Showing papers in "European Journal of Social Psychology in 1971"

Social categorization and intergroup behaviour

Abstract: The aim of the studies was to assess the effefcs of social categorization on intergroup behaviour when, in the intergroup situation, neither calculations of individual interest nor previously existing attitudes of hostility could have been said to have determined discriminative behaviour against an outgroup. These conditions were satisfied in the experimental design. In the first series of experiments, it was found that the subjects favoured their own group in the distribution of real rewards and penalities in a situation in which nothing but the variable of fairly irrelevant classification distinguished between the ingroup and the outgroup. In the second series of experiments it was found that: 1) maximum joint profit independent of group membership did not affect significantly the manner in which the subjects divided real pecuniary rewards; 2) maximum profit for own group did affect the distribution of rewards; 3) the clearest effect on the distribution of rewards was due to the subjects' attempt to achieve a maximum difference between the ingroup and the outgroup even at the price of sacrificing other ‘objective’ advantages. The design and the results of the study are theoretically discussed within the framework of social norms and expectations and particularly in relation to a ‘generic’ norm of outgroup behaviour prevalent in some societies.

The communication of friendly and hostile attitudes by verbal and non‐verbal signals

Abstract: Two experiments are reported here in which Ss were asked to rate videotapes of a performer reading friendly, neutral and hostile messages in a friendly, neutral or hostile non-verbal style. These messages and non-verbal styles had previously been presented independently to a separate group of Ss jor rating, in order to obtain an estimate of their individual strengths in terms of six rating scales, and thus permit a matching of verbal (messages) and non-verbal (styles) cues in the experiment where both types of cues were presented in combination. The results of both experiments indicate that non-verbal cues had a greater effect on ratings made on 7-point scales, such as hostile-friendly, than verbal cues. The magnitude of this greater effect of non-verbal cues, however, was dependent on the relative strength of non-verbal as opposed to verbal cues. In the first experiment, both types of cues were approximately equal in strength when ruted alone; here non-verbal cues accounted for 12.5 times us much variance us verbal cues, and produced 5.7 times as much shift on the ratitig scales. In the second experiment the verbal cues were much stronger than the non-verbal cues when rated alone. Here the relative effect of non-verbal cues in the second experiment was diminished; the ratio of non-verbal : verbal variance was now 1.67:1. When verbal and non-verbal signals were inconsistent, the performance was rated as insincere, unstable and confusing - which was not found in earlier experiments on the superior-inferior dimension.

The positive-negative asymmetry: On cognitive consistency and positivity bias

Abstract: Positivity bias is approached from three viewpoints: (a) It may be the effect of purely cognitive dispositions. (b) As such, it may function as an hypothesis about reality. The related dynamic factor would be a tendency toward cognitive validity which may lead to an orientation toward the negative as a means to test the positivity-hypothesis. (c) Finally, the subject may seek rewarding behavioral interactions with entities within his life space. In this context cognitive positivity bias may reflect a behavioural approach bias which can be related to the dynamics of ‘mere survival’ and ‘self-actualization’.

Intergroup competition and its effect on intragroup and intergroup relations

Abstract: Seventy-two male subjects from lower technical schools were divided into groups of three and assigned to three conditions in which they expected to work together in competition with another group, to work together but independently of the other group, or did not anticipate to work together at all. Subjects who anticipated working together showed a more favorable attitude toward their group and its members than subjects who did not. Moreover, actual social interaction increased in-group attractiveness. Intergroup competition led to a more differentiated leadership structure and a greater consensus about the distribution of influence in the group. Contrary to our predictions, intergroup competition produced no greater in-group solidarity, nor any over-evaluation of the group's product. Low influence persons felt comparatively more positive about their group even before they actually had the opportunity to work together. An attempt was made to relate this finding to the ordinal position of the low status figure, his affiliative tendencies under stress, and his greater social dependence.

Group risk‐taking and group polarization

Abstract: There are two aims to this paper; to report in brief preliminary form a number of studies on group risk-taking that have been carried out in Bristol in the past two years, and to relate these studies to an explanation of group risk-taking phenomena primarily in terms of group polarization. The paper has five sections. The first section supplies some background material regarding basic phenomena and previous attempts at explanations. The second section relates to initial individual decisions and the third section to decisions following group discussion and consensus. In the fourth section a tentative explanation of group risk-taking effects is proposed in terms of group polarization processes, together with something like an overall value for risk. Group polarization itself is discussed in terms of normative and informational aspects of social influence. The final section deals with two implications of the proposed explanation, one relating to the role of individual familiarization and the other to the generality of group polarization processes.

Experimental study of group creativity: Task representation, group structure, and performance

Abstract: This article attempts to introduce and investigate a new variable in the experimental study of groups: the representation system. This study deals more specifically with the riile played by the representation of the task. This representation of the task constitutes the theory, the system of hypotheses individuals work out with respect to the nature of the task and the means to use in order to carry it out. The key results of this study are that group performance depends on the representation of the task, with optimum effectiveness achieved when the representation of the task and its objective nature coincide. Another finding is that the structure of communications within the group is determined by the representation of the task rather than by its objective character. It was also established that the representation of the task determines the cognitive process adopted by the group. Thus the entire group activity is tied to the representations in its midst. The group organizes itself, regulates itself interactions, and determines its priorities in terms of these representations.

Cognitive processes and social identity through focused introspection

Abstract: A method is presented to explore, empirically, patterns of social and personal identity: the social identity inventory (SII). The SII is based on free associations describing a person's principal group memberships (first order data). The responses obtained are used as stimuli to generate ‘second order data’ through focused introspection. The results reveal patterns of relationship between self-representation and group representation, the differential probability of different group memberships to elicit self-representations, and the cognitive processes underlying the natural represen-tations of group memberships.

Studies in social influence: I. Those absent are in the right: Convergence and polarization of answers in the course of a social interaction

Abstract: The theories of social influence assert that: a) the existing dependence on the source of influence and hence the presence of the latter, is the cause of the above changes, b) the effective qualities of the stimulus or those which are attributed to it - ambiguity, clarity and certitude, etc., - can be seen in the divergence or convergence of the estimations made on the stimulus have an independent effect from the relations which exist between this source and its target. In this research OUI aim is to question both postulates by using a very well know phenomenon. On the one hand we have shown that the style of behaviour of the source, its consistency, is sufficient to produce the desired influence. On the other hand, we have shown that if this behaviour creates a conflict of response, the subject will adopt the proposed response on the condition that he has done so of his own free will and not because of having given in under pressure. That is why an absent source of influence can be successfull; the subject has the impression of approaching it without giving in to it, while the presence of a source of influence causes the polarization, this being the only means for the subject to preserve his independence. The experimental paradigm used is the same as that of Sherif. Dozens of experiments have shown that the greater the distance between the stooge subjects and the naive subjects, the greater the tendency for response polarization. In the control situation where subjects were confronted with a constant stoodge for the entire duration of the experiment, we obtained the same results. In the experimental situation where the stooge would leave the room with a justified excuse before the end of the experiment, we have found a trend converging towards his judgements. The polarization phenomenon is therefore due to the relation between the source and the target of influence, to the meaning which is assigned to the distances of judgment rather than to the distances themselves. Moreover, the withdrawal of the source in no way diminishes its influence and so, those who are absent are sometimes right.

Categorization, cognitive consistency and the concept of dimensional salience

Abstract: Cognitive consistency theories predict changes in evaluation within an existing frame of reference. This frame of reference must be defined in terms of those dimensions or aspects of the situation that appear most salient to the individual concerned. The same siuation may appear balanced or unbalanced, depending on which dimensions are seen as salient. The tendency to maintain balance may therefore reveal itself in a tendency to see as salient those dimensions in terms of which a given situation will appear most balanced. This is consistent with evidence from the judgment of attitude statements, which suggests that individuals will regard as most salient those dimensions along which their own evaluations of a set of statements will be most congruent with the value connotations of the terms by which the judgment scale is labelled.

Pollyanna's personal judgments

Abstract: The Pollyanna hypothesis is extended into the field of intertrait inference to predict that inferential thresholds for positively evaluated characteristics will be lower than those for negatively evaluated characteristics. This prediction is confirmed, and is shown to have important implications for models of inference rules. Data from several studies are analysed to reveal that the Pollyanna threshold effect is reliably greater for women than for men, and it is shown that this effect is unrelated to sex differences in extremity of responding.

The relationship between riskiness and confidence in choice dilemma decisions

Abstract: The relationship between riskiness of decisions and confidence in decisions was examined using Choice Dilemma items. Graphs show a clear curvilinear relationship between riskiness and confidence; on both risky items and cautious items greater confidence is associate with extremely risky and extremely cautious decisions than with moderate ones. it was also demonstrated that individual subjects have more confidence in their extreme decisions than in their moderate ones.

Adolescent and adult authoritarianism reexamined: Its organisation and stability over time

Abstract: This paper, which draws on follow-up data collected from English subjects first tested as adolescents and then, 1I years later, as young inen of 24–25, falls into three parts Part I examines the structuring of responses to authoritarian statements No general authoritarian factor could be isolated in either adolescence or in adult life Instead, four separate authoritarian response tendencies, each with its own antecedents, significance and predictive value, were obtained Only the adolescent measures correlated significantly with ability level This, together with the greater stability across time of the responses of the more able 13–14 year olds, led us to hypothesize that some of the variance in adolescent scores was cognitively, not motivationally, determined Part II reports a series of experimental studies (using additional data from the follow-up investigation) testing the cognitive and developmental hypothesis, which received support Part III proposes a general model for the consideration of attitudes, in which any given attitudinal response is located in a three-dimensional space of cognitive complexity, personality needs and social structure

An apparent exception to the extremization of collective judgments

Abstract: A reanalysis of data obtained by Kogan and Wallach, 1966 is presented. Wherever the original analysis showed the extremity of unanimous group judgments in general not to be different from the average extremity of individual judgments, the present analysis indicates that these group judgments differ from the average of individual judgments: they are significantly more extreme than the average positions of the individuals.

Organization structure and sociometric nominations amongst line managers in three contrasted organizations

Abstract: This study contrasts the interactions and influence choices amongst line managers in three organizations. The organizations were selected because of their contrasting formal structures (degree of bureaucratization, etc., after Pugh et al., 1968). The relations between the sociometric indicators and the various aspects of organization structure are explored across different sub-parts of the line management systems. The overall results are that the effects of aspects of organization structure on social processes are generally in the directions predicted, though the relationships are not large; and that the effects of one aspect of organization structure can be moderated by other structurat features. Global generalizations about the effects of, say, ‘bureaucracy’ on social behaviour are therefore inadvisable.

Experimenter bias and other possible biases in psychological research

Abstract: Ajter a brief discussion of work on experimenter-bias, it is suggested that the possibility of less well documented biases should be considered. A number of such biases are suggested. They are presented in terms of their source, namely the political ideologies, cultural backgrounds, biographical characteristics and personal characteristics of scientists. In considering implications of biases, three reactions are discussed: ignoring, controlling and understanding them. In particular, it is proposed that understanding the operation of bias might be furthered by working towards a taxonomy of biases, organized in terms of the sources of biases and the points in the research process at which they intrude.

Coalition formation on the gameboard

Abstract: This study explored the different interpretations of the 4-3-2 power pattern (Caplow, 1956) in the standard pachisiboard situation, originated by Vinacke and Arkoff (1957). The results show that A (=4) does not misperceive his power more than B (=3) or C (=2), as Kelley and Arrowood (1960) and Vinacke and Arkoff (1957) assumed. The results also did not fit the predictions of game theory (Shapley and Shubik, 1964). Gamson's (1964) explanation was not confirmed either. The conspiracy hypothesis (Hoffman et al., 1954), which states that if the players perceive that they are comparable and one of the players is given an initial advantage, then the two other players will conspire against him, can explain the results of this study reasonably well.

An investigation of the diagnostic processing of contradictory information

Abstract: In three parallel experiments, subjects rated their impressions of hypothetical 20-year-old males described by means of single or combined personality trait adjectives on 36 bipolar (Semantic Differential) scales. These ratings were a) intercorrelated across the scales (Q-technique) and factor analyzed separately for each subject, and b) submitted to an analysis of variance separately for each scale. It was shown that 1) when contradictory adjectives were combined the major portion of the variance of judgments fell on dimensions independent of that which characterized the contradiction; 2) there were substantial inter-individual consistencies in the direction of the deviation from that dimension; and 3) the utility of a linear model for the prediction of judgments of combined adjectives increases with increases in the extent to which the subject experiences the combination as consistent. However, the utility of the linear model decreases considerably and consistently if the combined adjectives are experienced as non-consistent.

The effect of judges' attitudes on ratings of attitude statements. A theoretical analysis

Abstract: Judgments of attitude statements with the method of equal-appearing intervals have been found to vary as a function of the judges' attitudes In this paper explanations of the relationship between judges' attitudes and judgments of attitude statements in terms of models of psychophysical judgment are discussed It is argued that psychophysical models such as adaptation-level theory, the range-frequency model, and the ‘rubber-band’ model and its derivations, cannot account satisfactorily for judges' performance of the attitude rating task in a great number of studies The reason for this failure, it is argued, is that the stimulus series employed in the psychophysical judgment research on which these models are based typically varied only on the dimension being judged The sets of statements judged in attitude rating studies, however, vary not only on the dimension of interest (favourability—Unfavourability) but also on a number of other dimensions It is suggested that this incidental stimulus variation of attitude statements may account for the failure of psychophysical models to predict accurately the performance of judges in the attitude rating task It is argued that if principles which could account for the effects of this incidental stimulus variation on attitude ratings could be incorporated into psychophysical models, the predictive qualities of these models could be improved considerably One such model is discussed

Attractiveness and cost as mediating variables in the performer-judge relation: An extension of the reward-cost model

Abstract: An attempt was made to extend social exchange theory to a situation in which the outcomes available for exchanges were of qualitatively different sorts. Male Ss judged the creativity of sentences constructed by female accomplices under conditions of high versus low ‘attractiveness’ (presence or absence of smiling and eye contact) of the accomplice and high versus low cost of judgemental accuracy to the S. An interaction between Attractiveness × Cost was predicted and found in experiment 1. Experiment 2 replicated that finding and added two control conditions. The results indicated that for the high attractiveness manipulation the positive reciprocity tendency which occurred under low cost was not found under higher cost. In addition, both studies showed a non-significant negative reciprocity tendency under high attractiveness and high cost. Jones' theory of ingratiation was examined for its relevancy, but it does not appear to be more appropriate in this situation than the reward-cost model.