Showing papers in "Experiments in Fluids in 2010"

Infrared thermography for convective heat transfer measurements

Abstract: This paper deals with the evolution of infrared (IR) thermography into a powerful optical tool that can be used in complex fluid flows to either evaluate wall convective heat fluxes or investigate the surface flow field behavior. Measurement of convective heat fluxes must be performed by means of a thermal sensor, where temperatures have to be measured with proper transducers. By correctly choosing the thermal sensor, IR thermography can be successfully exploited to resolve convective heat flux distributions with both steady and transient techniques. When comparing it to standard transducers, the IR camera appears very valuable because it is non-intrusive, it has a high sensitivity (down to 20 mK), it has a low response time (down to 20 μs), it is fully two dimensional (from 80 k up to 1 M pixels, at 50 Hz) and, therefore, it allows for better evaluation of errors due to tangential conduction within the sensor. This paper analyses the capability of IR thermography to perform convective heat transfer measurements and surface visualizations in complex fluid flows. In particular, it includes the following: the necessary radiation theory background, a review of the main IR camera features, a description of the pertinent heat flux sensors, an analysis of the IR image processing methods and a report on some applications to complex fluid flows, ranging from natural convection to hypersonic regime.

Measurement of the noise generation at the trailing edge of porous airfoils

Abstract: Owls are commonly known for their quiet flight, enabled by three adaptions of their wings and plumage: leading edge serrations, trailing edge fringes and a soft and elastic downy upper surface of the feathers. In order to gain a better understanding of the aeroacoustic effects of the third property that is equivalent to an increased permeability of the plumage to air, an experimental survey on a set of airfoils made of different porous materials was carried out. Several airfoils with the same shape and size but made of different porous materials characterized by their flow resistivities and one non-porous reference airfoil were subject to the flow in an aeroacoustic open jet wind tunnel. The flow speed has been varied between approximately 25 and 50 m/s. The geometric angle of attack ranged from −16° to 20° in 4°-steps. The results of the aeroacoustic measurements, made with a 56-microphone array positioned out of flow, and of the measurements of lift and drag are given and discussed.

Wake of a cylinder: a paradigm for energy harvesting with piezoelectric materials

Abstract: Short-length piezoelectric beams were placed in the wake of a circular cylinder at high Reynolds numbers to evaluate their performance as energy generators. The coherent vortical structures present in this flow generate a periodic forcing on the beam which when tuned to its resonant frequency produces maximum output voltage. There are two mechanisms that contribute to the driving forcing of the beam. The first mechanism is the impingement of induced flow by the passing vortices on one side of the beam, and the second is the low pressure core region of the vortices which is present at the opposite side of the beam. The sequence of these two mechanisms combined with the resonating conditions of the beam generated maximum energy output which was also found to vary with the location in the wake. The maximum power output was measured when the tip of the beam is about two diameters downstream of the cylinder. This power drops off the center line of the wake and decays with downstream distance as (x/D)−3/2.

Variational fluid flow measurements from image sequences: synopsis and perspectives

Abstract: Variational approaches to image motion segmentation has been an active field of study in image processing and computer vision for two decades. We present a short overview over basic estimation schemes and report in more detail recent modifications and applications to fluid flow estimation. Key properties of these approaches are illustrated by numerical examples. We outline promising research directions and point out the potential of variational techniques in combination with correlation-based PIV methods, for improving the consistency of fluid flow estimation and simulation.

High-lift airfoil trailing edge separation control using a single dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator

Abstract: Control of flow separation from the deflected flap of a high-lift airfoil up to Reynolds numbers of 240,000 (15 m/s) is explored using a single dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma actuator near the flap shoulder. Results show that the plasma discharge can increase or reduce the size of the time-averaged separated region over the flap depending on the frequency of actuation. High-frequency actuation, referred to here as quasi-steady forcing, slightly delays separation while lengthening and flattening the separated region without drastically increasing the measured lift. The actuator is found to be most effective for increasing lift when operated in an unsteady fashion at the natural oscillation frequency of the trailing edge flow field. Results indicate that the primary control mechanism in this configuration is an enhancement of the natural vortex shedding that promotes further momentum transfer between the freestream and separated region. Based on these results, different modulation waveforms for creating unsteady DBD plasma-induced flows are investigated in an effort to improve control authority. Subsequent measurements show that modulation using duty cycles of 50–70% generates stronger velocity perturbations than sinusoidal modulation in quiescent conditions at the expense of an increased power requirement. Investigation of these modulation waveforms for trailing edge separation control similarly shows that additional increases in lift can be obtained. The dependence of these results on the actuator carrier and modulation frequencies is discussed in detail.

Experimental study of three-dimensional vortex structures in translating and rotating plates

Abstract: Motivated by the unsteady force generation of flying animals, vortex formation and vorticity transport processes around small aspect-ratio translating and rotating plates with a high angle of attack are investigated. Defocusing Digital Particle Image Velocimetry was employed to explore the structure and dynamics of the vortex generated by the plates. For both translating and rotating cases, we observe the presence of a spanwise flow over the plate and the consequent effect of vorticity transport due to the tilting of the leading-edge vortex. While the spanwise flow is confined inside the leading-edge vortex for the translating case, it is widely present over the plate and the wake region of the rotating case. The distribution of the spanwise flow is a prominent distinction between the vortex structures of these two cases. As the Reynolds number decreases, due to the increase in viscosity, the leading-edge and tip vortices tend to spread inside the area swept by the rotating plate. The different vorticity distributions of the low and high Reynolds number cases are consistent with the difference in measured lift forces, which is confirmed using the vorticity moment theory.

Natural-background-oriented schlieren imaging

Abstract: The background-oriented schlieren (BOS) flow visualization method has the potential for large-scale flow imaging outside the laboratory by using natural backgrounds instead of the artificial patterns normally used indoors. The natural surroundings of an outdoor test site can sometimes be used as such a background, subject to criteria of fine scale, randomness and contrast that are developed here. Some natural backgrounds are more appropriate than others for a given application. Backgrounds used here to visualize both high- and low-speed schlieren disturbances include a sunlit cornfield and a backlit grove of trees. A range of image post-processing methods is considered for qualitative BOS. It is found that high sensitivity and a broad measuring range are in conflict here, much as they are in traditional schlieren instruments. Applications of natural-BOS include explosive characterization, firearms and artillery testing, chemical and natural-gas leak detection, and related phenomena.

Drag and lift reduction of a 3D bluff-body using active vortex generators

Abstract: In this study, a passive flow control experiment on a 3D bluff-body using vortex generators (VGs) is presented. The bluff-body is a modified Ahmed body (Ahmed in J Fluids Eng 105:429–434 1983) with a curved rear part, instead of a slanted one, so that the location of the flow separation is no longer forced by the geometry. The influence of a line of non-conventional trapezoidal VGs on the aerodynamic forces (drag and lift) induced on the bluff-body is investigated. The high sensitivity to many geometric (angle between the trapezoidal element and the wall, spanwise spacing between the VGs, longitudinal location on the curved surface) and physical (freestream velocity) parameters is clearly demonstrated. The maximum drag reduction is −12%, while the maximum global lift reduction can reach more than −60%, with a strong dependency on the freestream velocity. For some configurations, the lift on the rear axle of the model can be inverted (−104%). It is also shown that the VGs are still efficient even downstream of the natural separation line. Finally, a dynamic parameter is chosen and a new set-up with motorized vortex generators is proposed. Thanks to this active device. The optimal configurations depending on two parameters are found more easily, and a significant drag and lift reduction (up to −14% drag reduction) can be reached for different freestream velocities. These results are then analyzed through wall pressure and velocity measurements in the near-wake of the bluff-body with and without control. It appears that the largest drag and lift reduction is clearly associated to a strong increase of the size of the recirculation bubble over the rear slant. Investigation of the velocity field in a cross-section downstream the model reveals that, in the same time, the intensity of the longitudinal trailing vortices is strongly reduced, suggesting that the drag reduction is due to the breakdown of the balance between the separation bubble and the longitudinal vortices. It demonstrates that for low aspect ratio 3D bluff-bodies, like road vehicles, the flow control strategy is much different from the one used on airfoils: an early separation of the boundary layer can lead to a significant drag reduction if the circulation of the trailing vortices is reduced.

The ultra-low Reynolds number airfoil wake

Abstract: Lift force and the near wake of an NACA 0012 airfoil were measured over the angle (α) of attack of 0°–90° and the chord Reynolds number (Re c ), 5.3 × 103–5.1 × 104, with a view to understand thoroughly the near wake of the airfoil at low- to ultra-low Re c . While the lift force is measured using a load cell, the detailed flow structure is captured using laser-Doppler anemometry, particle image velocimetry, and laser-induced fluorescence flow visualization. It has been found that the stall of an airfoil, characterized by a drop in the lift force, occurs at Re c ≥ 1.05 × 104 but is absent at Re c = 5.3 × 103. The observation is connected to the presence of the separation bubble at high Re c but absence of the bubble at ultra-low Re c , as evidenced in our wake measurements. The near-wake characteristics are examined and discussed in detail, including the vortex formation length, wake width, spanwise vorticity, wake bubble size, wavelength of K–H vortices, Strouhal numbers, and their dependence on α and Re c .

Drag reduction of a 3D bluff body using coherent streamwise streaks

Abstract: Separation on the rear-end of an Ahmed body is suppressed by means of large-scale coherent streaks forced on the roof of the model. These streaks originate from an array of suitably shaped cylindrical roughness elements and are amplified by the mean shear through the lift-up effect. Interacting with the mean velocity field at leading order, they induce a strong controlled spanwise modulation. The resulting streaky base flow is observed to sustain the adverse pressure gradient since PIV measurements as well as static wall pressure distributions show that the re-circulation bubble completely vanishes. These modifications of the topology of the flow are associated with a substantial drag reduction, which can be of about 10% when the roughness array is optimally placed on the roof of the bluff body.

Impact dynamics of surfactant laden drops: dynamic surface tension effects

Abstract: We study the impact and subsequent retraction of aqueous surfactant-laden drops upon high-speed impact on hydrophobic surfaces. Without surfactants, a rapid expansion of the drop due to the fluid inertia is followed by a rapid retraction, due to the wetting incompatibility. With surfactants, the retraction can be partly or completely inhibited. We provide quantitative measurements showing that both the expansion and the retraction dynamics depend not only on the equilibrium surface tension (ST) but also on the dynamic tension of the surfactant solutions; the latter varies significantly between different surfactants.

Flow field measurements in an optically accessible, direct-injection spray-guided internal combustion engine using high-speed PIV

Abstract: High-speed particle image velocimetry has been applied to study the flow field of an optically accessible motored direct-injection spray-guided internal combustion engine. Based on recent improvements in all-solid-state diode-pumped laser- and CMOS camera-technology a large field of view (43 × 44 mm2) was achieved at 6 kHz resulting in a temporal resolution of 1° crank angle at 1,000 rpm. This allows the investigation of the temporal evolution of large-scale flow structures. The flow field was recorded during the latter half of the compression stroke for tumble flow conditions at 500, 1,000 and 2,000 rpm. An analysis of cycle-to-cycle variations has been performed from individual and ensemble-averaged cycles. The temporal evolution of the main vortex center and the kinetic energy shows a few individual cycles with strong variations from the mean caused by a substantially different flow regime. A quantification of cyclic variations using the kinetic energy is possible.

Multi-time-delay LSE-POD complementary approach applied to unsteady high-Reynolds-number near wake flow

Abstract: This investigation compared the application and accuracy of single- and multi-time-delay linear stochastic estimation-proper orthogonal decomposition (LSE-POD) methods in the temporal domain. These methods were considered for low-dimensional estimations of the dynamics of the energy-containing structures in a high Reynolds number flow. The near wake dynamics of a bluff body were used to demonstrate the robustness and accuracy of the investigated LSE-POD methods. Statistically independent two-dimensional particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements were used to determine spatial POD modes, and time-resolved surface pressure measurements were used to determine LSE coefficients required for estimating the time-varying POD coefficients. A low-order, time-resolved reconstruction of the wake dynamics was accomplished using these estimated time-varying POD coefficients. The paper also provides details concerning the accuracy of the estimation using multi-time-delay LSE-POD. The results demonstrate that the multi-time LSE-POD technique is successful in capturing and reconstructing the important near wake dynamics. It is also shown that optimizing the time delays used for the estimations increases the accuracy of the reconstruction. As a result of its capabilities, the multi-time-delay implementation of the LSE-POD approach offers an alternate method for low-dimensional modeling that is attractive for real-time flow estimation.

A tomographic PIV resolution study based on homogeneous isotropic turbulence DNS data

Abstract: In order to accurately assess measurement resolution and measurement uncertainty in DPIV and TPIV measurements, a series of simulations were conducted based on the flow field from a homogeneous isotropic turbulence data set (Reλ = 141). The effect of noise and spatial resolution was quantified by examining the local and global errors in the velocity, vorticity and dissipation fields in addition to other properties of interest such as the flow divergence, topological invariants and energy spectra. In order to accurately capture the instantaneous gradient fields and calculate sensitive quantities such as the dissipation rate, a minimum resolution of x/η = 3 is required, with smoothing recommended for the TPIV results to control the inherently higher noise levels. Comparing these results with experimental data showed that while the attenuation of velocity and gradient quantities was predicted well, higher noise levels in the experimental data led increased divergence.

Control of the corner separation in a compressor cascade by steady and unsteady plasma aerodynamic actuation

Abstract: This paper reports experimental results on using steady and unsteady plasma aerodynamic actuation to control the corner separation, which forms over the suction surface and end wall corner of a compressor cascade blade passage. Total pressure recovery coefficient distribution was adopted to evaluate the corner separation. Corner separation causes significant total pressure loss even when the angle of attack is 0°. Both steady and unsteady plasma aerodynamic actuations suppress the corner separation effectively. The control effect obtained by the electrode pair at 25% chord length is as effective as that obtained by all four electrode pairs. Increasing the applied voltage improves the control effect while it augments the power requirement. Increasing the Reynolds number or the angle of attack makes the corner separation more difficult to control. The unsteady actuation is much more effective and requires less power due to the coupling between the unsteady actuation and the separated flow. Duty cycle and excitation frequency are key parameters in unsteady plasma flow control. There are thresholds in both the duty cycle and the excitation frequency, above which the control effect saturates. The maximum relative reduction in total pressure loss coefficient achieved is up to 28% at 70% blade span. The obvious difference between steady and unsteady actuation may be that wall jet governs the flow control effect of steady actuation, while much more vortex induced by unsteady actuation is the reason for better control effect.

Effect of air jet vortex generators on a shock wave boundary layer interaction

Abstract: The effect of upstream injection by means of continuous air jet vortex generators (AJVGs) on a shock wave turbulent boundary layer interaction is experimentally investigated. The baseline interaction is of the impinging type, with a flow deflection angle of 9.5degrees and a Mach number Me = 2.3. Considered are the effects of the AJVGs on the upstream boundary layer flow topology and on the spatial and dynamical characteristics of the interaction. To this aim, Stereoscopic Particle Image Velocimetry has been employed, in addition to hot-wire anemometry (HWA) for the investigation of the unsteady characteristics of the reflected shock. The AJVGs cause a reduction of the separation bubble length and height. In addition, the energetic frequency range of the reflected shock is increased by approximately 50%, which is in qualitative agreement with the smaller separation bubble size.

Simultaneous planar measurement of droplet velocity and size with gas phase velocities in a spray by combined ILIDS and PIV techniques

Abstract: A new approach for simultaneous planar measurement of droplet velocity and size with gas phase velocities is reported, which combines the out-of-focus imaging technique ‘Interferometric Laser Imaging Droplet Sizing’ (ILIDS) for planar simultaneous droplet size and velocity measurements with the in-focus technique ‘Particle Image Velocimetry’ (PIV) for gas velocity measurements in the vicinity of individual droplets. Discrimination between the gas phase seeding and the droplets is achieved in the PIV images by removing the glare points of focused droplet images, using the droplet position obtained through ILIDS processing. Combination of the two optical arrangements can result in a discrepancy in the location of the centre of a droplet, when imaging through ILIDS and PIV techniques, of up to about 1 mm, which may lead to erroneous identification of the glare points from droplets on the PIV images. The magnitude of the discrepancy is a function of position of the droplet’s image on the CCD array and the degree of defocus, but almost independent of droplet size. Specifically, it varies approximately linearly across the image along the direction corresponding to the direction of propagation of the laser sheet for a given defocus setting in ILIDS. The experimental finding is supported by a theoretical analysis, which was based on geometrical optics for a simple optical configuration that replicates the essential features of the optical system. The discrepancy in the location was measured using a monodisperse droplet generator, and this was subtracted from the droplet centres identified in the ILIDS images of a polydisperse spray without ‘seeding’ particles. This reduced the discrepancy between PIV and ILIDS droplet centres from about 1 mm to about 0.1 mm and hence increased the probability of finding the corresponding fringe patterns on the ILIDS image and glare points on the PIV image. In conclusion, it is shown that the proposed combined method can discriminate between droplets and ‘seeding’ particles and is capable of two-phase measurements in polydisperse sprays.

Transient growth instability cancelation by a plasma actuator array

Abstract: This study investigates an actuation scheme that can be integrated as part of a feedback control system in the laboratory for the purpose of negating the transient growth instability in a Blasius boundary layer and delaying transition. The actuators investigated here consist of a spanwise array of symmetric plasma actuators, which are capable of generating spanwise-periodic counter-rotating vortices. Three different actuator geometries are investigated, resulting in 45, 67 and 70% reduction of the total disturbance energy produced inside the boundary layer by an array of roughness elements. It is demonstrated that the control effectiveness of the actuators can be significantly improved by optimizing the geometry of the array.

Aerodynamic drag reduction by vertical splitter plates

Abstract: The capacity of vertical splitter plates placed at the front or the rear of a simplified car geometry to reduce drag, with and without skew angle, is investigated for Reynolds numbers between 1.0 × 106 and 1.6 × 106. The geometry used is a simplified geometry to represent estate-type vehicles, for the rear section, and MPV-type vehicle. Drag reductions of nearly 28% were obtained for a zero skew angle with splitter plates placed at the front of models of MPV or utility vehicles. The results demonstrate the advantage of adapting the position and orientation of the splitter plates in the presence of a lateral wind. All these results confirm the advantage of this type of solution, and suggest that this expertise should be used in the automotive field to reduce consumption and improve dynamic stability of road vehicles.

Laser-based investigations in gas turbine model combustors

Abstract: Dynamic processes in gas turbine (GT) combustors play a key role in flame stabilization and extinction, combustion instabilities and pollutant formation, and present a challenge for experimental as well as numerical investigations. These phenomena were investigated in two gas turbine model combustors for premixed and partially premixed CH4/air swirl flames at atmospheric pressure. Optical access through large quartz windows enabled the application of laser Raman scattering, planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) of OH, particle image velocimetry (PIV) at repetition rates up to 10 kHz and the simultaneous application of OH PLIF and PIV at a repetition rate of 5 kHz. Effects of unmixedness and reaction progress in lean premixed GT flames were revealed and quantified by Raman scattering. In a thermo-acoustically unstable flame, the cyclic variation in mixture fraction and its role for the feedback mechanism of the instability are addressed. In a partially premixed oscillating swirl flame, the cyclic variations of the heat release and the flow field were characterized by chemiluminescence imaging and PIV, respectively. Using phase-correlated Raman scattering measurements, significant phase-dependent variations of the mixture fraction and fuel distributions were revealed. The flame structures and the shape of the reaction zones were visualized by planar imaging of OH distribution. The simultaneous OH PLIF/PIV high-speed measurements revealed the time history of the flow field–flame interaction and demonstrated the development of a local flame extinction event. Further, the influence of a precessing vortex core on the flame topology and its dynamics is discussed.

High-speed imaging for direct-injection gasoline engine research and development

Abstract: In recent years, new laser and camera technology have enabled the development of high-speed imaging diagnostics for measurements at frame rates commensurate with the time scales of turbulent mixing, combustion, and emission formation in internal combustion engines The ability to study the evolution of in-cylinder flow, fuel/air mixing, ignition, and combustion within individual cycles and for many consecutive cycles provides new insights into the physics and chemistry of internal combustion engine performance Data for model development and device development are obtained with unprecedented access to the identification of random events such as cycle to cycle variation and ignition instabilities This paper summarizes high-speed diagnostics developments with a focus on application to spark-ignition direct-injection gasoline engines A range of optical techniques is described along with examples of applications in research and near-production engines Measurements of in-cylinder velocities were conducted with particle image velocimetry The spray evolution was followed with Mie scattering Quantitative fuel distributions were recorded with laser-induced fluorescence Fuel impingement on surfaces was quantified with refractive index matching Combined velocity and fuel measurements were used to study ignition reliability Chemiluminescence techniques provided insights into the evolution of the spark plasma as well as the growing flame kernel Chemiluminescence and black body radiation imaging yielded insights into the formation and oxidation of soot

Planar fluorescence for round bubble imaging and its application for the study of an axisymmetric two-phase jet

Abstract: A correlation-based processing algorithm for bubble identification by a planar fluorescence for bubble imaging (PFBI) technique is presented in this paper. The algorithm includes procedures to identify bubble positions and sizes, as well as to track bubbles and correct bubble displacement vectors. Moreover, several schemes for calculation time optimisation were realised to achieve a reliable calculation time. The developed algorithm identifies and tracks overlapping bubble images or images with non-uniform intensity distributions. The employed correlation and iterative passing approach provides sub-pixel accuracy of bubble displacement estimation. In addition, the presented algorithm for bubble ring detection can be easily applied to shadow photography images of bubbles, after the application of a derivative filter. The PFBI technique, combined with the particle image velocimetry and particle tracking velocimetry algorithms, was applied for the experimental study of bubbly free jet two-phase flows at Re = 12,000. Four cases of volumetric gas content in the jet core were studied: 0, 1.2, 2.4 and 4.2%, with the same mean bubble diameter—0.85 mm. The developed technique measures two-dimensional distributions of instantaneous void fractions, as well as both gaseous and liquid-phase velocities. Consequently, the mean void fraction and velocity fields and a set of second-order statistical moments were obtained, including correlations of void fraction and velocity pulsations. It was shown that the increase in volumetric gas content leads to the suppression of liquid-phase velocity fluctuations in the jet mixing layer.

The use of plasma actuators for bluff body broadband noise control

Abstract: Experiments were conducted using plasma actuators to control broadband noise generated by a bluff body flow. The motivation behind the study was to explore the potential of plasma actuators to reduce landing gear noise during approach phase of an aircraft. The control effectiveness of both dielectric barrier discharge and sliding discharge plasma actuators were tested in laboratory environment, using a representative bluff body consisting of a circular cylinder and an oblique strut. Noise measurements were taken in an anechoic chamber using a phased microphone array and far-field microphones. Results showed that the upstream directed plasma forcing, located at ±90 deg on the upstream cylinder with respect to the approaching flow, could effectively attenuate the broadband noise radiated from the wake flow interaction with the downstream strut. With the same AC electrical power consumption, the sliding discharge with additional DC voltage was found to be more effective due to its elongated plasma distribution and higher induced flow momentum. Measurements using particle image velocimetry suggested that the flow speed impinging on the downstream strut was reduced by the upstream plasma forcing, contributing to the reduced noise.

Spatial resolution of a chemiluminescence sensor for local heat-release rate and equivalence ratio measurements in a model gas turbine combustor

Abstract: The spatial resolution of a Chemiluminescence Sensor, based on focused Cassegrain optics, to detect the location of the reaction zone and heat-release rate in a model gas turbine combustor is reported. The sensor measures simultaneously the chemiluminescent intensities from OH* and CH* excited radicals in flames in order to obtain information on the local flame characteristics. The spatial resolution was evaluated by a combined theoretical and experimental study in laminar and turbulent flames and was supported by detailed chemistry calculations, including the chemiluminescent species, of unstrained one-dimensional flames. The experimental study involved simultaneous measurements of chemiluminescence with the sensor and laser-based reaction rate imaging, using the product of OH and CH2O radicals obtained from planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF), and OH PLIF for the location of the reaction zone. The study quantified the influence of flame shape and dimensions and the direction of traverse of the focal region of the sensor through the flames on the spatial resolution, thereby identifying the limitations and optimising the applicability of the sensor. The sensor was used to obtain local time-dependent measurements of heat-release and equivalence ratio of a reacting mixture, based on the chemiluminescent intensity ratio of OH*/CH*, in a swirl-stabilised model gas turbine combustor and quantified the degree of air–fuel premixedness, probability of reaction and power spectra of pressure and chemiluminescent intensity fluctuations in two unsteady flames.

Experimental analysis of flashback in lean premixed swirling flames: upstream flame propagation

Abstract: Simultaneous 10-kHz OH-PLIF and 20-kHz two-component PIV were made in conjunction with wide-field 20-kHz flame luminescence imaging of an unconfined, swirling, lean premixed, bluff-body stabilized flame during flashback. Flashback was induced by increasing the stoichiometry or swirl number or reducing the Reynolds number. A detailed stability regime was prepared and compared to predictions. Analysis of the time-correlated flame history inside the exit nozzle during flashback and non-flashback flame events led to a new hypothesis for the flashback mechanism.

An experimental study of a bio-inspired corrugated airfoil for micro air vehicle applications

Abstract: An experimental study was conducted to investigate the aerodynamic characteristics of a bio-inspired corrugated airfoil compared with a smooth-surfaced airfoil and a flat plate at the chord Reynolds number of Re C = 58,000–125,000 to explore the potential applications of such bio-inspired corrugated airfoils for micro air vehicle designs. In addition to measuring the aerodynamic lift and drag forces acting on the tested airfoils, a digital particle image velocimetry system was used to conduct detailed flowfield measurements to quantify the transient behavior of vortex and turbulent flow structures around the airfoils. The measurement result revealed clearly that the corrugated airfoil has better performance over the smooth-surfaced airfoil and the flat plate in providing higher lift and preventing large-scale flow separation and airfoil stall at low Reynolds numbers (Re C < 100,000). While aerodynamic performance of the smooth-surfaced airfoil and the flat plate would vary considerably with the changing of the chord Reynolds numbers, the aerodynamic performance of the corrugated airfoil was found to be almost insensitive to the Reynolds numbers. The detailed flow field measurements were correlated with the aerodynamic force measurement data to elucidate underlying physics to improve our understanding about how and why the corrugation feature found in dragonfly wings holds aerodynamic advantages for low Reynolds number flight applications.

Real-time image processing for particle tracking velocimetry

Abstract: We present a novel high-speed particle tracking velocimetry (PTV) experimental system. Its novelty is due to the FPGA-based, real-time image processing “on camera”. Instead of an image, the camera transfers to the computer using a network card, only the relevant information of the identified flow tracers. Therefore, the system is ideal for the remote particle tracking systems in research and industrial applications, while the camera can be controlled and data can be transferred over any high-bandwidth network. We present the hardware and the open source software aspects of the PTV experiments. The tracking results of the new experimental system has been compared to the flow visualization and particle image velocimetry measurements. The canonical flow in the central cross section of a a cubic cavity (1:1:1 aspect ratio) in our lid-driven cavity apparatus is used for validation purposes. The downstream secondary eddy (DSE) is the sensitive portion of this flow and its size was measured with increasing Reynolds number (via increasing belt velocity). The size of DSE estimated from the flow visualization, PIV and compressed PTV is shown to agree within the experimental uncertainty of the methods applied.

Active thermal management of on-chip hot spots using EWOD-driven droplet microfluidics

Abstract: In response to the rapid advances in microelectronics, novel cooling technologies are needed to meet increasing cooling requirements. As a paradigm-shifting technique, electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) uses electric potential to control the movement of a liquid droplet on a dielectric surface. In this work, we developed an EWOD-based microfluidic technique for active and adaptive thermal management of on-chip hot spots. A two-dimensional array of control electrodes was patterned on the chip surface for EWOD operations. By applying DC or AC voltages with appropriate sequence and timing to the electrode units, we were able to transport microdroplets of tens of μL along a programmable path. Without the need of external pumps and valves, the droplets were precisely delivered to cooling targets. With the driving voltage as low as 40 VAC, we demonstrate high heat flux (7.6 W/cm2) cooling on a hot spot. The EWOD-induced internal circulation within the droplets led to a time-averaged Nusselt number of ~45.

Slope seeking for autonomous lift improvement by plasma surface discharge

Abstract: The present paper describes an experimental investigation of closed-loop separation control using plasma actuators. The post-stall-separated flow over a NACA 0015 airfoil is controlled using a single dielectric barrier discharge actuator located at the leading edge. Open-loop measurements are first performed to highlight the effects of the voltage amplitude on the control authority for freestream velocities of 10–30 m/s (chord Re = 1.3 × 105 to 4 × 105). The results indicate that partial or full reattachment can be achieved and motivate the choice of the slope seeking approach as the control algorithm. A single-input/single-output algorithm is used to autonomously seek the optimal voltage required to achieve the control objective (full flow reattachment associated with maximum lift). The paper briefly introduces the concept of slope seeking, and a detailed parameterization of the controller is considered. Static (fixed speed) closed-loop experiments are then discussed, which demonstrate the capability of the algorithm. In each case, the flow can be reattached in an autonomous fashion. The last part of the paper demonstrates the robustness of the gradient-based, model-free scheme for dynamic freestream conditions. This paper highlights the capability of slope seeking to autonomously achieve high lift when used to drive the voltage of a plasma actuator. It also describes the advantages and drawbacks of such a closed-loop approach.

Particle tracking velocimetry of the flow field around a collapsing cavitation bubble

Abstract: The velocity field in the vicinity of a laser-generated cavitation bubble in water is investigated by means of particle tracking velocimetry (PTV). Two situations are explored: a bubble collapsing spherically and a bubble collapsing aspherically near a rigid wall. In the first case, the accuracy of the PTV method is assessed by comparing the experimental data with the flow field around the bubble as obtained from numerical simulations of the radial bubble dynamics. The numerical results are matched to the experimental radius–time curve extracted from high-speed photographs by tuning the model parameters. Trajectories of tracer particles are calculated and used to model the experimental process of the PTV measurement. For the second case of a bubble collapsing near a rigid wall, both the bubble shape and the velocity distribution in the fluid around the bubble are measured for different standoff parameters γ at several instants in time. The results for γ > 1 are compared with the corresponding results of a boundary-integral simulation. For both cases, good agreement between simulation and experiment is found.