimulated recall interviews to obtain a more comprehensive view of the effects of learning tools. Results suggest that traditional outcome measures need to be complemented with quantitative and qualitative measures of cognitive processes to substantiate conclusions about intended effects of ICT-tools.

Advances in scaffolding learning with hypertext and hypermedia: theoretical, empirical, and design issues

Abstract: Of the uses of globally distributed hypertext and hypermedia technologies in education, it might be said that we live in the best of times and the worst of times. Over approximately two decades, we have seen hypermedia technologies (i.e., hyperlinks between nodes of digitally encoded information such as text, images, video, simulations, animations, and so on) advance from obscure military and basic research projects on specialized computers to form the basis of a globally distributed networked hypermedia environment known as the World Wide Web. In addition, commonly available and inexpensive multimedia handheld devices, laptop, and desktop computers allow students and teachers to connect to this global hypermedia environment using wired and, increasingly, wireless networks, thus providing countless opportunities for access to educational hypermedia and information resources. On the negative side, however, a critical look at principled research into learning with hypermedia, in contrast to information dissemination and access, has been decidedly mixed. Many earlier hypermedia systems were criticized for focusing on the technology rather than cognitive and learning issues and for being atheoretical (Dillon and Gabbard 1998; Jacobson 1994; Tergan 1997). Of course, there has been research documenting factors associated with educationally effective hypermedia systems (including new adaptive hypermedia approaches), but there continues to be theoretical and methodological criticisms of much of the hypertext and hypermedia literature (Azevedo 2005; Shapiro and Niederhauser 2003). Given that research on the design of powerful and educationally effective hypermedia systems appears to have reached an impressionistic vista, how might work in this area advance? A central goal of this Special Issue of ETR&D is to illustrate how recent theoretical and research perspectives from the learning sciences and educational technology can provide a foundation upon which powerful and effective hypertext and hypermedia systems for learning may be designed, researched, and used to address significant learning challenges

Computer self-efficacy of university faculty in Lebanon

Abstract: Faculty use of technology is a critical issue in higher education; administrators and students are expecting faculty instruction to incorporate technology in classroom and distance education. Competition is demanding technologically proficient graduates for schools and colleges. Research indicates that computer self-efficacy (CSE) may be one determinant of who uses technology and who does not. A survey of education faculty at the Lebanese University in Beirut, Lebanon, conducted in 2006, revealed varying degrees of CSE; of 127 respondents, 14 had low levels of CSE; 68 were at a moderate level, and 45 self-evaluated themselves to have high CSE. Although other barriers may deter the implementation of technology in teaching, strategies and techniques for increasing CSE should be developed. For those with low CSE, special attention must be given to enhancing their levels of CSE.