Showing papers in "European Journal of Tourism Research in 2017"

Dawning of the Age of Robots in Hospitality and Tourism: Challenges for Teaching and Research

Abstract: IntroductionOver three decades ago, Collier (1983) heralded the demise of the industrial revolution at the hands of robotics and computerised manufacturing. His examples included pneumatic delivery, automated teller machines, phone answering machines and automated hotel elevators. His prediction of a 32-hour work week by 2000, alas, has yet to come true in most countries.Much work across diverse areas examines the diffusion-that is, the adoption and implement-tation-of new technology at both the organisational and individual level (Rogers, 2003). For example, one early conceptual framework addressing diffusion at the individual level suggested the less advanced the technology, the higher the customer contact (Walley & Amin, 1994). The authors noted that vending machines were low technology but high customer contact. A travel agency IT system however, had high technology but the customer had no capability for direct contact with that technology.Research in service marketing, such as travel IT system interfaces, has been particularly concerned with technology diffusion and its impact on customers (see Kim, Wang, & Malthouse, 2015; Lam & Shankar, 2014 for two recent examples). Service scholars developed the paradigm of eService-providing customer service over electronic networks (Rust & Kannan, 2003, p. 38)-and its impact on the customers (e. g., Collier & Bienstock, 2006; Fassnacht & Koese, 2006; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Malhotra, 2005). Almost all eService studies, whether looking at adoption or implementation, focus on software that runs on an inert device such as a desktop computer or a mobile phone. Little in the tourism and hospitality literature or for that matter the service literature in general, examines service delivered by robotic devices.Why should a science fiction phenomenon, which most probably lies only at the margin of today's economy, concern tourism and hospitality academics? In their book The Second Machine Age, Brynjolfsson, McAfee and Cummings (2014) underscore that informa-tion technology cost effectiveness increases exponentially. The capabilities in the simple robots of today will double, and double again every couple of years, assuming that Moore's Law remains in force. Artificial intelligence, sensing, actuator and power technology advances should fuel a robotics explosion comparable to what microprocessors did for computing three decades ago (Touretzky, 2010).A year after Collier's (1983) predictions, a study challenged hospitality educators to consider advanced technology, particularly robots, in their classes and their research (Andrew, 1984). Scholars should examine customer acceptance of robots in foodservice and robots' impacts on the work environment, management training, facility design and bottom line. The objective of this manuscript is to nudge hospitality and tourism academics, again, to think about the applications and subsequent implications of robot delivered service. As such, the paper begins with an overview of the robotics literature, followed by a renewed and extended challenge to hospitality and tourism academics to consider robotics in their classes and research.Literature ReviewThe Rise of the RobotsThe industrial age, science fiction books in the 1800s, and a play in the early 1900s laid the groundwork for the modern concept of robots. Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein, first published anonymously in 1818, conjured gruesome images of combining body parts into a sentient being. Half a century later, Jules Verne introduced a steam-powered mechanical elephant in The Steam House. Then in 1921, the Czech Karel Capek's (2001) play Rossum's Universal Robots introduced the term 'robot'-robuta in Czech, translated as forced labor-and the eventual extinction of the human race at the hands of robots.Today, robotic applications abound in manufac-turing, inside and outside the home, medicine, entertainment, the military and law enforcement and various other applications (Thrun, 2004; Vaussard et al. …

Smart Cities and Destination Management: Impacts and Opportunities for Tourism Competitiveness

Abstract: In the latest years, the smart city theme has been widely discussed in both city planning and academic studies from various perspectives, i.e. technology, sustainability, management and tourism. This is mainly due to the urgency of rethinking the city because of the rapid population growth and the urbanization increase. These challenges are triggering many cities to find smarter management ways. Nonetheless, only a limited number of studies investigated systematically the smart cities phenomenon and its impact on tourism. In this research, we try to understand the smart city concept considering the strategic role of technologies as opportunities in the smart tourist destination, trying to fill the literature research gaps by identifying how cities have to manage urban planning to be labelled as “smart”, what can be the applications of smart strategies to tourism, what resources/capabilities smart cities need to possess to catch opportunities and face challenges coming from the tourism market, how the smart city planning and its tourist applications can enhance destinations competitiveness. The empirical analysis tests four successful smart cities: Milan, Singapore, London and Johannesburg. The final part includes some reflections on the integration of tourism development with city planning and its effects on urban smartness.

Co-designing smart tourism

Abstract: Emerging theories of smart tourism are chiefly concerned with how Internet Communication Technology and Big Data can influence marketing, product and destination development. The risk being that an overt focus on formal outcomes, namely technology, products and services, diverts attention from how things and operations are actually achieved. This paper challenges the notions of smart and value co-creation by introducing tourism co-design as a learning and experiment driven development process. Tourism co-design leverages the communicative interaction between people and enables tourism operators to change their practices. Based on fieldwork in the northern part of Denmark we explore how smart tourism can become smarter through tourism co-design processes. We argue that a shift is needed from: How can we efficiently achieve a more or less known goal? To: How can we effectively explore and give sense to something new and engage in processes that encourage the new to emerge? Tourism co-design enables values to transpire at multiple levels and engenders unknown possibilities that inform how smart tourism may be operationalised.

The roles of subjective vitality, involvement, experience quality, and satisfaction in tourists’ behavioral intentions

Abstract: IntroductionTourism organizations and destination authorities emphasize the quality of tourism experiences and tourism satisfaction to foster positive behavioral tourist intentions (Yuksel, 2000). Tourism satisfaction has received attention from tourism scholars and multiple studies that have demonstrated this concept as an antecedent of behavior intention (Chen, Huang, & Petrick, 2016). For example, satisfied tourists are more likely to repurchase the product or recommend it to others (Chi & Qu, 2008; Gallarza & Saura, 2006; Petrick, 2004).Other studies assert that tourism satisfaction makes a significant contribution to overall life satisfaction (Chen, Huang, & Petrick, 2016; Kim, Woo, & Uysal, 2015) and subjective wellbeing (Chen, Lehto, & Cai, 2013; McCabe & Johnson, 2013; Sirgy, Kruger, Lee, & Grace, 2011; Su, Swanson & Chen, 2016). On the other hand, other studies concentrate on antecedents of satisfaction such as perceived value, perceived service quality, motivation, and destination image in order to determine how tourist satisfaction is achieved (Chi & Qu, 2008; Devesa, Laguna, & Palacios, 2010; Gallarza & Saura, 2006; Petrick & Backman, 2002; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Furthermore, recent studies have come up with a new concept, namely experience quality, which is now seen as more comprehensive than service quality (Altunel & Erkut, 2015; Chen & Chen, 2010).In the tourism literature, when examining experience and/or service quality, and satisfaction, researchers are interested in the features of tourism (destinations, accommodations, transportation, etc.) rather than emphasizing personal resources. Therefore, in building experience quality and satisfaction, some personal resources (energy, attention, enthusiasm etc.) have been overlooked as antecedents. Other studies have investigated involvement (Goldsmith & Emmert, 1991; Zaichkowsky, 1985) as it may be considered a personal resource and include personal interest and importance as a tourism subject. Meanwhile, other personal resources can be used to predict behavior. Personal resources are characteristics that are associated with an individual's ability to impact his/her environment successfully and those personal resources may effect individual motivations (Hobfoll, Johnson, Ennis & Jackson, 2003). As a personal resource, energy has been operationalized in different ways. From Freud's concept of ego depletion to the idea of vitality, some concepts have been examined to clarify the availability of human energy. Among the concepts of personal energy (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971; Thayer, 1987, 1996; Watson & Tellegen, 1985), vitality has been identified as a personal resource characterized by Ryan and Frederick as the energy available to one's self (1997), as in feelings of being alive, alert, and energized.Accordingly, tourist vitality may be considered a determinant of cultural tourism, as such activities are generally believed to require energy (Martin-Ruiz, Castellanos-Verdugo, & Oviedo-Garcia, 2010). In tourist activities, such as visiting old towns, museums, and interacting with local people, the quality of the experience and its satisfaction may be influenced by a tourist's energy level. Tourists who feel vital are expected to have positive feelings and greater quality experiences, resulting in positive wordof-mouth in both the real and virtual world. If this is true, tourism organizations should pay special attention to the tourists' vitality at the time of the tourism and in the promotion of tourism products. This offers insights into why tourism firms should focus on customers with higher levels of vitality, thereby improving their efforts in achieving tourist satisfaction. Drawing on the broaden-and-build theory, a person's positive emotions may enhance his/her cognition and actions (Fredrickson, 2003). Thus, vitality may affect experience quality because it may increase an individual's feelings of learning and fun (Quinn, 2007). …

Nature Sports Participation: Understanding Demand, Practice Profile, Motivations and Constraints

Abstract: Nature sports is a sports field associated with active sport tourism and is one of the fastest growing segments of the tourism industry. Even though nature sports are economically very significant, little is known about participants and their participatory behaviour. Thus, a study was conducted using a convenient sample of 1126 nature sports participants to understand their socio-demographic characteristics, demand profile, practice behaviours, motivations and constraints. The results indicate that nature sports participants are mainly young males, with higher education, highly-qualified jobs and high income. The nature sports activity that most of the surveyed individuals already practice is MTB. This is also the activity practiced more frequently by more individuals, and the activity most individuals would like to practice more often. Nature and adventure are indicated as the main reasons for practicing nature sports, while lack of time and lack of money are the main constraints for participation. Statistical tests also revealed significant statistical differences in participation between the different nature sports activities. These data allow augmenting the management and marketing intelligence for owners and managers of nature sports-related businesses as well as agencies and organizations promoting nature sports (tourism). Policy implications for nature sports are also discussed.

Understanding the relation between serious surfing, surfing profile, surf travel behaviour and destination attributes preferences

Abstract: IntroductionSurf tourismSurfing is a wave activity with its roots in Hawaiian culture and tradition (Buckley, 2002a). Since the early 1900's, surfing has grown as sport of Western civilization (Dolnicar & Fluker, 2003b). Since the 1960's, the popularity of surfing has progressively increased (Barbieri & Sotomayor, 2013; Ponting, 2008) due to the cultural changes of that period (Wheaton, 2010). Surf tourism started with independent adventure travellers searching for new surfing spots, driven by the quality of the surfing experience in other regions or climates (Barbieri & Sotomayor, 2013). This kind of travel peaked in the 1960s because of the image of surfing culture delivered by mass media, as well as more affordable travel and the development of lighter materials (Barbieri & Sotomayor, 2013; Lazarow, Miller, & Blackwell, 2008). Surf tourism gained economic, social and environmental significance and has become a significant component of the adventure (sport) tourism sector (Buckley, 2002a; 2002b). Surf tourism is generally defined as travelling at least 40 km away from home, to domestic or international destinations, staying for at least one night and no more than 12 months, with surfing the primary purpose for travel. This includes active participants in surfing activities, as well as the spectators of events and those who follow them on their surfing trips (Buckley, 2002a; Dolnicar & Fluker 2003a, 2003b, 2004; Fluker, 2003; Ponting, 2008).Nowadays, surf travellers rely on surfing tour operators to help them manage their surfing trips, which has led to a "global industry involving thousands of tour operators, village home stays, resorts, charter boats, wholesalers, retail travel agents, and vertically integrated service combinations around the world" (Barbieri & Sotomayor, 2013, p. 112). Recent research calculated that 112 countries have available surfing tours or surfing-related information for tourists (Ponting, 2008), fostering a multimillion-dollar industry that stimulates local economies (Barbieri & Sotomayor, 2013).The growth of surfing and surf tourism sector has gained academic attention (Martin & Assenov, 2012). Surfing research started in the 1970's (e.g., Kelly, 1973), and continued into the 1980's (e.g., Johnson & Orbach, 1986; Markrich, 1988) and 1990's (e.g., Breedveld, 1995; Poizat-Newcomb, 1999a, 1999b). However, the growing body of literature specifically on surf tourism emerged in the 21st century (Martin & Assenov, 2012), especially in the last ten years. During that period, a variety of topics have been covered, such as analyses of surfers' demographic and economic statistics, travel patterns, behaviour and preferences (e.g. Buckley, 2002a, 2012; Dolnicar & Fluker, 2003b), the surfing imaginary (e.g. Ponting, 2008, 2009; Ponting & McDonald, 2013), analyses of conservation and the sustainability of surf tourism (e.g. Buckley, 2002a, 2002b; Martin & Assenov, 2014a, 2014b; O'Brien & Ponting, 2013; Ponting & O'Brien, 2014) and the impact of surfing events (e.g. Getz & Fairley, 2003; O'Brien, 2007).The surfing industry in Portugal is also growing but there are no publications that identify its global economic significance. There is some evidence to indicate the growth of this sector, particularly the growth in the number of surfers (Melo, 2013), the growth in the development of more specialized services such as surf schools and surf camps, and the increase in the market for surfing-related consumer brands (Moutinho, Dionisio, & Leal, 2007). Portugal is one of the best countries in Europe in which to develop surfing activities: it has a continental coast of almost 1000 km, hosting large numbers of beaches with excellent surfing quality. These natural conditions, along with internationally renowned spots such as Ericeira (recognized during 2011 as the first World Surf Reserve in Europe, and the second one in the entire world) and Peniche (the Portuguese Capital of the Wave), and the organization of national and international top level events such as the World Surf Leagues, has allowed Portugal to create a positive destination image related to surfing (Melo, 2013). …

Investigating Tourists' Destination Choices - An Application of Network Analysis

Abstract: A better understanding of the complex destination choice process is highly relevant, both for academia and practice. Tourism research tends to focus either on actually executed or hypothetical destination choices. However, a discrepancy exists between these two types of destination choices which has hardly been investigated. Moreover, past research often studies tourists and their attitudes, needs or perceptions of destinations but not how destinations' attributes affect destination choices. To approach these two research gaps, this study concentrates not only on actual but also on hypothetical destination choices to better understand differences in the evaluation of alternative destinations. This study furthermore examines the role of the destination itself to discover the influence of destination characteristics on destination choices. Therefore, network analysis and set theory are combined in a new research approach which allows to analyse destination choices with varying closeness to reality whilst preserving destination information. The analysis is based on a quantitative survey of German tourists' travel decision-making behaviour. The results reveal changes in destination choices from multidimensional hypothetical choices to unidimensional actual and past choices. Furthermore, only few destinations have a consistent position whilst most destinations are either more relevant for hypothetical or actual destination choices. (C) 2017 Varna University of Management. All rights reserved

Tourism Destination Image as an Antecedent of Destination Loyalty: The Case of Linz, Austria

Abstract: The concepts of destination image and tourists’ loyalty are sufficiently discussed in the literature; however, due to the multi-dimensional character of these two concepts, the existing studies fail to shed light on the multifaceted linkage between destination image and loyalty. This research displays an innovative way of measuring tourists’ loyalty by creating a composite loyalty index that represents both behavioural and attitudinal loyalty. The index allows for a distinction between different levels of tourists loyalty to be made in order to establish the impact of both cognitive and affective destination image dimensions on loyalty. The findings reveal that the better the image, the higher the composite loyalty. Specifically, destination’s affective image is more influential on tourists’ loyalty than destination’s cognitive image.

Functional Zoning for Smart Destination Management

Abstract: Recent developments in destination management suggest that administrative divisions may be misleading as a unit of decision making for tourism planning and management, since they may comprise several areas with different tourism functionality. Identifying homogenous areas of tourism activity and delimiting their boundaries can enhance the utility of information for smart management purposes. The objective of this paper is to highlight the relevance of the geographical dimension of smart destinations by showing how functional areas can be delimited and how this smaller unit of analysis can improve destination management in the new context of improved availability of data and smart decisions supported by technology. The paper illustrates its key ideas with an application to the island of Gran Canaria.

Enhancing Cultural Heritage Experiences with Smart Technologies: An Integrated Experiential Framework

Abstract: The paper addresses how smart technologies can be used to enhance cultural heritage experiences at tourism destinations As its main contribution, it presents a framework to leverage the potential of multiple smart technologies throughout the visitors’ experience at cultural heritage sites The proposed framework builds on the theoretical foundation of the experience economy and the results of an analysis of best practices of smart technologies applied to cultural heritage sites The analysis examines the capability of these technologies to intensify the four experience dimensions identified by Pine and Gilmore (1998) – Entertainment, Esthetic, Education and Escapism - in relation to an extended perspective of the visitors’ experience including the three stages of the visit The pilot testing of the framework provides insights into the opportunities to use a combination of applications for facilitating and enriching the cultural visit at the destination according to a multi-stage and multi-dimensional perspective of the heritage experience The integrated perspective proposed in the paper provides a contribution to advance theory and practice, based on the more comprehensive view of the potential role of smart technologies’ in heritage experiences deriving from an integrated multi-stage and multi-dimensional analysis

Determinants of tourist arrivals in European Mediterranean countries: Analysis of competitiveness

Abstract: This research employs a gravity framework to evaluate the tourism in European Mediterranean countries. The paper analyses the destination competitiveness as a means for tourism attraction and also verifies whether more competitive countries can be used as a point of reference for the development of those lagging behind. The gravity equations are used because of their proven effectiveness in estimating other similar studies fields. The study focuses on the Mediterranean European countries, mainly due essentially, to the wide span of their positions along the TTCI ranking (Spain ranks first, whereas Montenegro is in 67th place). Results reveal that these European destinations are not efficiently exploiting their tourism capacity and they need apply policies to foster this economic activity and enable the transformation of competitiveness into greater numbers of visitors.

The Sponsorship Motive Matrix (SMM): A Framework for Categorising Firms’ Motives for Sponsoring Sports Events

Abstract: IntroductionSponsorship is one of the most rapidly growing areas of modern marketing (Delia and Armstrong, 2015). According to figures from Sponsorship Outlook in 2013, more than 53.3 billion dollars were spent on sponsorship worldwide (www.Sponsorship.com). One important reason for this growth in sponsorship seems to be that traditional marketing channels such as television, radio and magazine advertisements are becoming less effective than others, including sponsorship. Clearly, it is important to understand motives to the decision to sponsor (Smith et al., 2016).Consequently, an increasing number of firms see sponsorship as a natural and important part of their marketing mix. As a result, sponsorship for some firms constitutes the largest proportion of their total budget for marketing communication. For example, in Norway, sponsorship has become the thirdlargest communication channel (Thj0m0e, 2010). In line with this, Alexandris et al. (2012) state that sponsorship may be a more effective communication strategy than traditional advertising. Moreover, Helgesen (2004) observes that the primary goal of sponsorship is to strengthen companies' market positions on the long run. Clearly, sponsorship is a powerful medium for communicating and forming relationships with a specific target group (Bowdin et al., 2011; Collett and Fenton, 2011).In recent years, there has been a growth in the number of firms that sponsor events. Today, many events have sponsors, and these occasions give firms opportunities to make their business visible to many spectators. Consequently, firms find event sponsorship to be a powerful forum in which to communicate and build their brands (Thj0m0e, 2010). In addition, it is not surprising that event sponsorship is one of the most common sources of funding for performance events. Indeed, events are becoming increasingly dependent on sponsorship.Sponsorship has been defined as the "provision of assistance, either financial or in kind, to an activity by a commercial organization for the purpose of achieving commercial objectives" (Meenaghan, 1983). A review of sponsorship reveals that most previous studies have to a large extent focused on firm sponsorship in relationship to external outcome variables. These outcome variables have generally been restricted to aspects related to customers.Specifically, most research has focused on how and in what way sponsorship is able to form relationships with a firm's customers, and the extent to which it directly or indirectly affects the firm's sales. In a review of the literature by Madill and O'Reilly (2010) the authors reveal more than 50 objectives related to sponsorships. Moreover, previous research has found that sponsorship has a positive impact on return on investment (ROI) (e.g., Harvey, 2001) and influences customers' awareness, firm image, goodwill and recall recognition of the sponsor (Nielsen, 1990; Rifon et al., 2004) and achievement of media exposure (Crompton, 2004). Sponsorship has also been linked to corporate social responsibility (CSR) (e.g., Plewa and Quester, 2011). Sponsorship affects customers' brand loyalty (Sirgy et al., 2008) and attitudes towards an event (Bhat, 2012). It also increases customers' intentions to purchase the sponsor's product (Ngan et al., 2011), and sponsorship of particular events has a positive impact on effectiveness of sponsorship in general (see Alexandris et al., 2012; Cornwell et al., 2006; Gwinner and Bennett, 2008; Miloch and Lambrecht, 2006; Kotler and Keller, 2009; Slâtten et al., 2014a; Skinner and Rukavina, 2003; Walraven et al., 2012).This review reveals that previous research on firm sponsorship has primarily taken a customer perspective focused on external outcome variables related to a target group (e.g., firm sales or image). Although this is clearly a critical area of research, it also reveals that research that takes an organisational perspective has generally been neglected. …

Exploring competing models on sacrifices, quality, value, satisfaction and loyalty with PLS and partial correlations

Abstract: Analysing the order and intensity of the links between sacrifices, quality, value, satisfaction and loyalty has deeply interested tourism researchers for the last decade. This work reviews previous contributions on modelling these variables in tourism literature, analysing each of the links and depicting areas of consensus and controversies. This work seeks to add to this stream of research pursuing two objectives. The first is to contrast two competing models of the relationships between these five constructs: Cronin et al. (2000)’s model, then replicated in Brady et al. (2005) and an alternative model that contemplates the consensus (the relationships quality-value, quality-satisfaction, value-loyalty and satisfaction-loyalty) and proposes a contrast of three of the controversies: relationships sacrifices-quality, value-satisfaction and quality-loyalty. The second objective, methodological, is to propose the study of partial correlations as a technique for exploring relationships between constructs for building a better global causal model. After testing the psychometric properties of the scales, both models are contrasted with PLS (MBPLSPM) on a sample of 400 hotel guests, finding improved results for the model that proposes a chain of effects sacrifices-quality-value-satisfaction-loyalty. The discussion of the results suggests conclusions on the richness and particular features of these structures for consumer behaviour in tourism.

Success factors for small rural tourism units: an exploratory study in the Portuguese region of Serra da Estrela

Abstract: Over the past few decades, tourism has come to be considered a way of promoting economic and social development in peripheral, rural areas where traditional agriculture has declined. This is the case of the Portuguese region of Serra da Estrela, where rural tourism has been seen as a strategy for regional development. However, it is important to understand the extent to which tourism activities are able to meet the expectations of tourists and entrepreneurs, in order to represent a realistic development strategy. The current exploratory study compared the performance of 42 small tourism businesses operating in Serra da Estrela in an attempt to understand the impact of several factors on their success. Using occupancy rate as an indicator of success, a linear model was estimated, revealing the importance of adopting information and communications technologies (ICT) in tourism service as a factor for success. The study also shows that the supply of other services, besides housing, and client satisfaction promote the increase in net occupancy rates. Contrary to expectations, two of the explanatory variables related to management (owning and living in the touristic unit) have a negative impact on success.

Host-guest relationship in the context of volunteer tourism

Abstract: This study explores the nature of interactions and relationships between volunteer tourists and their hosts by using social exchange theory. A qualitative research methodology utilising semi-structured, in-depth interviews and participant observation was adopted. The informants included fourteen volunteer tourists, on a working vacation at the Special Education Centre of Ranong Province, and nineteen staff members of the centre. Analysis of the data revealed that the interactions and relationships between the volunteer tourists and the hosts were equal, reciprocal and rewarding; neither acted only for the purpose of satisfying their own needs/expectations, but rather in ways that could benefit one another. In other words, they did not just seek to “take”, but also intended to “give”, which may be part of the unique nature of volunteer tourism, where volunteer tourists are driven by altruistic motivations and are viewed as different from other tourists by their hosts. Such mutual, rewarding interactions and relationships brought benefits to both groups and were sufficient for them to decide to be involved in volunteer tourism in the future.

The Influence of Tourism Experience Self-Congruity on the Use of Virtual Social Networks

Abstract: IntroductionSymbolic consumption has been analysed from different perspectives since the 1980s. Most of the research have focused on two variables in order to define this construct: consumer identity and the meaning of products in society (Belk, 1984; Clammer, 1992; Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Dittmar, 1992; Edson and Bettman, 2005; Fenollar and Ruiz, 2006; Ger and Belk, 1996; Landon, 1974; Lee, 2013; Lorenzi' 1991; McCracken, 1987; Park et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2014). In this context of analysis, researchers have traditionally studied the symbolism of tangible objects (Belk, 1984; Clammer, 1992; Dittmar 1992; Fenollar and Ruiz, 2006; Ger and Belk, 1996; Landon, 1974; Lorenzi, 1991). However, several studies have examined symbolic consumption in the area of tourism in the past few years (e. g. Chen, Leask and Phou, 2016; Kim and Jang, 2014; Kim and Jun, 2016; Kumar and Nayak , 2014; Servidio, 2015; Sharma and Shruti, 2015; Uchiyama and Kohsaka, 2016), and it can be observed that self-congruity is an important construct related to the symbolic consumption of tourism products and services (Ekinci, Sirakaya and Preciado, 2013; Nam, Ekinci and Whyatt, 2011; Chen, Leask and Phou, 2016).Self-congruity is defined as the matching of the product's image with the consumer's selfconcept (Sirgy, 1982). The studies of this construct in the tourism literature can be divided into two different fields of research: (1) self-congruity and pre-trip decision making (e. g. Ahn, Ekinci and Li, 2011; Beerli, Diaz and Moreno, 2007; Litvin and Goh, 2002; Souza, 2015); and (2) self-congruity and post-trip travel intentions (e. g. Bosnjak et al., 2011; Kastenholz, 2004; Matzler et al., 2016). This paper focuses on self-congruity and post-trip behavioural intentions.When it comes to post-trip consumer behaviour, some authors have recently pointed out the importance of the used of social media by tourists after their trips (e. g. Amaro, Duarte and Enriques, 2016; Correia, Kozak and Reis, 2014; Kim, Lee and Bonn, 2016; Nadkarni and Hofmann, 2012; Seidman, 2013). It has also been mentioned in the literature the need of research in this area, since "the research on the analysis of virtual social networks in tourism is now in its beginnings" (Hudson et al., 2015, p. 70) and "there is a need of analysis to examine the impact of virtual social networks in tourism" (Zeng and Gerritsen, 2014, p. 34).There are several reasons that explain the use of social media by tourists during and after their trips. For example: sharing the experience with other tourists, getting information from friends and relatives, making contact with other people interested in traveling (Cabiddu, De Carlo and Piccoli, 2014), talking about an event and trying to convince friends and relatives to attempt it (Kim, Lee and Bonn, 2016), as well as other personal benefits, as, for example, having fun using their social networks (Amaro, Duarte and Enriques, 2016).Some authors have also examined the importance of self-presentation by tourists in social media (Luo and Zhong, 2015; Maldonado, 2012; Martin and Torres, 2013; Sun et al., 2014). Regarding this particular motivation, there seems to be a connection between perceived self-congruity and tourists' intensity of the use of social networks (Gonzales and Hancock, 2011; Hudson et al., 2015; Kim and Jang, 2014; Manago et al., 2009) as well as there seems to be a relationship between both constructs and the social value tourists' perceive from the experience (Bond and Falk, 2013; Chung and Koo, 2012; Kim, Lee and Bonn, 2015; Lyu, 2016; Molz, 2013; Munar and Jacobsen, 2014; Shanahan, 2009). Therefore, this research focuses on tourism self-congruity and its influence on the use of social networks. Furthermore, the research analyses the connection between those constructs with perceived social value and tourists' revisit intention.Literature reviewSymbolic consumptionFirst historical references of symbolic consumption appeared in the literature at the end of the nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century (Flugel, 1930; James, 1890; Simmel, 1903). …

Chinese tourism to Scandinavia : understanding tourism distribution

Abstract: of Chapter 1 Chapter 1: Introduction presents the study background, the scope of the study and the research questions that are addressed in the dissertation. It also reflects on the research objectives and contributions. Abstract of Chapter 2 Chapter 2: China Outbound Tourism presentsof Chapter 2 Chapter 2: China Outbound Tourism presents the existing knowledge about China Outbound Tourism, necessary to conduct the study. This includes discussion of the history and politics of China outbound tourism, its current state, and the existing academic literature covering the subject. Abstract of Chapter 3 Chapter 3: Understanding Tourism Distribution discusses the current knowledge on tourismof Chapter 3 Chapter 3: Understanding Tourism Distribution discusses the current knowledge on tourism Jørgensen, M. (2018) / European Journal of Tourism Research 19, pp. 132-135 135 distribution. It reviews the existing literature and presents arguments that a new approach is needed to analyse tourism distribution. It then presents such an approach, by introducing its components one by one. Activity Theory and Actor-Network Theory as well as their specific application are presented, followed by the conceptual framework for the dissertation. Figure 2 Abstract of Chapter 4 Chapter 4: Research Methodology outlines the methodology for the dissertation. This includes presentation of the ontological and epistemological approach, explanations of the limitations to the study and details on data collection, processing and analysis. Abstract of Chapter 5of Chapter 5 Chapter 5: Multiplicity is the first of three analysis chapters. It demonstrates how ActorNetwork Theory’s idea of multiplicity is present in ‘Chinese tourism to Scandinavia’, through the different ways that the various actors enact the phenomenon. Based on this, the two subsequent chapters use these enactments as the outset for the investigation. Abstract of Chapter 6of Chapter 6 Chapter 6: Networks and Relations analyses the actor-network that constitutes ‘Chinese tourism to Scandinavia’. It presents the network clusters that the interviewees enact, the relations within these clusters and the gateways between them. It then discusses the implications of these enactments, relations and gateways. Abstract of Chapter 7of Chapter 7 Chapter 7: Factors presents the various factors and sub-factors that were found to be important to ‘Chinese tourism to Scandinavia’. This chapter also presents four analysis tools that were developed based on the analyses. Abstract of Chapter 8of Chapter 8 Chapter 8: Discussion discusses the results of the three previous analysis chapters against the existing literature on China outbound tourism. It draws on the dissertation data to underpin new findings that emerge as the findings of the previous chapters are discussed against the literature. Abstract of Chapter 9of Chapter 9 Chapter 9: Conclusion, Contributions and Future Research summarises the findings of the dissertation, as well as the tools derived from the dissertation findings. It also discusses the practical/managerial and theoretical implications of the dissertation. Suggestions for future research are also presented.

Sustainability disclosure and a legitimacy crisis: Insights from two major cruise companies

Abstract: The main aim of this paper is to analyse company sustainability disclosure in case of a legitimacy crisis. This work sets out to investigate how the negative externalities of an event reported widely in the media, such as the sinking of the Costa Concordia class cruise ship, have affected sustainability communication, for not only Carnival Corporation & PLC (the parent company of Costa) but also its most direct competitor Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. The paper relies on text analysis focusing on the sustainability reports of the two major companies (in terms of market share) in the cruise sector. Authors compared the reports of Carnival Corporation & PLC and its most direct competitor for a five-year period using text mining techniques. Results indicate that an event with social and environmental negative externalities, dominating international media and capable to bring discredit in the eyes of stakeholders, generates a change in the sustainability communication of both companies. Thus, repercussions are larger than one might suppose. Companies reduced the amount of information disclosed as a strategy to influence the perception of their audience, demonstrating that the provision of justifications, explanations and announcements of new sustainable policies (which increase the quantity of information) is not a predictable reaction. This paper undertakes empirical research on the sustainability reports of cruise line companies - which have been largely overlooked - and contributes to better understand company sustainability reporting praxis after an industrial disaster.

Backpackers’ contribution to development and poverty alleviation: myth or reality? A critical review of the literature and directions for future research

Abstract: Due to its great diversity and characteristics, backpackers can increase business opportunities in many destinations that decide to invest on their promotion. Those responsible for destinations planning and management will be able to conduct marketing strategies to segments that are best adapted to local or regional reality, bringing with it, important competitive advantages. It can be promoted not only in regions where the tourism sector is already well established and developed but also in more peripheral regions usually in the margins of the main tourist flows. This paper aims to present and discuss the backpacker tourism contribution to development and poverty alleviation, emphasising some theoretical aspects related to concepts, constructs and methodological options used in articles published in Scopus platform. A systematic review of literature and a qualitative and quantitative analysis were made. In a first stage data compilation and quantitative analysis of scientific articles published in Scopus database since 1960 was carried out. In a second stage, a qualitative analysis was performed. Despite few exceptions, the majority of governments worldwide continue to ignore backpacker tourism. It was confirmed the lack of quantitative studies that demonstrate, objectively, the economic impact of backpackers and it is suggested the need of quantitative data collected and analysed by statistical official agencies.

Surfing tourism plan: Madeira Island case study.

Abstract: IntroductionSurf tourism provides a global business opportunity and makes part of the multi-billionaire industry of adventure and sport tourism. In some of the most popular touristic destinations such as Hawaii, Australia and Indonesia, surf tourism accounts for a substantial portion of touristic income, and has been estimated globally to be around 10 million dollars annually by the year 2002 (Buckley, 2002), while indirectly contributing to the development of other activities of local economies. With an estimated 10 million surfers in 120 countries and an industry worth in excess of 6 billion dollars with estimates of this increasing to 13 billion by 2017, surfing as with any big business has a significant impact both globally and locally (Borne, 2014). Leal (2007) refers that the emergence of new and more sophisticated sports practices associated with the outdoors, and especially those practiced in the ocean and coastline, has contributed positively to the increase of tourists searching for adventure and recreation. Surfing is a sport associated with the ocean environment which has most successfully attracted participants willing to search the globe for locations and unique adventure experience, looking for the perfect conditions concerning the quality of the waves and surf spots (Fluker, 2003).Surf tourism includes not only surfers but also other target population, such as spectators, journalist, companions, and entire families. Nevertheless, and taking into account the demands of this phenomenon, it becomes essential to obtain information of how different groups of surfers list and compare the diversity of several surfing destinations. This type of tourism is a new business opportunity worldwide (has been estimated globally to be around 13 billion Euros (Buckley, 2002), being part of the multi-billionaire industry of Adventure and Sports Tourism. Since the regional tourism sector is 20 to 40 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Madeira Region (Portugal) and is actually responsible, directly or indirectly, for 15 per cent of all jobs in Madeira Island (Lopes, 2008).In Europe, and especially in Portugal, surfing being considered not only as a sport, but also as an economic activity, has shown a very significant development in the last decade. This is reflected not only in increasing the number of practitioners, as well as to increase the economic benefits associated with the market that involves this sport (such as the sale of sports equipment, rental equipment, the establishment of surf schools and surf camps - specific accommodation for surfers, families and supporters, or to raise sponsorship for conducting competitions). It is estimated that in Portugal the surfing industry can move about 300 million a year (Ferrony, 2013). Based on this, the preservation or the destruction of surf spots can be quantified in terms of their economic impact, which reflects the national panorama, but especially the local communities' scenario.National examples like the regions of Ericeira municipality and Peniche municipality and recently Nazare municipality are required in this analysis: the position of local authorities against the importance of surfing has changed and has proven its value in the development of the local economy (Horta & Bicudo, 2009; Ferrony, 2013; SOS, 2014). The same authors', stating that corroborates the international panorama, the surfing market represents a turnover estimated at 11 billion Euros (from 2005 to 2006). This overall figure, the European market grossed 1.48 billion Euros of which 1.1 billion of Euros are allocated to the profits of companies based in the French region of Aquitaine. In the Portuguese territory, for five years now, the number of surfers stood between 50 and 70 thousand (who practice surfing at least once a week). Currently, according to data released by the Federation of Surf Portugal, there are over 200,000 practitioners, the second most practiced sport in the country after soccer. …

What Makes Scuba Diving Operations Successful: The Case of Portofino, Italy

Abstract: The coastline of Portofino, Italy, a famous destination for the rich and famous, attracts thousands of visitors each year. Tourism product owners constitute a significant component of the competitive environment in this area in order to claim a piece of the tourism pie. For the local dive operators, the situation tends to be even more difficult when dealing with strict regulations concerning the marine protected area and a specific market. The identification of critical success factors could offer some insight into the management of these operations. In order to accomplish this, a qualitative research approach was followed by interviewing eight dive operators in the area of Portofino. It was clear that the critical success factor to manage a dive operation was unique to this area and differs from other tourism products by adopting a unique customer relations approach, an emphasis on safety, and the focus on providing a signature product. These results could assist managers of dive operations in identifying new opportunities in terms of management and sought out threats to the business.

To Be or Not to Be . . . : Brand Affiliation in the Hotel Industry

Abstract: A large proportion of any business’s value comprises intangible assets, and for many businesses a considerable part of these assets' value is attributable to brands with which businesses affiliate. ...

Profile of practice, travel behaviour and motivations for geocaching

Abstract: IntroductionGeocaching and sport tourismThe reach of technological devices and digital technology is remarkable. In postmodern society, mobile communication devices, such as cell phones, are ubiquitous. The International Telecommunication Union (2015) estimates that there are more than 7.2 billion mobile-cellular phone subscriptions worldwide and 3.2 billion internet users. With this in mind, several authors support the idea that electronic technology such as televisions, computers, tablets, smart phones and similar devices create a disconnection between the user and the natural environment (Louv, 2008; Pergams & Zaradic, 2006; Singer, Singer, D'Agostino & Delong, 2009). On the other hand, some applications for mobile digital technology may allow users to connect to the natural environment in unique and curious ways (Ihamaki & Tuomi, 2009). An example of the application of digital technology that seems to support the relationship between technology and natural places is the outdoor geo-location sport called geocaching (Ihamaki, 2015). Geolocation is a method for determining the location of an individual in relation to a geographical system, such as the latitude and longitude (coordinates) of a map. In the particular case of geocaching, participants (called geocachers) use Global Positioning System (GPS) enabled devices to navigate to a specific set of GPS coordinates to try to find a container (called a geocache) hidden in that location (Boulaire & Hervet, 2012; Groundspeak, 2014). Geocaching is a highly technological, world spanning, recreational sport activity, considered as a postmodern treasure hunting game (Lary, 2004). The basic premise of this game is that individuals or groups (called owners) create and hide geocaches anywhere in the world, recording and publishing the GPS coordinates and the description of the caches in a geocaching website (e.g., www.geocaching.com). After publication, other geocachers can download the GPS coordinates from the geocaching website to a mobile GPS receiver (GPSr), helping to guide them in the search of the geocache (Groundspeak, 2014). The fundamental rules of traditional form of geocaching are: 1) take an item from the cache once the cache was found; 2) leave another item in the cache container in place of the old item, and; 3) log the information in the log book within the cache container (Groundspeak, 2014).Geocaching incorporates a set of games where different caches can be found and/or hidden (Groundspeak, 2014), such as:^ Traditional Caches - is the original type of geocache and the most straightforward. It consists of a container and a log book. Larger containers may also carry swag and/or trackables. The coordinates listed on the traditional cache page are the exact location of the cache;^ Mystery or Puzzle Caches - this form of cache can involve complicated puzzles that can be first solved to determine the coordinates. Due to the increasing creativity of geocaching this becomes the starting ground for new and unique challenges;^ Multi-cache - involves two or more locations, the final location being a physical container with a logbook inside. There are many variations, but most multi-caches have a hint to find the second cache, and the second cache has hints to the third, and so on;^ Earth Cache - is a special geological location that people can visit to learn about a unique feature of the Earth. EarthCache pages include a set of educational notes and the details about where to find the location (latitude and longitude). Visitors to EarthCaches can see how our planet has been shaped by geological processes, how we manage its resources and how scientists gather evidence. Typically, to log an EarthCache, you will have to provide answers to questions by observing the geological location;^ Letterbox Hybrid - is another form of treasure hunting that uses clues instead of coordinates. In some cases, the letterbox owner has made their container both a letterbox and a geocache and posted its coordinates on Geocaching. …

The Consistency of a Tourism Product: A New Conceptual Framework

Abstract: Although the importance of tourism product parts/elements consistency has often been emphasized in marketing and management literature, almost no academic attention has been given so far to the question concerning what determines the perception of its consistency and how it affects tourists' impression of the destination. The purpose of the research was to identify these elements, quantify their impact on overall perceptions of consistency and to make comparisons between tourist segments and two types of destinations – resorts and cities. The results revealed that whereas the majority of tourists do not consciously reflect on tourism product consistency, it is an important factor with regards to competitiveness and quality; although not to the same extent for all destinations and segments.

Using quality function deployment for environmentally sustainable hotels: a combined analysis of customer and manager point of view

Abstract: This paper aims to integrate customers’ and managers’ environmental priorities into service delivery design processes. The main research question in this study is to determine the most significant environmental priorities of customers and managers at hotels. To achieve this aim, Quality Function Deployment is implemented as a tool, combining customer expectations and environmental strategies in service design activities. Customers and managers collectively focus to increase environmental sustainability in hotels in several areas such as the presence of the hotel not causing any harm to the environment, the compliance of hotel with surrounding nature, the presence of automatic electricity control, and the effective use of energy and water lavatories containing automatic water saving systems. The primary design characteristics that meet customer expectations and improve environmental sustainability at hotels are the economic use of electricity, water saving systems, use of natural materials, and adequacy of systems not harming environment and human.

The relation between sport and tourism at the beginning of tourism development – the case of Croatia

Abstract: This paper aims at contributing to the discussion whether functional relationships existed between tourism and sport in the Croatian part of the Adriatic Sea in the late 19th and early 20th century as they do today and whether they were interconnected. After the introduction, the paper describes tourism opportunities of the time and draws conclusions based on the research on built sports architecture, sports disciplines, sports associations and sports events that were linked to tourism. In addition to contributing to the knowledge of the history of functional relationships between sport and tourism, the paper raises the question of how much the relationship between tourism and sport has changed in the last hundred years. The research contributes to a better knowledge of sport tourism history, sport tourism heritage and sport as a tourist attraction.

Advances in Tourism Marketing in a Global Market towards a Better Understanding of Loyalty, Social Media, Island Tourism and Cultural Convergence

Abstract: La presente tesis, se estructura en 4 capitulos diferentes, y por medio de 4 ensayos aborda, empleando distintas metodologias, las siguientes tematicas: la gestion de la arquitectura de marca de los destinos y las estrategias de coopeticion asociadas, centrandose en el caso de los destinos insulares; la fidelidad a los destinos turisticos, con especial atencion en la fidelidad horizontal; las fuentes de informacion utilizadas por los turistas para informarse sobre el destino de viaje, con especial enfasis en los medios digitales como herramienta para establecer relaciones duraderas con los turistas; y por ultimo, la multiculturalidad de los turistas y sus diferencias en el uso de las fuentes de informacion y en sus motivaciones para viajar. Todos estos temas, que pueden parecer divergentes en principio, presentan una clara conexion, donde el analisis de cada problema de investigacion ha llevado a nuevas preguntas que se abordan en el siguiente ensayo. El objetivo final perseguido, es que todos los problemas de investigacion tratados contribuyan a aumentar la competitividad de los destinos turisticos en el nuevo entorno global competitivo. La poblacion objetivo de este estudio fueron los turistas europeos, mayores de 16 anos y de ambos sexos, procedentes de los 17 principales paises europeos emisores de turistas. Por otra parte, el destino de referencia para el estudio fue Islas Canarias. En un entorno global, digitalizado y caracterizado por la creciente competencia, las organizaciones de marketing de los destinos (OMDs) deben ser capaces de desarrollar estrategias que les permitan aumentar la competitividad de los destinos. Asi, la gestion de la arquitectura de marca de los destinos y sus estrategias de coopeticion asociadas, asi como la gestion de la fidelidad mediante estrategias en los medios sociales que atiendan a la multiculturalidad de los turistas, proveera a las OMDs de las herramientas necesarias para alcanzar este objetivo. Por ultimo, el analisis de estas tematicas contribuye de manera significativa a la literatura de marketing de destinos, como se desarrollara en cada uno de los ensayos.

Understanding Canadian and US tourists: A self-concept based segmentation study

Abstract: This study aims to identify the distinctive market segments based on tourists’ self-concept, gain a better understanding of U.S. and Canadian tourists’ travel patterns, and provide implications that are beneficial to destination marketing organizations (DMOs). This study advances the knowledge of self-concept in the tourism context by validating its measurement and employing it as a segmentation base. This study used 2 percent of cases (N=1,012) of secondary data collected by an Ontario government agency, and a factor-cluster approach for analysis. Principal component analysis was utilized to identify specific characteristics of self-concept items and the results yielded three selves (extravert self, explorative self, and depressive self). Then, the study segmented U.S. and Canadian tourists by three self-concept factors and obtained four distinctive segments: Energetic Segment (ENT), Adventurous Segment (ADT), Conservative Segment (COT), and Escaping Segment (EST). ENT tourists are characterized as active, inquisitive and confident with a medium level of perceived value, satisfaction, and recommendation. ADT represents tourists who are older, open-minded, and optimistic with the highest level of perceived value, satisfaction, and recommendation. COT is relatively passive and had the lowest level of perceived value, satisfaction, and recommendation. EST is a group of nervous and stressful young female tourists who had a low level of perceived value and a medium degree of satisfaction and recommendation. This paper concludes with appropriate advertising and promotional strategies for the different segments.