Showing papers in "Eurasian Geography and Economics in 2017"
TL;DR: The Silk Road Economic Belt, an infrastructure development agenda with the distinct promise of regional and sub-regional economic development, was introduced by China as discussed by the authors, where the Silk Road economic belt is considered.
Abstract: China is moving ahead with the Silk Road Economic Belt, an ambitious infrastructure development agenda with the distinct promise of regional and sub-regional economic development. However, the init...
167 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compare Russian nuclear energy diplomacy toward Finland and Hungary, where the Russian state corporation Rosatom intends to build nuclear power plants by the 2020s, where foreign policy interests are also involved, considering the constraints emerging in EU-Russia energy diplomacy in the oil and gas sectors.
Abstract: We compare Russian nuclear energy diplomacy toward Finland and Hungary, where the Russian state corporation Rosatom intends to build nuclear power plants by the 2020s. Russian nuclear energy diplomacy features Rosatom working with other state institutions, its own subsidiaries, and an extensive network of companies and RD modernization of the Russian economy, including the diversification of its export structure; while foreign policy interests are also involved, considering the constraints emerging in EU–Russia energy diplomacy in the oil and gas sectors, including the sanctions since 2014. Some domestic actors in Finland and Hungary make the linkage between nuclear energy and foreign policy as explicit as do some Western commentators. Seeking to pursue these interests, Russian actors must accommodate their considerable ...
44 citations
TL;DR: The authors examines Russian energy policies toward China over the past decade as reluctant engagement changed into a priority energy partnership and finds traditional realist concepts and hedging are inadequate for this particular case.
Abstract: This article examines Russian energy policies toward China over the past decade as reluctant engagement changed into a priority energy partnership. From 2008 to 2016 Russian and Chinese companies signed several major oil and gas agreements, a period in which Moscow reassessed China as a future energy consumer and lifted bilateral cooperation to a new level. The article utilizes the strategic partnership concept as an analytical framework and finds traditional realist concepts and hedging inadequate for this particular case. The study illuminates Russian geopolitical considerations and acceptance of vulnerability, which combined make long-term Russian energy policies more China dependent. Officially, Russia seeks diversification among Asian energy buyers, but its focus has increasingly been on China. Western sanctions imposed in 2014 for Russia’s role in Ukraine accelerated this trend. Moscow’s energy policies toward Beijing with its pipelines and long-term agreements are permanent arrangements tha...
37 citations
TL;DR: In 2008, a new notebook manufacturing cluster was established in Chongqing in western China and by 2013 it accounted for some 25% of world output by volume as mentioned in this paper, which was driven by several factors that permitted strategic coupling: the existence of complex networks of cooperation and economies external to the firm but internal to contemporary global production networks; changed conditions in southeast and east China; and the creation by Chongqiing Municipal People's Government with central state support of hard and soft infrastructures and externalities that drove down logistic and production costs and permitted constant product innovation.
Abstract: In 2008 a new notebook manufacturing cluster was established in Chongqing in western China. By 2013 it accounted for some 25% of world output by volume. Chongqing’s ability to attract this manufacturing supply chain was driven by several factors that permitted strategic coupling: the existence of complex networks of cooperation and economies external to the firm but internal to contemporary global production networks; changed conditions in southeast and east China; and the creation by Chongqing Municipal People’s Government with central state support of hard and soft infrastructures and externalities that drove down logistic and production costs and permitted constant product innovation.
37 citations
TL;DR: Armenia's decision to join the Russia-led Customs Union and participate in the processes of formation of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) has been investigated in this article.
Abstract: On 3 September 2013, the president of Armenia shifted the long-praised process of initialing political association and economic integration with the European Union and announced Armenia’s decision to join the Russia-led Customs Union and participate in the processes of formation of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Practitioners and observers interpreted it either as a U-turn or as a surprise move mainly assuming that what happened was the result of Russian pressure on Armenia. However, when tensions and uncertainty eased, it became obvious that what happened was a result of complex reasons. Geopolitical constraints and socio-political problems that had accumulated in Armenia during recent years coincided with an assertive expansion of Russia’s foreign policy. This research provides a number of explanations for that political decision to understand the primary determinants of that move. It also examines the political and economic implications of Armenia’s membership of the EAEU.
32 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review some of the most prominent debates on neoliberalism in the Chinese context and argue that these debates fail to adequately explain China's spatial development because they assign causality for social and economic inequality to globalized processes of capital accumulation while ignoring the continued importance of Maoist institutions in China's present-day political economy.
Abstract: Neoliberalism’s theoretical ascendancy within urban geography coincided with the rapid growth of scholarly attention to Chinese cities. Therefore, it is unsurprising that neoliberal causality has been a widely used tool for interpreting China’s spatial transformation. This paper critically reviews some of the most prominent debates on neoliberalism in the Chinese context. China’s Leninist political hierarchy and Dual Structure, crucial institutions for the management and regulation of society and economy under Mao, are now reduced to the quirks of “actually existing neoliberalism.” Neoliberal critique applied to China, however, fails to adequately explain China’s spatial development because it assigns causality for social and economic inequality to globalized processes of capital accumulation while ignoring the continued importance of Maoist institutions in China’s present-day political economy. Uncritical acceptance of neoliberalism’s explanatory power for spatial change has led to flawed and ina...
32 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors define changes in the relational configuration of Chongqing as a multi-faceted state strategy of governing land use change and the fiscal regime to realize infrastructure development.
Abstract: Chongqing is a province-level city region in China’s interior with a land area larger than many small countries. Limited scholarship tends to treat Chongqing as a new jurisdiction formed in relation to development of the Three Gorges Dam and reform of historic state-planned industry from the Mao era. This analysis turns to the complex process of land redistricting in a process of “territorial urbanization” that has also simultaneously reshaped the economy of Chongqing. By conceptualizing Chongqing as a dynamic administrative territory, this analysis defines changes in the relational configuration of its administrative divisions (xingzheng quhua) as a multi-faceted state strategy of governing land use change and the fiscal regime to realize infrastructure development. Especially by establishing districts in Chongqing, territorial urbanization works to enhance the funding capacity of the Chongqing government to develop larger, expansive infrastructure projects. This urban transformation of Chongqing...
25 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the creative class mobility of Hong Kong creative workers who relocated to Shanghai and Beijing during the last 20 years and found that creative workers move only because of work situations and place attractiveness.
Abstract: In 2008 a controversial essay was published in Hong Kong drawing attention to the increasing number of local creative workers who have allegedly responded to the limitations the city had to wrestle with and the opportunities brought forward by the “Rise of China” – they moved northwards. Taking cues from the mainland China–Hong Kong dynamics, this inquiry zooms in on 12 Hong Kong creative workers who have relocated to Shanghai and Beijing during the last 20 years. It supplements existing scholarship on creative class mobility, which is largely configured by concerns with work situations and place attractiveness and is situated in cities in Europe, the United States, and Australia. It does so in two ways. On the one hand, the empirical evidence delivered by this inquiry aligns with studies pointing to the limitation of Florida’s creative class thesis and wonders if “cool places” are indeed attracting talents. On the other hand, it is inadequate to posit that creative workers move only because of pl...
24 citations
TL;DR: For states that have recently declared their independence but remained unrecognized "de facto states", building a national identity is critical in the face of international rejection of the independence of these states as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: For states that have recently declared their independence but remained unrecognized “de facto states,” building a national identity is critical in the face of international rejection of the...
18 citations
TL;DR: For example, the authors suggests that autocrats are becoming increasing increasing increasing collaborators with each other in post-Soviet Eurasia, and that cooperation among authoritarian regimes remains a puzzle for researchers.
Abstract: Understanding cooperation among authoritarian regimes remains a puzzle for researchers; in particular, those working in post-Soviet Eurasia. Research suggests that autocrats are becoming increasing...
16 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used multiple origin-and destination-based data-sets to identify gender differences in both the number and characteristics of migrants to Russia from Azerbaijan, Georgia, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Vietnam.
Abstract: Because of its relatively recent emergence as an international migrant destination, the Russian Federation provides an interesting context to examine when and how migrant flows “masculinize” or “feminize.” While recent migration to Russia appears to be male-dominated, the sex composition of registered migrant flows has varied substantially throughout the post-Soviet period, and there is significant variation in the sex composition of flows from different origin countries. I use multiple origin- and destination-based data-sets to identify gender differences in both the number and characteristics of migrants to Russia from Azerbaijan, Georgia, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Vietnam. These data show that labor migration from Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, and probably Georgia is male-dominated, with women coming as tied migrants, while men and women are equally likely to be labor migrants coming from Ukraine and Vietnam. In addition, high levels of human capital are an important motivating factor for women’s migr...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the religious transborder flows from Iran to Azerbaijan and their impact on Azerbaijani domestic religious policy and found that the Iranian intervention in Azerbaijan has effectively initiated the building of a more specific Shia identity among a small but growing number of Shia groups.
Abstract: The Azerbaijani Government’s struggle against external influence from Iran has played a significant role in consolidating its secular self-identification since independence in 1991. Though strong, direct Iranian influence on Azerbaijani Shia groups belongs to the past, its effects are sustained. This article examines the religious transborder flows from Iran to Azerbaijan and their impact on Azerbaijani domestic religious policy. The analysis includes religion as a factor in the debate about transnationalism and about how transnational actors challenge nation states’ exclusive authority over their territory. The analysis uses data from government documents, newspaper articles, social media, and interviews with politicians and religious actors. As a result, the article shows that the Iranian intervention in Azerbaijan has effectively initiated the building of a more specific Shia identity among a small but growing number of Shia groups. This has led to the reconfiguration both of the religious fiel...
TL;DR: Wang et al. as discussed by the authors examined the causes and process of return migration from the coastal region to the inland provinces in China since the early 2010s, based on the case study of Zhumadian city in Henan Province.
Abstract: This paper examines the causes and process of return migration from the coastal region to the inland provinces in China since the early 2010s, based on the case study of Zhumadian city in Henan Province. Surveys administered to both rural migrants from Zhumadian to Shenzhen and recent returnees to Zhumadian are presented. Industrial relocation and the development of inland provinces trigger the current wave of return migration. Family obligations, better prospects of the hometown, and barriers to settle in Shenzhen because of the hukou system are the principal reasons to return. Most of the migrants return to work in a factory or start a business. Some migrants purchase apartments in Zhumadian as a prelude to returning and starting a business at a future date. Returnees prefer settling down in urban areas rather than in their rural origins. In light of the empirical findings, the authors argue that return migration will ease the mismatch of labor supply and demand between the inland and coastal pr...
TL;DR: The growth strategies of the two largest so-called independent Russian gas producers (Novatek and Rosneft) as well as developments in international markets and changing domestic energy needs have put pressure on the present Russian gas sector model dominated by Gazprom as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The growth strategies of the two largest so-called independent Russian gas producers – Novatek and Rosneft – as well as developments in international markets and changing domestic energy needs have put pressure on the present Russian gas sector model dominated by Gazprom. The three companies are involved in a struggle over export liberalization as well as the conditions in the domestic market. Liquefied natural gas is top priority for Novatek and Rosneft’s main gas focus is on eastern Russia and Asia, but there is still room for considerable tension with Gazprom. The government wants to both improve Russia’s position in export markets and maintain stable domestic supplies, including to socially disadvantaged regions and institutions. Gazprom is insisting that if further access to export markets is granted to the Independents, then they must take greater responsibility for domestic market obligations. On the other hand, the key Independents seem intent on stopping or slowing down their expansion in...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used data collected and analyzed in the public realm to determine with more certainty that, in certain places and at given times, Russia was indeed the aggressor.
Abstract: Military action undertaken by the Russian Federation against Ukraine in 2014 has had enormous geopolitical ramifications. This resulted in what is almost certainly a permanent change in sovereign territory, with the former gaining and the latter losing the strategic Crimean peninsula. But Russia’s moves also set in motion a violent conflict in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine. Although the United States and the NATO alliance have advocated a geopolitical storyline that attributes blame for this to Russia, close scrutiny of the evidence they have adduced in this regard fails to establish this culpability conclusively. However, by utilizing data collected and analyzed in the public realm, it is possible to determine with more certainty that, in certain places and at given times, Russia was indeed the aggressor. The rapidly increasing amount of public-sourced information globally and the growing sophistication of analytical methods by non-governmental groups presages more complete understanding o...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the territorialization of party support in the Republic of Georgia as political parties in Georgia try to territorialize by aligning themselves to existing societal cleavages.
Abstract: This article examines the territorialization of party support in the Republic of Georgia as political parties in Georgia try to territorialize by aligning themselves to existing societal cleavages....
TL;DR: This article analyzed the rights of minority Muslim communities within the context of increased political support for expressions of Russian Orthodoxy in Moscow's public space, and examined the spatial politics of Russia's increased religiosity in Moscow.
Abstract: This paper addresses the spatial politics of Russia’s increased religiosity in Moscow. It analyzes the rights of minority Muslim communities within the context of increased political support for expressions of Russian Orthodoxy in Moscow’s public space. Moscow’s Russian Orthodox and Muslim religious leaders claim that their communities have a lack of religious infrastructure, with one church per 35,000 residents and one mosque per three million residents, respectively. The Russian Orthodox Church has been more successful than Muslim organizations at expanding their presence in Moscow’s neighborhoods. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork, religious spaces are examined as sites of dissent as well as participatory, active citizenship at three different sites in Moscow. Protests over Russian Orthodox Church construction in one neighborhood are contrasted with the protests over mosque construction in two neighborhoods. This paper provides insights into how civil society and religious groups have increased...
TL;DR: In this paper, a study of formal opening ceremonies of new plants of multinational corporations in Russia is presented, where the authors argue that such ceremonies have profound symbolic meanings, namely managing anxiety and signaling commitment, as well as practical importance, particularly when top executives of corporate parents meet with top officials from the host countries at such ceremonies.
Abstract: This paper reports on a study of formal opening ceremonies of new plants of multinational corporations in Russia. We argue that such ceremonies have profound symbolic meanings, namely managing anxiety and signaling commitment, as well as practical importance, particularly when top executives of corporate parents meet with top officials from the host countries at such ceremonies. The database embraces the entire population of public opening ceremonies of new plants of western multinational corporations (MNCs) in Russia from 2012 to 2016. The analysis revealed that in 2016, the unwillingness of both corporate CEOs and local governors to participate in plant opening ceremonies began to increase. More than one-third of plant opening ceremonies in 2016 were low-profile ceremonies ignored by top officials from corporate parents and local authorities from the host country. The growing absence of local governors is attributed to the smaller size of newly opened plants and the impact of sanctions imposed o...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored the relationship between family capital and family educational support for Chinese rural migrant children from perspectives of migration status (hukou), life course (children's age), and school type.
Abstract: Rural migrant children have become a fast-growing population in China as a consequence of the large-scale population flow from rural to urban areas. Besides the dual-structure hukou system, which restrains rural migrants from upward mobility, family capital also plays an important role in providing family educational support to rural migrant children. Using the data from P District and N District of Shenzhen in 2013, this paper explores the present status of three dimensions of family capital and five aspects of family educational support to Chinese rural migrant children, as well as the correlation between family capital and family educational support from perspectives of migration status (hukou), life course (children’s age), and school type. Constrained by inadequate family capital in multiple dimensions manifested by less education, lower income, and limited social networks, etc., parents of rural migrant children provide less family educational support in nearly every aspect compared with par...
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of Ottoman legacies and contemporary Turkish influences in shaping political space in the Black Sea regions of Adjara and Abkhazia is explored, focusing on borderland practices related to three kinds of transboundary flows.
Abstract: The article provides a comparative exploration of the role of Ottoman legacies and contemporary Turkish influences in shaping political space in the Black Sea regions of Adjara and Abkhazia. Conceptualizing both as borderlands, the article focuses on borderland practices related to three kinds of transboundary flows between Turkey and Adjara and Abkhazia, respectively: flows of goods and capital, flows of people, and flows of ideas. The article draws on a wide range of secondary sources as well as on data from field research in Abkhazia, Adjara, and Turkey. It discloses how borderland practices have contributed to fragmented and convergent configurations of authority in both regions and underlines a threefold character of borderland practices which reflect and reproduce understandings of illegitimacy and illicitness, cosmopolitan sociability, and struggles over belonging.
TL;DR: A spatial analysis of the geography of insurgency in the North Caucasus of Russia from 1999 through the end of 2016, focused on the period since 2010, corroborates other work on the incidence of violence in the region.
Abstract: A spatial analysis of the geography of insurgency in the North Caucasus of Russia from 1999 through the end of 2016, focused on the period since 2010, corroborates other work on the incidence of violence in the region. A sharp drop in the absolute number of conflict events over the past half-decade occurred as violence diffused from Chechnya in the mid-2000s and is attributable to a range of domestic and international factors. Domestically, the decline is broadly linked to the securitization of the region around the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, the return to the use of the Kremlin power vertical as a system of political management after an interlude focused on economic development as a mitigation strategy, and the wider adoption of harsh management tactics at the regional and republic scales. Internationally, potential insurgents have left Russia to fight in the Middle East and Ukraine. Using a conflict-event data-set (N = 18,960) from August 1999 through the end of 2016 and focusing on the peri...
TL;DR: This paper conducted a counterfactual simulation to demonstrate how migration and remittances have mitigated income inequality across provinces in order to show that without these processes, we would have seen more of a rise in interprovincial income inequality.
Abstract: Scholars studying economic inequality in China have maintained that regional inequality and economic divergence across provinces have steadily increased over the past 30 years. New studies have shown that this trend is a statistical aberration; calculations show that instead of quickly and sharply rising, regional inequality has actually decreased, and most recently, remained stable. Our study suggests that China’s unique migratory regime is crucial to understanding these findings. We conduct a counterfactual simulation to demonstrate how migration and remittances have mitigated income inequality across provinces in order to show that without these processes, we would have seen more of a rise in interprovincial income inequality. We conclude by arguing that inequality in China is still increasing, but it is changing and becoming less place-based. As regional inequality decreases, there are signs that point to the increasing importance of interpersonal inequality.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present an empirical analysis of hierarchical tendencies and functional patterns in the development of Mainland China's space-economy by operationalizing the concept of megaregions.
Abstract: This paper presents an empirical analysis of hierarchical tendencies and functional patterns in the development of Mainland China’s space-economy by operationalizing the concept of “megaregions.” Drawing on the burgeoning literature on megaregions, we first argue that under conditions of economic globalization the megaregion concept does indeed present an effective tool to study the spatial agglomeration of the key components of China’s economic development. Second, we analyze the development status and the key functional characteristics of 16 prospective Chinese megaregions by constructing an index system consisting of 5 functions and 36 indicators. Third, we calculate an entropy index to rank megaregions according to their overall development status and reveal functional differences by applying cluster analysis. We find that the Yangtze River Delta, Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Metropolitan Area, and the Pearl River Delta stand out, identify different varieties of megaregions according to their dominan...
TL;DR: This article studied how the local governance reforms carried out between 1997-2014 shape state-society relations at Georgia's local level, drawing on Foucault's concept of governmentality.
Abstract: This paper studies how the local governance reforms carried out between 1997–2014 shape state-society relations at Georgia’s local level. Drawing on Foucault’s concept of governmentality, I...
TL;DR: The authors in this article show that despite a decline in gubernatorial power vis-a-vis the federal center, governors still have vast powers within their regions and personality and leadership characteristics are important variables that impact the performance of a region.
Abstract: Belgorod oblast is a highly successful region in Russia. The economic successes in Belgorod stem from the dynamic leadership is provided by Yevgeny Savchenko for the past 24 years. Savchenko supports agroholdings and industrial agriculture, while also adopting policies that foster the growth of small-forms of farming and organic farming. Savchenko’s agrarian policies have led to the so-called Belgorod Miracle. The Belgorod experience shows that despite a decline in gubernatorial power vis-a-vis the federal center, governors have vast powers within their regions. Personality and leadership characteristics are important variables that impact the performance of a region.
TL;DR: In this article, the introduction reviews approaches that have substantially addressed Agnew's critique, such as in transnational scholarship, governance research, border studies, and transnational governance research.
Abstract: Re-visiting the “territorial trap,” the introduction reviews approaches that have substantially addressed Agnew’s critique, such as in transnational scholarship, governance research, border studies...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide an in-depth analysis of local governance in the North Caucasus, by example of land tenure conflicts in Kabardino-Balkaria, and identify the most relevant patterns and dynamics of natural resource governance.
Abstract: The article provides an in-depth analysis of local governance in the North Caucasus, by example of land tenure conflicts in Kabardino-Balkaria. We follow an iterative analytical strategy, systematically combining qualitative case studies to develop grounded hypotheses, with subsequent statistical hypothesis testing. Based on fieldwork conducted in Kabardino-Balkaria, we identify the most relevant patterns and dynamics of natural resource governance. Our research shows that there are three dominant patterns. The first pattern is formed in areas where land is of little value and communities are left to themselves to solve issues. In the second case, larger businesses with state backing manage to monopolize land resources and sideline local communities. In the third case, local communities are strong enough to defend their control over external attempts to take hold of land resources. Finally, we use original survey data to further investigate plausible causes for stronger and weaker local self-gover...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present simulations of how ethnic groups of the Russian Federation could develop in the future and discuss the demographic aspects of the predicted changes, including changes in the size, age structure and ethnic composition of the population.
Abstract: The changes, sometimes dramatic, in the size and structure of the ethnic groups of the Russian Federation (RF) raise questions about their possible futures. The paper presents simulations of how ethnic groups of the RF could develop in the future and discusses the demographic aspects of the predicted changes. The simulations cover a 25-year period, from 1 January 2011 to 1 January 2036 and were prepared for the 22 most numerous ethnic groups using a multistate cohort-component population dynamics model. To prepare the assumptions for the simulations, ethnicity-specific data (no longer collected) on fertility, mortality, and international migration were used. The results indicate that in the coming 20 years Russia will face numerous challenges related to the changes in the size, age structure, and ethnic composition of its population. The population of the RF will age and, except in the “Modernization” scenario, will shrink. Non-Slavic and Muslim populations will increase their share in the total p...
TL;DR: ISSICEU, a big research project on the Caucasus supported by the 7th European Framework Program, conducted a short questionnaire for its research participants on political space and statehood as a concept for Caucasus research.
Abstract: ISSICEU, a big research project on the Caucasus supported by the 7th European Framework Program, conducted a short questionnaire for its research participants on political space and statehood as a concept for Caucasus research. Their answers, some of which are summarized here, raise some fundamental problems of social sciences well beyond the case of the Caucasus – how the social and political specifics of an area under study reflect back on the research and the universality of social theories. The experts’ thoughts on the internationalization of social science and Western (mostly Anglo-American) hegemony in research are very interesting. Andrea Weiss stressed that in the Caucasus, as well as in many other regions of the world, a rational Weberian state, profiting from the monopoly of power and the right to violence in a given territory, has never existed. Relations between ethnic groups, clans, and fellow country communities determine local political processes and mediate, hide, and often almost eliminate the boundary between economics and politics. A façade of formal democratic institutions covers other mechanisms of power. These mechanisms were more visible in the early 1990s after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, when different social and regional groups were fighting for political control, territory, and property (Tishkov 1997). Caucasian societies represent surprising combinations of innovations and traditions, modernization and archaic patterns, and depend on social and professional groups, education, economic sectors, cities and countryside, center and periphery (Khalidov 2010; Starodubrovskaia 2011). Social changes are nonlinear and do not necessarily lead to expected results, such as a Western-style liberal democracy. The privileging of national sovereignty, accompanied by a very cautious and somewhat suspicious attitude toward Western post-modern concepts of sovereignty, are related to the dynamic and simultaneously delicate processes of stateand nation-building. The Caucasian countries (except for Armenia) and the republics of the North Caucasus have been multi-ethnic. The titular and usually
TL;DR: O'Loughlin and Clem as discussed by the authors published a special issue on "Political Geographies of the Post Soviet Union" with two of the journal's editors taking their leave.
Abstract: With this special issue on “Political Geographies of the Post Soviet Union,” two of the journal’s editors take their leave. We (John O’Loughlin since 2002 and Ralph Clem since 1995) have long been ...