Showing papers in "European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research in 2000"
TL;DR: In this article, two features of the theme police and the public are discussed: public opinion of the police and how the police deal with the public, and the way in which the public police service has evolved in the last half-century.
Abstract: In this article two features of the theme police and the public are discussed. The first part deals with the public opinion of the police and how the police deal with the public. This is a well-documented issue, but only very generally related to 'policing'. The problem of dealing with the public arises in very similar terms in all administrations, public services and community services. The qualities expected of a 'front office' (speed, competence, confidentiality, etc.) are not peculiar to the police. On the other hand, the situation of a public policing service as an urban police force is currently very specific, has an unusual, virtually undocumented historical background and is therefore worth dealing with in much greater detail. This is done in the second part of the article. To grasp this role, one needs to consider the way in which the public police service has evolved in the last half-century. Admittedly, the situation in France has certain special features, but these are simply magnified versions of things which exist elsewhere. It may be true that the institutional background has precipitated developments in France, but that same background is present in all comparable countries.
356 citations
TL;DR: A comparative review of the experience in four societies - USA, Great Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands - provides clear indicators about reform, control and leadership in fostering integrity and in tackling corruption as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: This article has two themes. Firstly, that police corruption is not an individual aberration of an incidental nature that can be readily combated with temporary, repressive measures. The 'new realism' on this maintains that corruption and police misconduct are persistent and constantly recurring hazards generated by the organisation itself. Secondly, there is consensus on effective measures to tackle it and to promote integrity. Ingredients are strong leadership, a multi-faceted organisational strategy, a well-resourced internal affairs unit, proactive techniques of investigation, and persistent efforts to promote professional standards. The essence is a judicious and sophisticated balance between negative and positive social control. Policing is about the rule of law and due process: corruption and other forms of police deviance undermine the legitimacy of the police organisation and by implication the state. A 'clean' police is a crucial barometer of a healthy society. One can have few illusions about the difficulty of achieving this but a comparative review of the experience in four societies - USA, Great Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands - provides clear indicators about reform, control and leadership in fostering integrity and in tackling corruption.
213 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that such assertions misrepresent the very substantial coercive power of private police as well as the variety of mechanisms through which they may be held accountable, and also commonly exaggerate the effective accountability of the public police.
Abstract: Substantial growth in private policing has been documented in countries throughout the world, and the division of responsibilities for policing between public and private authorities has become increasingly blurred and contested during the last three decades. Because private policing is so frequently assessed on the basis of criteria established with respect to the public police, substantial myths have developed about the powers and accountability of private police; specifically, it is commonly asserted that private police have no significant power(s), and are essentially not accountable, in comparison with the public police. The author argues that such assertions misrepresent the very substantial coercive power of private police as well as the variety of mechanisms through which they may be held accountable, and also commonly exaggerate the effective accountability of the public police. The author concludes that a greater appreciation of the actual power and accountability of private police will provide an improved basis for the development of sound public policy with respect to both private and public policing, and with respect to appropriate relationships between private and public policing organisations.
179 citations
TL;DR: A sociological diagnosis of football hooliganism as a world phenomenon is given in this paper, where the authors use mainly English (newspaper) data about football violence (in and outside England) as an empirical base to explore how hooligans can be theorised and understood.
Abstract: In this article a sociological diagnosis of football hooliganism as a world phenomenon is given. The author uses mainly English (newspaper) data about football violence (in and outside England) as an empirical base to explore how hooliganism can be theorised and understood. These data can usefully serve as a rough indication of the worldwide incidence of football hooliganism in the twentieth century. The author favours the figurational/process-sociological approach to football hooliganism which is historical and developmental. It also involves an exploration of the meanings of hooligan behaviour via an analysis of verbatim statements by the hooligans themselves, locates the football hooligans in the overall social structure, especially the class system, and examines the dynamics of the relationship between them and groups in the wider society. It is important, nevertheless, to stress that it is unlikely that the phenomenon of football hooliganism will be found always and everywhere to stem from identical social roots. As a basis for further, cross-national research, it is reasonable to hypothesise that the problem is fuelled and contoured by, among other things, what one might call the major 'fault-lines' of particular countries. Effective policies are urgently needed if the great social invention of football is to be protected from the serious threat posed by a combination of hooligan fans, complacent politicians and money-grabbing owners, managers and players.
153 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a combination of rational choice theory, strain theory and social control theory is used for the analysis of trafficking in women from Central and Eastern Europe, where contextual factors, the characteristics, and the motivation of trafficked women are explored.
Abstract: This study on trafficking in women from Central and Eastern Europe explores the contextual factors, the characteristics, and the motivation of victims as well as the methods of traffickers. A combination of rational choice theory, strain theory and social control theory forms the theoretical framework of our research. Based on information from experts in the field, interviews with victims, questionnaires, a study of dossiers and a search of the literature, we developed a typology of victims, which may be helpful for prevention and law enforcement.
73 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used Swedish rape statistics as a focus, and empirically described the way in which different factors affect official crime statistics produced at the national level, including statistical, legal and substansive factors.
Abstract: Using Swedish rape statistics as a focus, this article aims to empirically describe the way in which different factors affect official crime statistics produced at the national level. It is argued that cross-national comparisons of crime levels are extremely hazardous when based on official crime statistics, since the construction rules vary widely. International comparisons of crime levels should as a rule be confined to findings of international victim surveys. The example of rape statistics in Sweden - about three times higher when compared to other countries in the European Sourcebook - is used to explain what factors can influence statistics. Statistical, legal and substansive factors are to be taken into account. The author shows that changes in statistical routines, the legal definition of rape and changes over time all influence the statistics in a substansive way. This article indicates the great extent to which crime statistics are a construct, whose appearance is very sensitive to the rules applied in the process of construction. In order to employ statistics appropriately, a thorough knowledge of the principles guiding this process is therefore essential.
62 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe a particular form of football hooliganism, namely the behaviour displayed by particular groups of young fans -in Italy the so-called ultras - consisting of acts of vandalism and systematic aggression to the detriment of similar opposing groups both within and, above all, outside the stadiums.
Abstract: The authors describe a particular form of football hooliganism, namely the behaviour displayed by particular groups of young fans - in Italy the so-called ultras - consisting of acts of vandalism and systematic aggression to the detriment of similar opposing groups both within and, above all, outside the stadiums. The development over the last decade is outlined and the authors try to explain the current situation and the most recent changes. They show that, in spite of the diminishing number of incidents in the last years, this violence is changing appearance: on the one hand, it turns against the police; on the other hand it declines into pure vandalism and juvenile deviance. An important moment was the crisis caused by the death of an ultras in 1995, which marked a turning point between the 'old way' of the ultras and the new developments. A brief comparison is made with the English situation, both on the appearance of hooliganism as well as on the preventive policies, the police and the legislation on acts of hooliganism and sports violence.
43 citations
TL;DR: In the Council of Europe's European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics, crime and other relevant data are assembled for 36 European countries and the years 1990 to 1996 The data show that crime trends differed from those in the United States Particularly drug and violent offences continued to increase until the end of the period under consideration as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In the Council of Europe's European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics, crime and other relevant data are assembled for 36 European countries and the years 1990 to 1996 The data show that crime trends differed from those in the United States Particularly drug and violent offences continued to increase until the end of the period under consideration (1996) Most of the theoretical explanations of crime trends currently in vogue in the United States seem of little help in understanding current European trends Generally the most valid approaches seem to be routine-activities and situational explanations
40 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the issue of spectator violence from a North American perspective and concluded that it has less to do with criminal justice policies or practices, than the social context surrounding the'spectatorship' of sports in North America.
Abstract: Spectator violence has long been associated with professional football in Europe. This article examines the issue of spectator violence from a North American perspective. We begin by noting that there is little systematic research into the scope of spectator disorder in North America. Perhaps for this reason there is little consensus about the true scale of the problem on this side of the Atlantic. It does seem clear at least that there is less spectator violence associated with professional sports in North America. After reviewing a number of explanations for this finding, we conclude that it has less to do with criminal justice policies or practices, than the social context surrounding the 'spectatorship' of sports in North America. Perhaps the most important explanation for the variance in crowd behaviour concerns the demographic profiles of sports spectators in European football and North American sports.
38 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors tried to answer the question: "What influences the prisoner rate most? The number of entries into prison, the length of sentences, or the crime rate?"
Abstract: On the basis of the data contained in the European Sourcebook, this article tries to answer the question: 'What influences the prisoner rate most? The number of entries into prison, the length of sentences, or the crime rate?' The authors show that the crime rate is absolutely not correlated with the prisoner rate. The latter depends principally on the length of the imposed custodial sanctions and secondly on the number of those imposed prison sentences. Nevertheless, there are some indications suggesting that these results could be different from one type of offence to another. Unfortunately, this hypothesis could not be tested on the basis of the European Sourcebook data.
32 citations
TL;DR: The European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice as mentioned in this paper provides comparative data on 36 Member States of the Council of Europe on a variety of subjects (offences and offenders known to the police; prosecution, convictions, sentences, and corrections; survey data; and indications on manpower and budgets of police forces, prosecutors and corrections).
Abstract: Theories which suggest a relationship between crime or criminal justice variables on the one hand, and variables related to criminal justice policies on the other hand, cannot be tested without reference to historic or comparative data. Since international comparisons offer the most powerful test of such theories, policy-related research in Europe has suffered, so far, from a lack of valid comparative data. Whether crime data from different countries are comparable, has always been subject to controversies. In the case of the European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice, a network of specialists was established under the auspices of the Council of Europe in order to assess the validity of the data. Although some problems in cross-country level comparisons could not be settled, the European Sourcebook offers comparative data on 36 Member States of the Council of Europe on a variety of subjects (offences and offenders known to the police; prosecution, convictions, sentences, and corrections; survey data; and indications on manpower and budgets of police forces, prosecutors, and corrections).
TL;DR: The main part of the article as mentioned in this paper reviews developments in this field, beginning with the main international measure: the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and then goes on to review the 1996 First World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation (the ‘Stockholm Congress’).
Abstract: This article begins by noting the huge amount of attention that is now being paid at almost every level – international, European, national and by independent organisations and NGOs – to the growing problem of international child sexual exploitation and considers why this is the case. It then comments briefly on what we mean by ‘international sexual exploitation’, noting that different definitions are used. The main part of the article reviews developments in this field, beginning with the main international measure: the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and then goes on to review the 1996 First World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation (the ‘Stockholm Congress’). After that some key measures subsequently adopted at international and national level, as well as by the European Union (which is increasingly taking international child sexual exploitation within its remit) are outlined. Lastly, some final thoughts are set out in the conclusion.
TL;DR: The most significant policy trend at present concerning sex offences focuses on government controls after release as discussed by the authors, and the United States and Europe are both focused on ways to increase public protection from sex offenders, particularly in ways outside the context of criminal law.
Abstract: This article contrasts US and European social policies with regard to sexual offending. The three waves of social policy which are discernible in the United States' history (sexual psychopath laws, the focus on the domestic sex crimes under the influence of feminism, and a renewed attention towards sexual predators) are first described. The most significant policy trend at present concerning sex offences focuses on government controls after release. The broad overview of European countries' solutions to the same problems, concentrates on the contrasts and similarities between Europe and the United States. At present, the United States and parts of Europe are both focused on ways to increase public protection from sex offenders, particularly in ways outside the context of the criminal law. The harm caused by sex offences, in combination with the persistent nature of some patterns of sex offending, has caused citizens and governments to push for specialised remedies and powers.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors look at the availability of data on convictions and on sanctions and measures in European countries, on the basis of the European Sourcebook data, emphasizing the limitations in the use that can currently be made of this data, although it has a wide potential in helping to understand criminal justice policy.
Abstract: This article looks at the availability of data on convictions and on sanctions and measures in European countries, on the basis of the European Sourcebook data. It emphasises the limitations in the use that can currently be made of this data, although it has a wide potential in helping to understand criminal justice policy. The differences are, for instance, to be found in offence definitions, statistical rules, and political changes. Moreover the data collection for the Sourcebook on the four categories of sanctions/measures (fines, non-custodial sentences, suspended custodial sentences and unsuspended custodial sentences) was sometimes difficult. Attention is paid to the information collected, the comparability and, as an illustration, to three specific offences (completed homicide, rape and all thefts). The conclusion is that wide differences exist in the level of convictions found and the use of sanctions by the courts. Such differences will reflect both different levels of criminality, diversion away from the courts but also different recording practices. However, even with these caveats what is available does provide a useful starting point in identifying countries on which further research may be carried out.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors demonstrate what can be learned from statistics and other qualitative information in order to assess hooliganism: the number of hardcore elements, their size, their maximum capacity for mobilisation, the age groups involved, the degree of activism, the number and characteristics of the incidents involved, links with political crime and/or extremism, relationships and or rivalries with other hardcore elements.
Abstract: In Belgium the most important football matches are statistically recorded. Therefore this case is presented to demonstrate what can be learnt from statistics and other qualitative information in order to assess hooliganism: the number of hardcore elements, their size, their maximum capacity for mobilisation, the age groups involved, the degree of activism, the number and characteristics of the incidents involved, links with political crime and/or extremism, relationships and/or rivalries with other hardcore elements, the size of the police resources deployed in order to tackle them, and the impact of certain measures in the fight against hooliganism. A number of the characteristics of the phenomenon of hooliganism (renewal, adaptation and international relationships, in particular) mean that one has to go beyond the pure and simple canvas of a questionnaire with a statistical vocation. It is for this reason that the statistical information in Belgium has, from the very start (the 1991-1992 season) been backed up by telephone interviews with special witnesses from various Belgian hardcore elements.
TL;DR: Despite recent legislative change and increased criminal penalties for counterfeiters, enforcement is haphazard, resource problems often dictate that no criminal prosecution is undertaken, and actual penalties remain low as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Product counterfeiting has grown in scope, scale and complexity in the last two decades, and now affects many areas of manufacturing and retailing from clothes and CDs to items such as shampoo and vehicle components. Based on a wide range of interviews in the UK, this article argues that despite recent legislative change and increased criminal penalties for counterfeiters, enforcement is haphazard, resource problems often dictate that no criminal prosecution is undertaken, and actual penalties remain low. Moreover, questions of whether or not a particular item is counterfeit have become greatly complicated by the development of outsourcing and the rise of parallel trading. These points suggest that counterfeiting is likely to grow in the future.
TL;DR: In recent years, the focus has shifted from combating "immorality" to the protection of vulnerable parties as discussed by the authors, with the focus shifting from combating 'immoral' to 'protecting' vulnerable parties.
Abstract: Sexual abuse of children and minors is, nowadays, regularly highlighted in the media. As such, it became an offence, however, only during the nineteenth century, along with the development of a particular, child-like social role of juveniles. Before 1800, adolescents were less excluded from adult life including marriage and procreation. Sexual activities were also generally criminalised outside marriage. Statutes concerning child abuse had their origins in these laws, as well as in statutes extending the scope of rape to the abuse of immature girls. Along with the increase of the age of consent from 10–12 to approximately 16 in most countries, abuse of boys and sexual contacts other than intercourse have been included in these statutes. This movement, sometimes supported by moral crusades against ‘immorality’, occurred in most Western countries along with the extension of the school system, and with the acceptance of the view that adolescence should, as a distinct period of life, be devoted to the preparation for adult life. In recent years, the focus has shifted from combating ‘immorality’ to the protection of vulnerable parties. Sexual contacts between juveniles have been gradually decriminalised, whereas recent moral crusades call for more tougher prosecution policies, bringing to the courts a higher proportion of cases, including those involving acts committed abroad and/or in the remote past.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyse the differences between the prosecution systems within Europe and show the differences as well as the common features of the prosecution services of the Council of Europe Member States.
Abstract: Chapter 2 of the European Sourcebook attempts to show the differences as well as the common features of the prosecution services of the Council of Europe Member States. In order to do so the following five categories of statistics were collected: the total number of cases the prosecuting authority recorded as having been dealt with within a particular year; the number of cases brought before a court; the number of cases dropped; the number of cases dropped conditionally; the number of cases ended by the imposition of a sanction. The prosecution statistics of the European countries studied vary because of differences in the input structures. They are also affected by variations in output structures. These are determined by the powers that the prosecution authorities themselves possess. These variations between the prosecution systems within Europe cause significant differences in the resulting statistics and must be borne in mind when analysing the European Sourcebook data.
TL;DR: In the UK, a great variety of behaviours are covered by sex crime, from the grave to the trivial as mentioned in this paper, from the traditional offences of predatory aggressors, violent rapists and a small number of dangerous offenders driven by pathological emotions.
Abstract: Public concern about an escalation of sex crime is unsupported by a critical analysis of official crime statistics in England and Wales. Assumptions about the inveterate recidivism of sex offenders are unconfirmed by follow-up studies. A great variety of behaviours is covered by sex crime, from the grave to the trivial. To the traditional offences of predatory aggressors, violent rapists and a small number of dangerous offenders driven by pathological emotions, are now added date rapes and harassments previously little reported. All sex incidents involving children are widely believed to cause lasting damage, despite evidence to the contrary. Female offenders and boy victims are receiving more attention. Adolescent involvement is insufficiently distinguished from paedophile offences and male homosexuals are suspected of paedophile tendencies. The development of constructive therapeutic approaches is impeded by doubts about efficacy and a punitive ethos.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine what happens to the police when a country is in transition towards a more democratic organisation, and they use Hungary as the main example, but also provide information about other Eastern European countries.
Abstract: The authors examine what happens to the police when a country is in transition towards a more democratic organisation. They use Hungary as the main example, but also provide information about other Eastern European countries. First they elaborate on the case of continuity - discontinuity. Transition is not a result of one moment, it is more appropriate to talk about the erosion of previous values and patterns having taken place for years or even decades instead of their sudden change. There is, however, an indisputable influence of politics on the police. In the course of the change of regime, not only the police but also all the institutions that previously served (in varying degrees) the institutionalised control of criminality, came to a crisis point and their existence and functions became questionable. The authors deal with the vacuum of legitimacy, and possible answers, such as auditing of the police, democratisation and several ways to establish accountability. Finally, a model of the democratic organisation of the police (demilitarised, decentralised and de-concentrated) is sketched.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: The European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics as mentioned in this paper is a tool for assessing crime and policy issues in Comparative and Empirical Perspective, which is used by the authors of this paper.
Abstract: ARTICLES: 1. Editorial 2. Martin Killias and Wolfgang Rau - The European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics: A New Tool in Assessing Crime and Policy Issues in Comparative and Empirical Perspective 3. Gordon C. Barclay - The comparability of data on convictions and sanctions: are international comparisons possible? 4. Jorg-Martin Jehle - Prosecution in Europe: Varying structures, convergent trends 5. Martin Killias and Marcelo F. Aebi - Crime Trends in Europe from 1990 to 1996: How Europe Illustrates the Limits of the American Experience 6. Marcelo F. Aebi and Andre Kuhn - Influences on the prisoner rate: Number of entries into prison, length of sentences and crime rate 7. Hanns von Hofer - Crime statistics as constructs: the case of Swedish rape statistics 8. Frank van Tulder - Crimes and the need of sanction capacity in the Netherlands: trends and backgrounds 9. Jon Vagg and Justine Harris
Current Issues: False Profits: Why Product Counterfeiting is Increasing.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors define the historical roots of police in democracies and place the police within the framework of the sovereign state, the administration, the judiciary and the citizens, and introduce the concept of ethical standards as a means of effective high-quality police management.
Abstract: This article points to a frequent feature in debates about the control of the police. Aside from cultural and political characteristics in the last decades, policing has changed and at present it is going through a stage of rapid change. The author defines the historical roots of police in democracies. He places the police within the framework of the sovereign state, the administration, the judiciary and the citizens. The state's control of police powers is described in its interdependency with new demands on the part of citizens regarding micro (domestic sphere/neighbourhood/community) and macro (urban sphere/state/European) levels. On a European scale, the article provides an oversight over the existing network consisting of internal, administrative, parliamentarian, judiciary, and civil (non-government/social movements) control agencies and mechanisms. In its conclusions the concept of ethical standards is introduced as a means of effective high-quality police management.
TL;DR: In this paper, an essay-like article explores the pornographic context of sexual violence, which can be seen as a realisation of pornographic humiliation and as a rude offending of the norm of equality in modern relationships.
Abstract: This essay-like article explores the pornographic context of sexual violence. The analysis is based on Giddens' book about the development of intimacy and sexuality in late modernity. Sexual morality nowadays combines a tolerant mentality towards pornography and a claim for prudence in the daily relationship between the sexes. This 'schizophrenic' moral situation gives a special meaning to sexual violence, which can be seen as a realisation of pornographic humiliation and as a rude offending of the norm of equality in modern relationships. The strong consensus on the protection against child pornography and paedophile violence stems from this paradoxical situation. The radical development taking place in our sexual mentality is placed within the context of relationships that are becoming more equal, and against the background of the resulting higher standards set for partners.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present recent trends in, and forecasts of, the need for sanction capacity in the Netherlands and present the Jukebox-1 model, which is used for (a part of) the forecasts.
Abstract: This article presents recent trends in, and forecasts of, the need for sanction capacity in the Netherlands. Different types of crime show different trends at the moment. The need for prison capacity is still growing but at a smaller rate than before. The Jukebox-1 model, which is used for (a part of) the forecasts, is described. It relates the trends in the capacity needed for prisons and task-sanctions for adults to trends in crime and law enforcement activities. Trends in crime are in turn related to demographic and socio-economic factors and law enforcement performance indicators. Some policy simulations with the model are sketched.
TL;DR: Kersten as discussed by the authors introduced the reports which were presented at the Twelfth Criminological Colloquium, organised by the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, from 24-26 November 1999.
Abstract: This article by general rapporteur Joachim Kersten introduces the reports which were presented at the Twelfth Criminological Colloquium, organised by the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, from 24-26 November 1999. Europe is undergoing a phase of rapid change. This affects the conditions of policing in each country and on the European continent as a whole. It is actually the legal, political and cultural context of policing that is undergoing rapid change. This colloquium and earlier ones carried out by the Council of Europe served a crucial purpose: they are an assessment in the European context of what is happening in relation to the police, police ethics and human rights in democratic societies.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reported on parental sensitivity, trust, intimacy and adult romantic attachment in a group of sexual offenders (exhibitionists, child molesters and child rapists) and a matched normal control group.
Abstract: Some important authors in the field of sexual delinquency stress the importance of inadequate attachment in the aetiology of sexual abusive behaviour. This contribution reports on parental sensitivity, trust, intimacy and adult romantic attachment in a group of sexual offenders (exhibitionists, child molesters and child rapists) and a matched normal control group. Based on the analyses, it appears that parental sensitivity, trust, intimacy and adult romantic attachment significantly differentiate between sexual delinquents and the control group. There is no significant relationship between the different categories of sexual offenders, except for the variable adult romantic attachment. Furthermore, it was found that parental sensitivity, trust and the adult romantic attachment style contribute independently to the explanation of sexual delinquent behaviour. The results tend to be important for the prevention and the treatment of sexual delinquent behaviour.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report on the results of the first audit of Euro 2000, which consisted of a content audit (enforcement; arrests and prosecution supervision, transportation and stay; hospitality) and a process audit (preparation, organisation, information, media and communication, after-phase).
Abstract: The Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations commissioned the Crisis Research Center (COT)/University of Leiden to provide a profile of the current status of the organisation of Euro 2000 by compiling two audits. The first audit took place in February 2000. The authors report in this article on the results of this audit. It comprises of a content audit (enforcement; arrests and prosecution supervision, transportation and stay; hospitality) and a process audit (preparation, organisation, information, media and communication, after-phase). The audit framework offers both the researchers and the organisations involved a workable checklist for analysing and implementing the preparations for Euro 2000. In practice, it gives the researchers and the officials the idea that they have considered all the conceivable aspects of organising large-scale events.