Showing papers in "European Journal of Wildlife Research in 2015"

Wildlife and renewable energy: German politics cross migratory bats

Abstract: The catastrophic nuclear meltdowns at Fukushima triggered a worldwide demand for renewable energy. As one of the few countries, Germany decided on an accelerated shift towards green energy, resulting in substantial conflicts with international conservation goals. Currently, large numbers of wind power facilities are erected in Germany, yet with unforeseen consequences for wildlife, particularly for endangered and protected bats. Presumably, more than 250,000 bats are killed annually due to interactions with German wind turbines, and total losses may account for more than two million killed bats over the past 10 years, if mitigation measures were not practiced. More than 70 % of killed bats are migrants, because major migratory routes cross Germany. Consequently, Germany’s environmental policy is key to the conservation of migratory bats in Europe. Prospective increases in wind power will lead to the installation of larger wind turbines with potentially devastating consequences for bats. The higher net energy production of modern wind turbines at low wind speeds may exacerbate the conflict between green energy and conservation goals since revenue losses for companies increase. We conclude that evidence-based action plans are urgently needed to mitigate the negative effects of the operation of wind energy facilities on wildlife populations in order to reconcile environmental and conservation goals.

Wildlife-vehicle collisions in Spain

Abstract: Wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC) are important in wildlife management due to their increasing socioeconomic impacts and pervasive effect on some endangered species. In this study, we depict the involved species and evaluate the geographic distribution and economic cost of this human-animal interaction in Spain. We used unpublished information on 74,600 WVC reported by police statements from 2006 to 2012. These collisions accounted for 8.9 % of all reported road traffic accidents in the country. They were unevenly distributed, with WVC accounting for 30–50 % of all road traffic accidents in some mountainous provinces in the north. Results show that wild boar (Sus scrofa) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), two abundant free-ranging ungulates (O. Artiodactyla) whose populations have expanded throughout Spain during the last few decades, were involved in 79 % of WVC. These species were responsible for most economic losses and, in the case of the wild boar, for most human injuries. The number of vehicle collisions involving large carnivores (O. Carnivora) was small, with the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) present in most cases (70 %). They included some endangered species (brown bear, Ursus arctos, and Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus). The results provide a reliable picture of WVC in Spain and provide the first assessment of the economic cost of this wildlife-human interaction (105 million € yearly).

A god becomes a pest? Human-rhesus macaque interactions in Himachal Pradesh, northern India

Abstract: Human-rhesus macaque conflict due to crop raiding is a major problem affecting northern India, particularly the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Management techniques are challenging both due to the commensal nature of the macaque as well as the culturally significant status of the species in India. Studies on wildlife crop raiding indicate that people’s reactions to crop raiding are strongly influenced by their attitudes towards the species involved and that insights into these perceptions are critical to work towards conflict-resolution measures. Hence, we investigated the attitudes and perceptions of farmers in Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh, towards the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and the impact of macaque crop raiding on their lives. We interviewed 54 farmer-families from five villages in Bilaspur and collected data on the extent of crop damage caused by wildlife species, farmers’ attitudes towards the rhesus macaque and conflict-mitigation strategies as suggested by the farmers. The results of our study indicate that farmers hold ambivalent attitudes towards the rhesus macaque and mixed opinions regarding its management.

Seasonal variations of wild boar Sus scrofa distribution in agricultural landscapes: a species distribution modelling approach

Abstract: Seasonal changes in the distribution of animals can have an important impact on the ecosystem. In agricultural landscapes, the seasonal movement of the wild boar Sus scrofa towards field crops often results in damages and makes control of the population difficult. The plasticity of the species to cope with different habitats is largely proven, but the environmental and human drivers of this seasonal habitat shift at the population scale remain largely unknown. Using MaxEnt and two seasonally distinct presence datasets, we contrasted the distribution of wild boar in southern Belgium during the growing and hunting seasons to (i) analyse seasonal drivers of the distribution and (ii) forecast the potential spread of the species north to its current distribution. We demonstrated that during the growing season, wild boar range almost double, owing to the cover and food provided by agricultural areas, thereby enhancing the movement and spread of the species. We found that the seasonal distribution of wild boar in agricultural lands is mostly influenced by the search for cover and food provided alternatively by forest and field crops. Interestingly, it seems that this search for cover operates under the constraint of a threshold distance. Our results indeed reveal an increased probability of presence not only in the vicinity of forests but also above a threshold distance of 865 m from the forest edge, suggesting that wild boar can overcome the dependence to forest cover. The forecast distribution of wild boar highlighted a potential increase of the current range into suitable habitat between 63 and 168 km2. To counteract the potential spread of the species into agricultural habitats and the consecutive damages, we insist on the need for the development of integrated management strategies, combining land use spatial configuration and wild boar spatial behaviour.

Home range and migration patterns of male red deer Cervus elaphus in Western Carpathians

Abstract: This study provides for the first time in the Carpathians analysis of spatial behaviour of 20 male red deer monitored during 2005–2013 using radio-telemetry. Two distinct spatial patterns were displayed in the same local population, i.e. residential and migratory. Residential annual home ranges were significantly smaller compared to migratory ones using both Minimum Convex Polygon and Kernel Home Range, due to periodic movement of migrants between distinct seasonal ranges. Residents remained in the same area throughout the year and showed a positive age effect on the home range size. While seasonal ranges of migrants were comparable in size, residents surprisingly expanded their space use in winter compared to other seasons. Fidelity to seasonal ranges over the years, especially winter, was striking and comparable in both migrants and residents with increasing tendency throughout the year (37–68 %). Vertical differences in home range altitudes were most obvious in migrants, although in both migrant types, significant descent was recorded during the winter. The longest horizontal movements were recorded in three young stags emigrating to neighbouring mountain ranges (30, 47 and 65 km). Because 45 % of the population seems to be migratory, the data support importance of large-scale hunting management established in Slovakia in 2009.

Non-invasive monitoring of the European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris Schreber, 1777): comparative analysis of three different monitoring techniques and evaluation of their integration

Abstract: The European wildcat is threatened by habitat fragmentation, illegal or incidental killings and hybridization with free-ranging domestic cats. Conservation projects should be based on a sound knowledge of the patterns of wildcat distribution, population size and dynamics. However, this information is scanty, mainly because of the species’ elusive behaviour. In this study, we tested the efficiency of a protocol that integrates the use of non-invasive genetic identifications and camera trapping for wildcat monitoring. The field work was carried out in the Foreste Casentinesi National Park, a protected area in the central Italian Apennines, where wildcat presence has been recently ascertained. DNA samples were extracted from scats collected during the survey and hair tufts trapped by valerian-treated sticks. Individual genotypes were identified using 10 autosomal microsatellites, mtDNA and Y chromosome markers. Additionally, we obtained 30-s long video clips from 20 camera trap stations associated to the hair traps. Our results confirmed the presence of wildcats in the study area. We identified six to nine wildcat individuals (respectively from non-invasive genetic sampling and camera trapping survey). Some of these showed anomalous coat colour patterns (one) or genetic signatures of hybridization (three). We further identified five domestic cats that were sharing parts of wildcats’ territories. We found individual variations in the response to valerian lure. We compared and evaluated the pros and cons of these monitoring methods. We concluded that, if used simultaneously, these methods may considerably increase the efficiency of wildcat detection and the quality of collected data.

Influence of human activities on the activity patterns of Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Central Japan

Abstract: Human ageing and population decline in Japan are causing agricultural field abandonment and providing new habitats for Japanese sika deer and wild boar. These species have expanded their distribution and increased in abundance across Japan and are causing increased agricultural damage. Effective countermeasures must factor in the behavioural flexibility of sika deer and wild boar. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of hunting and indirect human activities on the activity patterns of sika deer in central Japan and compare these with previous findings on wild boar. Camera traps were used to observe activity patterns of both species and that of humans. Sika deer and wild boar were most active at night during the non-hunting season. Hunting activities significantly reduced sika deer and wild boar activity patterns. In the non-hunting season, nocturnal activity of sika deer increased with decreasing distance to settlement. A similar, but weak response was also observed for wild boar. This study suggests that sika deer and wild boar avoid humans and human-dominated areas by being nocturnal. The recent introduction of night hunting might help to control wildlife populations, but monitoring will be necessary to confirm this expectation.

Beyond standard wildlife management: a pathway to encompass human dimension findings in wild boar management

Abstract: Around the Regional Nature Reserve Nazzano-Tevere-Farfa in Central Italy, wild boar ecological and economic impacts have increased over the last decade, creating the need for an integrated wildlife management approach. Since 2006, park authorities have used an average of 17 % of the yearly protected area budget for compensation and 5 % for preventive measures. Additionally, 14 wild boar/km2 were culled in 2009. While the management tools used in the protected area were effective in reducing the species’ impacts, they did not decrease human-wild boar controversies. To understand the reasons behind such conflicts, user opinions toward the wildlife management approaches used (i.e., preventive measures, compensation, capture, and removal) and planned (i.e., culls) in Nazzano-Tevere-Farfa were explored. Face-to-face interviews were carried out with the general public (n = 288), hunters (n = 57), and farmers (n = 107) in 2009–2010. Differences in attitudes toward preventive measures (χ 2 (8) = 40.35, p < .001), compensation (χ 2 (8) = 34.11, p < .001), capture and removal (χ 2 (8) = 98.23, p < .001), and culls (χ 2 (8) = 77.10, p < .001) were highlighted by Chi-square analysis. The Potential for Conflict Index showed that, overall, park users supported preventive measures and compensation, but not capture and removal and culls. Workshops organized with hunters and farmers in 2010 highlighted that park authorities had not considered user expectations when planning wild boar management. If decision makers want to address conflicts, they need to go beyond standard management by tailoring their practices to the specific social context in which they work. Effective management is not only about reducing impacts, it is also about listening to people living with wildlife.

Current and future effectiveness of Natura 2000 network in the central Alps for the conservation of mountain forest owl species in a warming climate

Abstract: Climate change is causing range shifts in many species, and impacts are predicted to be highest in mountain regions. The effectiveness of protected areas in preserving suitable habitats for target species in the face of climate change is particularly concerning, as many protected sites may lose suitable conditions for those species. We investigate the potential effect of temperature increase on the regional distribution of pygmy and boreal owl, mountain forest specialists in the Italian Alps, and the relative effectiveness of the Natura 2000 network at the regional level. We modelled current and future distributions by MaxEnt, relating occurrence to climate and land cover, considering current and future climates (changes predicted for 2050 considering representative concentration pathways of +4.5 and +8.5 W/m2). The distribution of both species is affected by climate variables and by the availability of coniferous forests, and of a few other habitat types (such as grassland, bare soil, broadleaved forest, mixed forest). The potential regional distribution of the two species will undergo a significant reduction, more marked for boreal owl (52–54 %) than for pygmy owl (23–34 %). Although Natura 2000 covers (and will cover also in the future) more than 30 % of suitable sites of both species, 64 % of the sites suitable for both species now and in the two alternative future scenarios are not included in any Site of Community Importance or Special Protection Areas (SPAs). Those sites are ideal candidate for new SPAs. Network enlargement or adequate forest management also outside protected areas is required for the conservation of those and other forest-specialist species in a warmer future.

Indirect effects of changes in environmental and agricultural policies on the diet of wolves

Abstract: Policies have the potential to affect human–wildlife coexistence. However, despite consequences being evident beforehand or emerging soon after their implementation, potential conflicts between policies and biodiversity conservation are not always easy to predict. Wolves feeding on anthropogenic food sources (AFS) usually fall into conflict with humans, mainly due to predation on livestock. But the availability of AFS can be influenced by different policies leading to diet shifts, which could trigger new conflicts or exacerbate existing ones. Here, we show a long-term shift in the diet of wolves in northwestern Iberia over the last three decades and discuss its potential connection to changes in sanitary, environmental, and socioeconomic policies. Wolves persisted for a long time due to the activity of humans with AFS accounting for >94 % of their diet. Our results suggest a connection between a diet shift in wolves and changes in policies, from a broad diet including more feedlot (pigs, chickens) and medium-sized (goats and dogs) species, mainly in the form of carrion, to a more narrow diet based primarily on large domestic ungulates (cattle and horses). We discuss the potential implications of the observed shift in the diet of wolves on human–wolf conflicts. We also call attention on the pressing need to integrate policies into biodiversity conservation to anticipate future conservation and management dilemmas.

It is raining mice and voles: which weather conditions influence the activity of Apodemus flavicollis and Myodes glareolus?

Abstract: Rodents constitute a crucial part of food chains in many ecosystems; thus, changes in their activity might influence many other species in the community. Moreover, daily variations in activity appear to be an important adaptation, helping rodents to cope with fluctuating intensity of predation pressure and food availability. We investigated how the nightly activity of the yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis) and the bank vole (Myodes glareolus) changes with weather conditions. Increased cloud cover enhanced activity of mice, but this effect tended to be weaker during the full moon. In turn, the activity of bank voles was positively influenced by moon phase regardless of cloud cover. Temperature had a negative effect on the activity of both species. Rainfall positively influenced A. flavicollis capture numbers, but tended to decrease the activity of M. glareolus. Therefore, while the activity of both mice and voles was under a strong influence of weather variables, their responses to weather were largely species specific.

Does regional landscape connectivity influence the location of roe deer roadkill hotspots

Abstract: Linear infrastructures have both direct and indirect effects on ecosystems. Wildlife-vehicle collisions are the most visible direct effect and can result in severe human injuries. In Europe, the roe deer population is growing and roe deer roadkills are becoming more common. Roe deer movements depend on landscape features and regional-scale connectivity. Here, we investigate the influence of the landscape network on the location of roe deer roadkill hotspots. In order to localize new potential hotspots along the national roads of Franche-Comte (Eastern France), we first show that roe deer roadkills are not distributed randomly and we identify hotspots. Then, we explain roe deer hotspot locations using a predictive model by combining landscape composition variables, road-related properties, and graph-based connectivity metrics. We test three centrality metrics at three dispersal distances and we assess the relative contribution of the connectivity metrics to the best model. Finally, in order to define high-risk sections, we find the probability that reduces the costs of misclassification that the model produces. We validate the model with a new set of roe deer roadkills.

Habitat use in ducks breeding in boreal freshwater wetlands: a review

Abstract: Breeding habitats strongly influence duck reproduction and survival. The boreal biome harbours a large share of the world’s wetlands, which are important breeding sites for several duck species. Based on 98 studies in the peer-reviewed literature, we here synthesize and evaluate which habitat characteristics affect habitat use and reproduction of ducks breeding in boreal freshwater wetlands with respect to (1) species and guild (dabbling, diving and piscivorous ducks) and (2) breeding cycle stage (settling by pairs, nesting and brood rearing). We consider the following aspects related to habitat: wetland morphology and spatial aggregation, water characteristics, habitat structure and vegetation, and biotic interactions. Most of the peer-reviewed studies of duck habitat use in boreal wetlands are from North America and Fennoscandia, while nearly half of the boreal area lacks such studies. Few species dominate research thus far while several others have not been studied at all. Nest site use and success are mainly related to predator avoidance. Food resources and habitat structure are the key characteristics affecting habitat use by duck pairs and broods as well as breeding success, although there are differences between duck guilds. Among the commonly studied variables, there is little evidence that water characteristics affect duck habitat use or survival. The most notable knowledge gaps are found in the effects of anthropogenic activities on habitat use and breeding success of ducks. Because boreal breeding environments are increasingly affected by human activities, we underline the need for future studies combining climate variation with natural and anthropogenic disturbances.

Habitat preferences of bats in anthropogenically altered, mosaic landscapes of northern Poland

Abstract: Few studies refer to the large-scale habitat preferences of bat assemblages in temperate mainland Europe. The study aimed at habitat associations of bats in the postglacial lakelands of northern Poland. Sixty-nine walking transects were divided into sections belonging to 36 habitat classes. Broadband ultrasound detectors were applied to record bat echolocation calls, identified to the species level by spectral analysis. Selection or avoidance of habitat categories was tested using Z statistic with a Bonferroni adjustment, and niche breadth was estimated by calculating Levin’s formula and niche overlap—Pianka index. All bats (except Eptesicus serotinus) selected water bodies. They avoided arable land, coniferous and mixed forests, their edges and suburbs. Nyctalus noctula was the most eurytopic species, using most habitats in proportion to their availability. E. serotinus selected villages and roads in coniferous forests. Narrower habitat niches were occupied by morphologically similar pipistrelles. Pipistrellus pipistrellus preferred tree lines, Pipistrellus nathusii avoided tree lines and villages, and Pipistrellus pygmaeus preferred roads in deciduous forests but avoided tree lines. The most stenotopic Myotis sp. avoided roads in mixed and coniferous forests, tree lines and built-up areas. Most species strongly overlapped in habitat niches, and thus, their resource partitioning was probably based on using different hunting tactics. P. pygmaeus, although considered a sibling species of P. pipistrellus, overlapped in habitat niche much more with P. nathusii. In the latter case, resource partitioning may result from larger differences in body size and frequency of echolocation calls. The importance of water bodies for bats was higher than in Western Europe, and importance of woodland was lower, presumably due to much higher limnicity. The results provide a base for region-specific landscape planning guidelines, applicable to bat conservation.

Opportunities and challenges with growing wildlife populations and zoonotic diseases in Sweden

Abstract: In many parts of Europe and North America, populations of large mammals and birds have recovered during recent decades In Sweden, this has resulted in more wildlife than was historically recorded This positive development provides a number of opportunities for ecosystem services and for biodiversity More wildlife also means more interactions with humans, as many birds and mammals may interfere with human interests in the landscape, such as natural resource use Thus, more wildlife may shift the baseline for societal perception of wildlife Wildlife species may host pathogens with potential for infecting humans and domestic animals With increasing knowledge about zoonotic diseases and their dynamics, more scientific, media, and public attention is given to zoonotic processes We are concerned with how the public image of the wild animals is affected, because many of the recent zoonotic outbreaks connect animal groups to diseases such as avian and swine influenza, lyme disease, and tick-borne encephalitis The societal focus on zoonotic diseases may increase the fear of the wild and will separate the public further from the outdoors in general and wildlife in particular Ultimately, we risk a juxtaposition of the overall acceptance of biological diversity and a shifting societal perception of wildlife that could be harmful for life on earth We therefore suggest multidisciplinary research on societal awareness of zoonotic diseases and its implications for public acceptance for wildlife and biological diversity

Response-ability in wolf–dog conflicts

Abstract: The conflict between wolves and dogs has been deemed as one of the most difficult specific issues in Finnish wolf policy. In this paper, we examine how this conflict materializes and discuss the role of anticipatory knowledge in enabling safe multispecies cohabitation. We have analyzed a dataset of 201 wolf–dog conflict narratives covering a time period of 26 years (1987–2013). This data consists of local newspaper articles, records from local wildlife management authorities, and e-mail correspondence from affected dog owners. Based on the analysis of this material, we conclude that preventing wolf caused damage on dogs calls for response-ability, defined as affective attuning to the presence of wolves. Such attuning allows humans to develop routines that enable them to anticipate wolf presence, for example by protecting and monitoring their dogs and by investing in effective social networking. The need to develop anticipatory knowledge and situated sensibility to the presence of the wolf necessarily leads to critical evaluation of the habits of keeping dogs. Hence, it also explains why there are no easy solutions to wolf–dog conflicts. To become attuned to the presence of wolves may sometimes require more than what humans are ready and willing to do. Thus, there seems to be affective thresholds for response-ability across the species. At the same time, however, some of the events could be avoided with fairly simple pragmatic solutions.

Temporal and age-related dietary variations in a large population of yellow-legged gulls Larus michahellis : implications for management and conservation

Abstract: There was an extraordinary increase in the numbers of European gulls during the twentieth century which has been linked to higher availability of food derived from human activities At Berlenga island (Portugal), the population of yellow-legged gulls Larus michahellis increased from 2600 individuals to a peak of 44,698 gulls (1974–1994), after which control measures have been put in place Despite the management effort, little is known about the feeding ecology of this population To investigate temporal and age-related variations in the diet of yellow-legged gulls at Berlenga, 1668 adult pellets and 145 chick regurgitates were collected and analysed between 2009 and 2012 Contradicting the generally accepted idea that these birds depend mainly on human-related food, adult gulls relied substantially on a locally abundant natural prey, the Henslow’s swimming crab Polybius henslowii Nevertheless, large amounts of refuse and fish were consumed in periods of apparent lower availability of swimming crabs Despite the large temporal shifts in diet and feeding areas (change from marine to terrestrial prey), adult gulls consistently provisioned their chicks with a fish-based diet and chick condition remained constant These results not only highlight the great resilience of this population to changes in food availability but also indicate that food from different human activities remain highly accessible With the implementation of recent EU legislation regarding the reduction of fishery discards, and the increase of urban populations in the mainland, the monitoring and appropriate management of gull populations will be decisive for the healthy conservation of coastal systems used by these gulls

Snow sinking depth and forest canopy drive winter resource selection more than supplemental feeding in an alpine population of roe deer

Abstract: In alpine environments, snow typically reduces the accessibility of herbivores to food during winter and may hamper survival in those species with poor adaptation to move in deep snow. Supplemental feeding systems compensate for food limitation, but modify resource distribution and potentially affect individual space use. We investigated the importance of snow cover and supplemental feeding in shaping winter habitat use and selection of the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), a small deer species not specifically adapted to snow. We applied a used/available experimental design to assess the effects of snow cover on roe deer distribution at a fine scale and compared this approach with remotely sensed satellite data, available at moderate spatial resolution (snow MODIS). Based on this, we developed a resource selection function. We found a strong selection for habitat spots covered by forest where snow sinking depth was less pronounced, likely providing thermal and hiding protection on the one side and minimising the effect of snow on locomotion on the other. Roe deer showed only a minor preference for sites in proximity to feeding stations, possibly compensating the costs of access to these sites by means of a ‘trail-making’ behaviour. Snow cover assessed by moderate resolution satellite was not proportional to roe deer probability of use, highlighting the importance of local information on snow quality and distribution to complement remotely sensed data.

Landscape of risk to roe deer imposed by lynx and different human hunting tactics

Abstract: Predator efficiency depends on how hunting tactics relate to habitat characteristics. Different tactics such as ambush, stalking, and pursuit may lead to spatially heterogeneous distributions of predation risk. Studying how such a landscape of risk looks in a multi-predator setting has become topical in light of the re-colonization of apex predators in areas with extensive human harvesting. The human hunter is likely to adapt hunting tactics to increase encounter rate and hunting success, but is also limited by time constraints, light conditions, legislation, tradition, and/or skills. The extent to which hunters vary tactics resulting in a spatial pattern of risk to ungulate prey has never been quantified. By comparing habitat characteristics between kill sites and sites used by GPS-marked roe deer, we quantified the landscape of risk as experienced by roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) exposed to predation by both Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and humans using different hunting tactics in southeastern Norway. Lynx killed roe deer in denser habitat than roe deer used on average, while humans killed most roe deer in open terrain. However, humans used multiple hunting tactics, and habitat characteristics varied predictably between drive hunts conducted with rifle versus shotgun, and between stalking versus “sit and wait” hunts with a rifle. Vegetation density was higher where roe deer were shot during drive hunts with a shotgun and during stalking than when shot during drive hunting with a rifle or during “sit and wait” hunts. Shooting distance was shortest for drive hunts with a shotgun, similar for drive hunts with a rifle and stalking, and considerably longer during “sit and wait” hunting. Managers therefore have the possibility to create different risk landscapes by restricting types of weapons and types of hunting tactic allowed, also in combination with the duration of the hunting season.

Unimodal activity pattern in forest-dwelling chamois : typical behaviour or interspecific avoidance?

Abstract: Daily activity rhythms in mammals are influenced by a range of biotic and abiotic factors. During warm periods, mountain ungulates living in open areas typically show a bimodal pattern of activity rhythms, with peaks at dawn and dusk. To date, however, little is known about the activity patterns of mountain ungulates living in forested habitats and in areas where large predators are present. Using camera traps over a 6-month period between May and October of 2012, we investigated the activity pattern of a chamois population dwelling in the forests of the northern Mount Velebit region (Croatia) and its overlap with the activity patterns of potential predators (brown bear, grey wolf) and competitors (wild boar). Chamois showed a peak of activity between 5:00 a.m. and 7:00 a.m., when 65 % of individuals were photographed. Contrary to previous literature on chamois, we found evidence for a unimodal pattern of activity with a peak in the early morning hours: At a seasonal level, this pattern remained fairly consistent, though the activity at dusk increased in the warmest months. The main peak of activity occurred during periods of decreased activity of potential predators and competitors, and chamois exhibited the least tolerance for overlap with grey wolf. Further studies are needed to clarify whether this pattern is typical of forest-dwelling populations or if it reflects a temporal niche shift, possibly as a strategy to avoid predators.

Elephant-mediated habitat modifications and changes in herbivore species assemblages in Sabi Sand, South Africa

Abstract: Elephant Loxodonta africana conservation might indirectly influence the wider herbivore community structure, as elephants have the ability to significantly modify the savanna habitat. Uncertainty remains as to the consequences of these effects, as elephants might either compete with other species or facilitate foraging especially for grazers and smaller browsing species by increasing the amount of grass or the amount of browse at lower feeding heights. We studied these potential cascading effects of elephants by using 16 years of data (1992–2011) from the Sabi Sand Wildtuin, South Africa, which showed a steady increase in elephant densities from 0.12 to 2.03 elephants/km2 over this period. We demonstrate that tree densities, and browse availability at feeding heights below 2 m, decreased with increasing elephant densities, and that there was no positive effect of elephants on browse availability. The changes in elephant densities were good predictors (R 2 adj > 0.50) in explaining population fluctuations of other herbivore species. The total body mass of grazers increased more than that of the browsers, shifting the community toward a grazer and megaherbivore-dominated community. An increasing density of elephants changes the composition of the herbivore community, as mesobrowsers are unable to benefit from the impact of elephants on trees, but megagrazers show strong positive responses. Hence, changes in elephant densities as a result of poaching or conservation may trigger cascading community effects. These are neglected but important consequences of (negative or positive) human impacts on elephant numbers, especially in restricted areas such as reserves and national parks.

What has molecular epidemiology ever done for wildlife disease research? Past contributions and future directions

Abstract: The increasing availability of novel molecular techniques has transformed the study of human health and disease epidemiology. However, uptake of such approaches has been more conservative in the field of wildlife disease epidemiology. We consider the reasons for this and discuss current and potential applications of molecular techniques in a variety of relevant areas within the field of wildlife disease research. These include conducting wildlife disease surveillance, identifying sources of pathogen emergence, uncovering host-pathogen dynamics and managing current outbreaks, including the development and monitoring of wildlife vaccines. We highlight key examples of applications of molecular epidemiological approaches to wildlife disease scenarios and draw parallels from human disease research to suggest potential future directions. The potential value of next generation sequencing technologies to the field of wildlife disease research is discussed, and initial applications are highlighted, balanced against consideration of the challenges involved. Using a wide range of examples drawn from research into human, livestock and wildlife diseases, we demonstrate the value of using molecular epidemiological approaches at all scales of wildlife disease research, from pathogen strains circulating at a global scale to intra-individual host-pathogen dynamics. The potential future contribution of these technologies to the field of wildlife disease epidemiology is substantial. In particular, they are likely to play an increasingly important role in helping us to address a principal challenge in the management of wildlife diseases which is how to tease apart the transmission dynamics of complex multi-host systems in order to develop effective and sustainable interventions.

Semen characteristics of the Indian Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus murghi)

Abstract: The Indian Red Jungle Fowl is a wild native gallus subspecies of Southern Asia. Semen has never been studied in this species. In order to better know the male reproductive capacities, experiments were conducted to study the semen characteristics, impact of ejaculate collection frequencies, and timing of collection on sperm quality parameters. Mean sperm concentration 800 million/mL, total sperm per ejaculate (0.015 billion), motility (63.5 %), live/total sperm (92.4 %), intact acrosome (75.5 %), and plasma membrane integrity (89.2 %) were recorded. Percentage of abnormal sperm (head, mid-piece, and tail) was 8.1 % and recovered mainly mid-piece abnormalities. The motile sperm percentage was positively correlated with intact acrosomes (r = 0.34) and plasma membrane integrity (r = 0.41). Total sperm per ejaculate (billion) was maximum at 72 h of collection followed by 24 and 48 h of collection. Daily and weekly sperm production (billion) was found maximum at 24 h of collection compared to 12, 48, and 72 h of collection. Sperm motility was higher at 24, 48, and 72 h of collection compared to 12 h of collection, but the number of live sperm were higher at 12 h of collection compared to 24, 48, and 72 h. Sperm concentration was better in the morning time, while the values for sperm viability and plasma membrane integrity were higher in the semen collected at evening time. In conclusion, the Indian Red Jungle Fowl shows a semen production quantitatively relatively low for the species as compared to domestic chicken and contrasted parameters of quality. The semen production is affected by the frequency of collection with an optimum for a daily collection preferentially held in the evening period. These results may now be used for artificial insemination and conservation program.

Impacts and management of common buzzards Buteo buteo at pheasant Phasianus colchicus release pens in the UK: a review

Abstract: In the UK, alongside an expanding common buzzard population, there is increasing concern of raptor predation at pheasant release pens. Historically, losses of poults to raptor predation has been low, commonly (90 % of shoots) ≤1 % of birds released into pens, representing a small percentage of losses relative to all causes of mortality. A small number of shoots did suffer higher losses, estimated at >5 % at one in 30 estates and >10 % at some estates. Predation was lower (i) with increased poult age at release, (ii) in later releases, (iii) in pens with good vegetative cover, (iv) in pens within woods <50 acres and (v) in releases of <500 birds; there were also indications that predation was greater in high-density releases. Studies found no evidence for indirect losses (i.e. non-predation impacts of raptor activity, e.g. panic-induced smothering events). Mitigation measures include the following: (i) sufficient vegetative cover (supplemented if necessary, e.g. brash piles), (ii) minimise perching opportunities for raptors, (iii) stock older poults, (iv) stock at recommended densities, (v) reflective tape and scaring devices and (vi) diversionary feeding. Significant gaps in knowledge were identified, including (i) predation being incompletely evaluated in the context of contemporary buzzard populations, (ii) indirect effects not adequately studied, (iii) occurrence of ‘problem’ individual buzzards is unclear, (iv) adequate field trials of mitigation measures are lacking and (v) level of gamekeepers’ adherence to industry recommendations not known. Contemporary studies of these issues are necessary to understand the impacts and to inform management of buzzards at pheasant release pens.

Serosurvey of canine distemper virus and canine parvovirus in wild canids and domestic dogs at the rural interface in the Coquimbo Region, Chile

Abstract: Our goal was to investigate demographic and ecological factors influencing canine distemper virus (CDV) and canine parvovirus (CPV) infection in domestic dogs to wild canids (foxes) in rural areas of the Coquimbo Region, Chile. Cross-sectional dog and fox serological sampling was conducted in seven rural sites from 2005 to 2006. Additionally, the relative abundance of each fox species was determined using a scent-station method. Overall, 249 dog-owning households were interviewed across the seven sites, and blood samples collected and analysed from a total of 267 domestic dogs and 33 wild foxes. CDV seroprevalences were similar in dogs (51 %) and foxes (42 %), whilst dogs had a higher CPV seroprevalence than foxes (77 and 49 %, respectively). Foxes were more abundant in the lowlands in areas where CDV prevalence was highest in domestic dogs. We hypothesise that cross-species transmission of CDV is likely to be occurring most frequently in lowland areas, and that wildlife in these areas may be at risk from spillover transmission from domestic dogs.

Transmission of Mycobacterium caprae in a herd of European bison in the Bieszczady Mountains, Southern Poland

Abstract: Poland is officially free of animal tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis and closely related members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, including Mycobacterium caprae. Sporadic cases of infection have been reported in cattle, but also in free-ranging species such as European bison (Bison bonasus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), and Eurasian badger (Meles meles). This paper presents the history and recent findings regarding the incidence of tuberculosis in a free-living European bison herd and the possibility of interspecific transmission of the agent to other wildlife. The spoligotyping method indicated that the isolated strains belong to M. caprae showing spoligo pattern 2000037777377400. The results of these and earlier studies suggest that this M. caprae strain could be transferred from bison to wild boar.

Diversity of species and antibiotic resistance among fecal enterococci from wild birds in Tunisia. Detection of vanA-containing Enterococcus faecium isolates

Abstract: Avifauna could be vectors of resistant bacteria including enterococci, but scarce information does exist about prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria on bird populations, especially in the African Continent. Fecal samples of 111 birds (66 residents, 45 migratory) were taken in Tunisia in 2012. They were inoculated in Slanetz-Bartley agar supplemented or not with 8 μg/mL vancomycin (SB-Van and SB plates, respectively) for enterococci and vancomycin-resistant-enterococci (VRE) recovery. Enterococci were recovered in SB-plates in 73 of 111 samples (65.8 %) and one enterococci/positive sample was further studied: 60 Enterococcus faecium, 6 Enterococcus faecalis, 3 Enterococcus casseliflavus, 3 Enterococcus gallinarum, and 1 Enterococcus durans. Percentages of antimicrobial resistance identified were as follows: erythromycin (53.4 %), ciprofloxacin (41.1 %), tetracycline (19.2 %), pristanamycin (17.8 %), kanamycin, gentamicin or streptomycin (6.8–16.4 %), and ampicillin (0 %). Most of erythromycin-resistant and tetracycline-resistant enterococci carried the erm(B) and tet(M)+/−tet(L) genes, respectively. Most of high-level gentamicin or kanamycin resistant isolates carried the aac(6’)-Ie-aph(2”)-Ia or aph(3’)-IIIa genes, respectively, and 40 % of high-level streptomycin-resistant isolates the ant(6)-Ia gene. The vat(D) gene was detected in 46 % of pristinamycin-resistant enterococci and the cat(A) gene in 40 % of chloramphenicol-resistant enterococci. The gel(E), ace, or hyl genes were detected in 8–12 % of enterococci. VRE was detected in four of the birds, when SB-Van plates were used. These isolates were identified as E. faecium and carried the vanA gene, as well as the erm(B), tetM, aph (3’)-IIIa, and vatD genes, but not the hyl and esp virulence genes. Wild birds are occasional carriers of vanA-containing enterococci that could have implications in public health.

Mitigating impacts of roads on wildlife: an agenda for the conservation of priority European protected species in Great Britain

Abstract: Global increases in road networks have been matched by traffic flows and are implicated in declines of many sensitive species. Impacts on wildlife by linear development features such as roads include mortality due to vehicle collisions and secondary effects such as preventing traditional movements or severing links between populations. European legislation requires development activities to have ‘no detriment’ to the favourable conservation status of European protected species (EPS), including great crested newts (Triturus cristatus), hazel dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius) and bats (Chiroptera). To protect these and other species, various mitigation measures are available. Within this review, we sought to identify best practice guidance for preventing and mitigating these impacts for EPS in Great Britain, evaluate the evidence underpinning these best practices and identity knowledge gaps that may impede progress in improving practices. Many current practices appear to be implemented at considerable cost despite limited evidence of their effectiveness. This is probably partly due to inadequate definition of effectiveness, which has most frequently been assessed as a reduction in absolute road mortality or increased frequency of safe road crossings. However, challenges in measuring benefits more appropriately, at spatial and temporal scales that are appropriate for population maintenance, may also have contributed. Evidence of the cost-effectiveness of mitigation works could underpin justification for the substantial investment required to implement many of the mitigation methods reviewed, could avoid the potentially wasteful use of ineffective methods and could better safeguard the conservation status of impacted EPS at local and national scales.

Seasonal dietary shifts and food resource exploitation by the hog badger (Arctonyx collaris) in a Chinese subtropical forest

Abstract: Spatial and temporal fluctuations in the availability of food resources can affect adaptive foraging strategies substantially, with the potential to promote temporal dietary switching and specialisation among generalist carnivores. To understand this relationship better at the causal level, we examined spatial and temporal variation in diet composition and diversity in the hitherto little-known hog badger (Arctonyx collaris), in comparison to the environmental abundance of principal food resources, in a subtropical forest of central China. Here, hog badgers fed predominantly on earthworms and fruits, complemented with arthropod imagoes and invertebrate larvae, whereas vertebrate prey categories (mammals, birds and reptiles) were consumed infrequently. We observed strong seasonal variation in the consumption of different food categories. Earthworms predominated during spring, fruits in autumn, and earthworms, complemented by arthropods, in summer, with hog badgers apparently hibernating in winter. Fluctuation in dietary preferences between seasons and habitats correlated only partially with environmental food abundance; in autumn, when fruit abundance peaked, and despite a concomitant peak in earthworm abundance, hog badgers exhibited a dietary shift, indicating a preference for fruit, over earthworms. This resulted in autumnal minima in seasonal food niche breadth and evenness values. We conclude that, in this region, hog badgers exhibited a generalist diet but switched between food categories in response to changes in environmental seasonal abundance.

Lead exposure and food processing in white-tailed eagles and other scavengers: an experimental approach to simulate lead uptake at shot mammalian carcasses

Abstract: A serious hazard for avian scavengers is lead poisoning caused by feeding on shot mammalian carcasses containing fragments of lead-based bullets. Both obligate and facultative scavenging species are affected, such as the white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla for which lead intoxication is a major source of mortality. However, the exploitation of hunter-killed carrion by facultative avian scavenger communities is little studied. As bullet fragments recovered from the intestinal tract of white-tailed eagles were generally small and did not represent the full spectrum of available bullet fragment sizes, the hypothesis arose that this is the result of selective food processing in that eagles avoid the intake of large metal particles. Here, we used an experimental approach to identify lead-exposed species and explore the food processing of white-tailed eagles and other scavengers. We conducted feeding experiments with free-ranging scavengers in six eagle home ranges in northeastern Germany and with six eagles temporarily held in captivity. We provided ungulate carcasses containing non-toxic iron particles of different diameters, simulating bullet fragments, as food source. Primarily, avian scavengers such as ravens, eagles and buzzards exploited the carcasses, indicating them to be exposed to lead fragments and poisoning. With increasing diameter of experimental particles, free-ranging scavengers and captive eagles increased the percentage of particles avoided during feeding. Scavengers almost completely avoided fragments of 8.8 mm diameter. Behavioural observations of captive eagles showed that they detected iron particles predominantly by touching the experimental carcass with their bill tip, suggesting that they use mechanoreceptors to judge food quality. Our findings indicate that the use of bullets that deform or fragment into particles greater than 9 mm in size, such as numerous lead-free bullets, may prevent metal ingestion and poisoning in avian scavengers.