Showing papers in "Flavour in 2015"
TL;DR: In this article, a large body of laboratory research has demonstrated that changing the hue or intensity/saturation of the colour of food and beverage items can exert a sometimes dramatic impact on the expectations, and hence on the subsequent experiences, of consumers.
Abstract: Colour is the single most important product-intrinsic sensory cue when it comes to setting people’s expectations regarding the likely taste and flavour of food and drink. To date, a large body of laboratory research has demonstrated that changing the hue or intensity/saturation of the colour of food and beverage items can exert a sometimes dramatic impact on the expectations, and hence on the subsequent experiences, of consumers (or participants in the lab). However, should the colour not match the taste, then the result may well be a negatively valenced disconfirmation of expectation. Food colours can have rather different meanings and hence give rise to differing expectations, in different age groups, not to mention in different cultures. Genetic differences, such as in a person’s taster status, can also modulate the psychological impact of food colour on flavour perception. By gaining a better understanding of the sensory and hedonic expectations elicited by food colour in different groups of individuals, researchers are coming to understand more about why it is that what we see modulates the multisensory perception of flavour, as well as our appetitive and avoidance-related food behaviours.
250 citations
TL;DR: Some of the innovative ways in which chefs, culinary artists, designers, and marketers are taking the latest insights from research in this area as inspiration for their own creative endeavours are looked at.
Abstract: Can basic tastes, such as sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and possibly also umami, be conveyed by means of colour? If so, how should we understand the relationship between colours and tastes: Is it universal or relative, innate or acquired, unidirectional or bidirectional? Here, we review the growing body of scientific research showing that people systematically associate specific colours with particular tastes. We highlight how these widely shared bidirectional crossmodal correspondences generalize across cultures and stress their difference from synaesthesia (with which they are often confused). The various explanations that have been put forward to account for such crossmodal mappings are then critically evaluated. Finally, we go on to look at some of the innovative ways in which chefs, culinary artists, designers, and marketers are taking—or could potentially push further—the latest insights from research in this area as inspiration for their own creative endeavours.
146 citations
TL;DR: A growing body of research now shows that by synchronizing eating sounds with the act of consumption, one can change a person's experience of what they think that they are eating.
Abstract: Sound is the forgotten flavour sense. You can tell a lot about the texture of a food—think crispy, crunchy, and crackly—from the mastication sounds heard while biting and chewing. The latest techniques from the field of cognitive neuroscience are revolutionizing our understanding of just how important what we hear is to our experience and enjoyment of food and drink. A growing body of research now shows that by synchronizing eating sounds with the act of consumption, one can change a person’s experience of what they think that they are eating.
124 citations
TL;DR: It is frequently asserted that between 75 and 95% of what we commonly think of as taste actually comes from the sense of smell as discussed by the authors, however, empirical evidence in support of such a precise sounding quantitative claim is rarely, if ever, cited.
Abstract: It is frequently asserted that somewhere between 75 and 95 % of what we commonly think of as taste actually comes from the sense of smell. However, empirical evidence in support of such a precise-sounding quantitative claim is rarely, if ever, cited. Indeed, a closer look at the study that appears to have given rise to statements of this general type simply does not support the claim as made. As we will see, the often confused, and certainly confusing, use of the term “taste”—sometimes in the layman’s everyday sense of flavour and, at other times, in the more precise scientific meaning of gustation, adds to the difficulty here. Furthermore, the widespread disagreement concerning which senses should be considered as constitutive of flavour perception and which merely modulatory means that it is probably not going to be possible to provide an exact answer to the question of how much of what people commonly think of as taste actually comes from the nose, until one has carefully defined one’s terms. Even then, however, the answer is likely to vary quite markedly depending upon the particular combination of olfactory and gustatory stimuli that one is thinking about. Nevertheless, despite the difficulty associated with generating a precise value, or even range of values, most researchers would appear to agree that olfaction plays a “dominant” role in the tasting of food. This important observation (just without the precise-sounding percentages attached) certainly deserves to be shared more widely. Crucially, the evidence suggests that it can sometimes inspire the modernist chefs, not to mention the culinary artists and designers, to change the way in which they deliver multisensory flavour experiences to their customers (in order to capitalize on olfaction’s often dominant role in our perception of food and drink).
110 citations
TL;DR: There is consistent emerging evidence that fat is the sixth taste primary in humans, with the exception of an independent perception, and the likely mechanism linking fatty acid taste insensitivity with overweight and obesity is development of satiety after consumption of fatty foods.
Abstract: Taste is the chemical sense responsible for the detection of non-volatile chemicals in potential foods. For fat to be considered as one of the taste primaries in humans, certain criteria must be met including class of affective stimuli, receptors specific for the class of stimuli on taste bud cells (TBC), afferent fibres from TBC to taste-processing regions of the brain, perception independent of other taste qualities and downstream physiological effects. The breakdown products of the macronutrients carbohydrates (sugars) and proteins (amino acids) are responsible for the activation of sweet and umami tastes, respectively. Following the same logic, the breakdown products of fat being fatty acids are the likely class of stimuli for fat taste. Indeed, psychophysical studies have confirmed that fatty acids of varying chain length and saturation are orally detectable by humans. The most likely fatty acid receptor candidates located on TBC are CD36 and G protein-coupled receptor 120. Once the receptors are activated by fatty acids, a series of transduction events occurs causing the release of neurotransmitters towards afferent fibres signalling the brain. Whether fatty acids elicit any direct perception independent of other taste qualities is still open to debate with only poorly defined perceptions for fatty acids reported. Others suggest that the fatty acid taste component is at detection threshold only and any perceptions are associated with either aroma or chemesthesis. It has also been established that oral exposure to fat via sham feeding stimulates increases in blood TAG concentrations in humans. Therefore, overall, with the exception of an independent perception, there is consistent emerging evidence that fat is the sixth taste primary. The implications of fatty acid taste go further into health and obesity research, with the gustatory detection of fats and their contributions to energy and fat intake receiving increasing attention. There appears to be a coordinated bodily response to fatty acids throughout the alimentary canal; those who are insensitive orally are also insensitive in the gastrointestinal tract and overconsume fatty food and energy. The likely mechanism linking fatty acid taste insensitivity with overweight and obesity is development of satiety after consumption of fatty foods.
96 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors conceptualized a new dish design process used by highly reputable chefs at fine dining restaurants, using cognitive modeling methods, and prioritized the important culinary success factors (CSFs) of the cognitive structures involved in creating new dishes characteristic to Japanese chefs of Japanese and French cuisine in restaurants.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to conceptualize a new dish design process used by highly reputable chefs at fine dining restaurants, using cognitive modeling methods, and prioritize the important culinary success factors (CSFs) of the cognitive structures involved in creating new dishes characteristic to Japanese chefs of Japanese and French cuisine in fine dining restaurants. We asked 12 chefs of Japanese cuisine and 7 chefs of French cuisine at fine dining restaurants to answer questionnaires designed according to the Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) method. All participants were Japanese. We preselected CSFs via text mining, using the laddering method in discussions with 9 chefs of Japanese cuisine about 54 new dishes that they had created. We identified 10 CSFs, as follows: (1) utilization of main ingredient texture, (2) utilization of main ingredient flavor, (3) utilization of main ingredient umami, (4) featured main ingredient, (5) good pairings (complements) between main and secondary ingredients, (6) not too rich, (7) good balance, (8) cuisine more Japanese in style, (9) elegance, and (10) surprise. We then created a DEMATEL diagram as a visual representation of each chef’s thinking pattern with respect to dish creation. In the average diagram of chefs of Japanese cuisine, “utilization of main ingredient flavor” held the greatest importance and was influenced most by “cuisine more Japanese in style” in dish creation. Therefore, making cuisine more Japanese in style would result in chefs of Japanese cuisine using the main ingredient’s flavor. Therefore, chefs of Japanese cuisine believed that when a chef prioritized using the main ingredient’s flavor in the creation of Japanese cuisine, the new dish would be valuable. In addition, the average diagram of chefs of French cuisine was created and compared to that of chefs of Japanese cuisine. This study shows that the cognitive analysis of highly reputable chefs at fine dining restaurants can provide cognitive models of dish creation for 10 CSFs of Japanese chefs of Japanese and French cuisine and can be used as references for beginners creating the new dishes.
88 citations
TL;DR: A growing body of scientific evidence now shows that what people taste when evaluating a wine, and how much they enjoy the experience, can be influenced by the music that happens to be playing at the same time as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A growing body of scientific evidence now shows that what people taste when evaluating a wine, and how much they enjoy the experience, can be influenced by the music that happens to be playing at the same time. It has long been known that what we hear can influence the hedonic aspects of tasting. However, what the latest research now shows is that by playing the “right” music one can also impact specific sensory-discriminative aspects of tasting as well. Music has been shown to influence the perceived acidity, sweetness, fruitiness, astringency, and length of wine. We argue against an account of such results in terms of synaesthesia, or “oenesthesia,” as some have chosen to call it. Instead, we suggest that attention, directed via the crossmodal correspondences that exist between sound and taste (in the popular meaning of the term, i.e., flavor), can modify (perhaps enhance, or certainly highlight when attended, or suppress when unattended) certain elements in the complex tasting experience that is drinking wine. We also highlight the likely role played by any change in the mood or emotional state of the person listening to the music on taste/aroma perception as well. Finally, we highlight how the crossmodal masking of sweetness perception may come into effect if the music happens to be too loud (a form of crossmodal sensory masking). Taken together, the evidence reviewed here supports the claim that, strange though it may seem, what we hear (specifically in terms of music) really can change our perception of the taste of wine, not to mention how much we enjoy the experience. Several plausible mechanisms that may underlie such crossmodal effects are outlined.
68 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the perception of beverages and consider just what information is potentially conveyed to the mind of the consumer by the sounds of opening (the packaging), pouring the liquid, and even the sound of carbonation of a drink in a glass or other receptacle.
Abstract: The majority of the literature on sensory expectations has focused solely on those that are set by the eye, that is, by what we see. However, although we rarely think about it, the sounds we hear prior to tasting also influence both our sensory expectations concerning what a food or beverage product will taste like and our hedonic expectations concerning how much we think that we are going to enjoy the experience. In this article, we focus on the perception of beverages and consider just what information is potentially conveyed to the mind of the consumer by the sounds of opening (the packaging), pouring the liquid, and even the sounds of carbonation of a drink in a glass or other receptacle. We review the research that has investigated whether people can discriminate the temperature of a beverage, the level and/or type of carbonation, the viscosity of the liquid, and even the shape of the bottle or container by sound alone. Finally, we look at the question of whether certain beverages do, or could possibly, have a signature sound of opening, and at the opportunities associated with the modification of product sounds in beverage advertisements in order to help emphasize certain specific product or brand attributes.
63 citations
TL;DR: This article reviewed the reasons behind the more than a hundred-year delay for the acceptance of umami as a basic taste along with the sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes after its discovery by a Japanese scientist in 1908.
Abstract: This paper reviews the points behind the more than a hundred-year delay for the acceptance of umami as a basic taste along with the sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes after its discovery by a Japanese scientist in 1908. One of the main reasons for the late recognition of umami taste is the difference in culinary culture between Europe and Japan. Recent collaborative studies with chefs and researchers on traditional soup stocks showed different taste profiles for the Japanese soup stock ‘dashi’ and the western-style soup stock. The profile of free amino acids in dashi, when compared to the one in the Western style soup stock, explains why umami has been more easily accepted by Japanese who have being traditionally experiencing the simple umami taste of dashi. The recent exchange on cooking methods and diverse types of umami-rich foods in different countries has facilitated a new approach to culinary science blending culinary arts, food science, and food technology for healthier and tastier solutions.
55 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors distinguish between two senses of smell: orthonasal (when we inhale or sniff) and retronasal olfactory (when volatiles are pulsed out from the back of the nose during eating).
Abstract: Many researchers distinguish between two senses of smell—orthonasal (when we inhale or sniff) and retronasal (when volatiles are pulsed out from the back of the nose during eating). Orthonasal olfactory cues are key to setting our expectations concerning the sensory and hedonic attributes of food and drink; by contrast, retronasal olfactory cues are central to the experience of taste (or, better said, flavour). Food and beverage providers are increasingly modifying the product-extrinsic olfactory cues associated with their offerings in order to try and influence our food behaviours and hopefully enhance our multisensory product experiences. One way in which this is happening is via the introduction of olfactorily enhanced product packaging into the marketplace. A second key route is via the control and modification of the olfactory ‘smellscape’ in and around chain restaurants and food/beverage outlets. A third route that is slowly starting to emerge is technology-enabled olfactory marketing via scent-emitting billboards and scent-enabled plug-ins for mobile devices. Key opportunities and concerns, ethical and otherwise, surrounding the recent growth of olfactory marketing (specifically those examples incorporating food aromas) are highlighted. Ultimately, the question that we should all perhaps be asking ourselves is whether we are all being ‘led by the nose’, knowingly or otherwise, into unhealthy food behaviours.
54 citations
TL;DR: A potent kokumi peptide, γ-Glu-Val-Gly, enhanced sweetness, saltiness and umami when added to 3.3% sucrose, 0.9% NaCl and 0.5% MSG solutions, respectively.
Abstract: Some foods are known to have flavours that cannot be explained by the five basic tastes alone, such as continuity, mouthfulness and thick flavour. It was demonstrated that these sensations are evoked by the addition of kokumi substances, flavour modifiers that have no taste themselves. However, their mode of action has been poorly understood. During a study on the perception of amino acids and peptides, it was found that glutathione (GSH) was one of the agonists of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). We have hypothesized that CaSR is involved in the perception of kokumi substances. We found that all CaSR agonists tested act as kokumi substances and that a positive correlation exists between the CaSR activity of γ-glutamyl peptides and kokumi intensity. Furthermore, the kokumi intensities of GSH and γ-Glu-Val-Gly, a potent kokumi peptide, were significantly reduced by the CaSR-specific antagonist, NPS-2143. These results suggest that CaSR is involved in the perception of kokumi substances. A potent kokumi peptide, γ-Glu-Val-Gly, enhanced sweetness, saltiness and umami when added to 3.3% sucrose, 0.9% NaCl and 0.5% MSG solutions, respectively. In addition, γ-Glu-Val-Gly enhanced the intensity of continuity, mouthfulness and thick flavour when added to chicken soup and reduced-fat cream. These results suggest that γ-Glu-Val-Gly is a potent kokumi peptide and would be useful for improving the flavour of food.
TL;DR: Diners’ appreciation of the food is affected by the type of the cutlery used to eat, in terms of liking, aesthetic value, and willingness to pay for the food, adding to a growing body of gastrophysics research highlighting the importance of food-extrinsic factors.
Abstract: We report a study conducted in a realistic dining environment, in which two groups of diners were served the same three-course meal. The presentation of the starter (centred vs. offset plating), the type of cutlery used for the main course, and the shape and colour of the plate on which that dessert was served were varied. The results revealed that the weight and type of the cutlery exerted a significant impact on how artistically plated the main course was rated as being, how much the diners liked the food, and how much they would have been willing to pay for it. The change in the shape and colour of the plate also affected the diners’ liking for the dessert. Taken together, these results show that the diners’ appreciation of the food is affected by the type of the cutlery used to eat (in this case, knife and fork), in terms of liking, aesthetic value, and willingness to pay for the food, adding to a growing body of gastrophysics research highlighting the importance of food-extrinsic factors in modulating the diner’s opinion of the meal that they have been served.
TL;DR: A review of the current state-of-the-art of the science of pleasure and specifically the brain's fundamental computational principles for eating and the pleasures evoked can be found in this article.
Abstract: As all chefs know, great food can have a transformational impact. A great deal of recent research has gone into using the new techniques from molecular gastronomy and gastrophysics to create innovative meals with delicious original textures and flavours. These novel creations have elicited much excitement from food critiques and diners alike. Much stands to be gained if these developments were to be matched by a better understanding of how the pleasure of food comes about in the brain. This review summarises the current state-of-the-art of the science of pleasure and specifically the brain’s fundamental computational principles for eating and the pleasures evoked. It is shown how the study of food has advanced our understanding of the unitary pleasure system that is used for all pleasures. As such, these novel insights may come to serve as a guide for chefs of how to combine science and art in order to maximise pleasure—and perhaps even increase happiness.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the sensory characteristics of chicken consomme with added γ-Glu-Val-Gly and found that the added kokumi peptide can enhance umami, mouthfulness, and mouth coating.
Abstract: Recent studies have demonstrated that kokumi substances such as glutathione are perceived through the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). Screening by a CaSR assay and sensory evaluation have shown that γ-glutamyl-valyl-glycine (γ-Glu-Val-Gly) is a potent kokumi peptide. In the present study, the sensory characteristics of chicken consomme with added γ-Glu-Val-Gly were investigated using descriptive analysis. Chicken consomme containing γ-Glu-Val-Gly had significantly stronger “umami” and “mouthfulness” (mouth-filling sensation) characteristics than the control sample at a 99% confidence level and significantly stronger “mouth-coating” characteristic than controls at a 95% confidence level. These data suggest that a kokumi peptide, γ-Glu-Val-Gly, can enhance umami, mouthfulness, and mouth coating, implying that the application of this peptide could contribute to improving the flavor of chicken consomme.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that cross-modal correspondences between tastes, smells, tastes, and mouthfeel characteristics of wine and music can explain the affinity that so many of us feel between music and wine.
Abstract: For years now, wine writers have been tempted to describe certain wines in terms of musical metaphors and analogies. Until recently, however, it has never been altogether clear how widely shared, and hence meaningful, such surprising cross-sensory connections really were. A growing body of scientific evidence, however, now shows that regular consumers (i.e. non-experts) do reliably match certain wines with particular pieces of music (under conditions of forced choice). When questioned, people also feel that certain wines go well with specific pieces of music, while others do not. As such, it can be argued that describing wines in musical terms can potentially provide useful information concerning the likely sensory, descriptive, analytic and/or hedonic properties of the wine. While some commentators have sought for an explanation for such crossmodal matches in terms of synaesthesia, here we argue that crossmodal correspondences—the associations that the majority of us share between tastes, aromas, flavours, and mouthfeel characteristics on the one hand and particular properties of sound and music on the other—offer a more satisfactory explanation for what may be going on. In particular, we highlight how structural, statistical, semantic and affective correspondences could all play a part in explaining the affinity that so many of us feel between wine and music.
TL;DR: There is an important question here as to the authenticity of those food and flavour experiences that have been augmented/enhanced by aroma and fragrance cues that are not integral to the food or drink itself, which may limit the more widespread uptake of such a sense-by-sense approach to the contemporary construction of multisensory gastronomic experiences.
Abstract: The majority of researchers agree that olfactory cues play a dominant role in our perception and enjoyment of the taste (or rather flavour) of food and drink. It is no surprise then that in recent years, a variety of modern (or dare we say it, modernist) solutions have been developed with the explicit aim of delivering an enhanced olfactory input to the diners/dishes served in the restaurant, and occasionally also in the home setting too. Such innovations include everything from aromatic cutlery and plateware through to the use of atomizers and dry ice. A few augmented reality (AR; i.e. an experience of a physical, real-world environment whose elements have been augmented, or supplemented, by computer-generated sensory input) solutions have also made their way out from well-funded technology labs, and scent-enabled plug-ins for mobile devices are slowly being commercialized. The latter could potentially be used to enhance the orthonasal olfactory component of our multisensory food experiences in the years to come. Ultimately, though, there is an important question here as to the authenticity of those food and flavour experiences that have been augmented/enhanced by aroma and fragrance cues that are not integral to the food or drink itself. It is this lack of authenticity that may, at least in your authors’ humble opinion, limit the more widespread uptake of such a sense-by-sense approach to the contemporary construction of multisensory gastronomic experiences. The challenge, as always, remains to find the unique selling point (USP) of such approaches to olfactory stimulation, over and above their mere feasibility and inherent theatricality.
TL;DR: The cross-sectional data show that objectively measured taste preferences are associated with the weight status of primary school children across varying food cultures, and it is concluded that culture and age are important determinants of taste preferences in pre-adolescent children.
Abstract: Increased preference for fat and sugar or reduced taste sensitivity may play a role in overweight and obesity development, but sensory perceptions are probably influenced already during childhood by food cultures and common dietary habits. We summarise the main findings of a large-scale epidemiological study conducted in Italy, Estonia, Cyprus, Belgium, Sweden, Germany, Hungary and Spain. We measured the taste preferences and the taste thresholds in 1,839 children aged 6 to 9 years and investigated factors that might influence the observed preferences as well as their association with weight status. Country of residence was the strongest factor related to preferences for sweet, salty, bitter and umami. Taste preferences also differed by age. Regardless of the country of residence and other covariates, overweight and obesity were positively associated with the preference for fat-enriched crackers and sugar-sweetened apple juice. We conclude that culture and age are important determinants of taste preferences in pre-adolescent children. The cross-sectional data show that objectively measured taste preferences are associated with the weight status of primary school children across varying food cultures. We hypothesise that this association is mediated by an unfavourable food choice as a food pattern characterised by sweet and fatty foods is associated with excess weight gain in these children.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report three online experiments designed to investigate how the visual presentation of a dish influences people's rating of exactly the same ingredients and highlight the importance of both visual presentation and naming on people's response (e.g. in terms of their willingness to pay) for a commercial dish.
Abstract: We report three online experiments designed to investigate how the visual presentation of a dish influences people’s rating of exactly the same ingredients. For this, participants were visually presented with two dishes, each containing the same ingredients arranged in either a linear or circular presentation. The influence of different naming strategies on people’s expectations concerning the dish was also assessed, as well as people’s preferred position of the tested linear vs. circular food arrangement. The results highlight the importance of both visual presentation and naming on people’s response (e.g. in terms of their willingness to pay) for a commercial dish. That is, participants’ ratings favoured the linear over the circular arrangement of the same ingredients. Furthermore, the participants tilted the linear dish, when asked to position it such that it appeals to them most, such that the dominant element displayed an oblique line ascending to the right. The results reported here provide intriguing first evidence concerning a putative preference for an oblique line ascending to the right with respect to the appreciation of the food on a plate. The implications of this kind of research for chefs and restaurateurs are discussed. We also contrast these preliminary results with findings demonstrating people’s preference for horizontal/vertical lines (over oblique lines) in other aesthetic-related fields, such as painting.
TL;DR: A growing body of evidence, both anecdotal and scientifically rigorous, now points to the fact that what people taste when evaluating a wine, not to mention how much they enjoy the experience, can be influenced by the specifics of any music that happens to be playing at the same time.
Abstract: A growing body of evidence, both anecdotal and scientifically rigorous, now points to the fact that what people taste when evaluating a wine, not to mention how much they enjoy the experience, can be influenced by the specifics of any music that happens to be playing at the same time. The question that we wish to address here is ‘So what?’ Why should anyone care that music (or, for that matter, specially composed soundscapes) exert(s) a crossmodal influence over the wine-tasting experience? ‘Why not just drink great wine and forget about the music?’ a sceptic might ask. Here, we outline a number of the uses that such research findings have been put to in the marketplace, in experiential events, in artistic performances, and in terms of furthering our theoretical understanding of those factors that influence the tasting experience. We also highlight how the latest in technology (think sensory apps and hyperdirectional loudspeakers, not to mention digitally augmented glassware) augurs well for those wanting to deliver the most stimulating, the most memorable, and certainly the most multisensory of tasting experiences in the years to come. Demonstrations of sound’s influence on wine perception will most likely be applicable to a variety of other drinks and foods too. Ultimately, the argument is forwarded that there are many reasons, both theoretical and applied, as to why we should all care about the fact that what we listen to can change the sensory-discriminative, the descriptive, and the hedonic attributes of what we taste.
TL;DR: This article found that certain visual presentations of food, but not plate shape, were associated with unfamiliar names if they respected sound symbolic associations and that the change in the perceived sweetness of the dishes was driven by the interaction between the shape of the plate and the presentation of the dish.
Abstract: While recent studies demonstrate the unexpected influence of plate shape and abstract names on the taste and flavour of foods, it is still challenging to derive more specific rules about how to use verbal and visual presentation to affect the experience of a complex dish. In the present study, we paired with the Experimental Kitchen at The Fat Duck to manipulate both plate shape and serving presentation of a complex dish and to investigate the relative contributions and interaction of these two factors on the naming and sensory evaluation of the food. The results confirm that certain visual presentations of food, but not plate shape, were associated with unfamiliar names if they respected sound symbolic associations. By contrast, the change in the perceived sweetness of the dishes was driven by the interaction between the shape of the plate and the presentation of the dish. The study therefore allows us to disentangle the effects of plate shape and dish presentation on the diner’s expectations and experience and shows how fundamental research on crossmodal effects can inform the creative process in the kitchen.
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TL;DR: An interdisciplinary symposium on The Science of Taste was brought together in August 2014 researchers and practitioners who deal with taste from many different perspectives with an aim to provide a composite mosaic of the authors' current understanding of taste.
Abstract: An understanding and description of our sensory perception of food requires input from many different scientific disciplines: in addition to the natural and life sciences, human sciences, social sciences, as well as the arts each contributes their perspective on what we call taste. For the natural sciences, the key concept is flavor encompassing all physical, chemical, and neurophysiological aspects. For researchers in human sciences, psychology, anthropology, and social sciences, taste is a broader concept related to tradition, geography, culture, as well as social relations. For cooks and practitioners, taste is a multimodal facet of food and the way we perceive and enjoy it. An interdisciplinary symposium on The Science of Taste brought together in August 2014 researchers and practitioners who deal with taste from many different perspectives with an aim to provide a composite mosaic of our current understanding of taste.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose to see taste as a social sense, that means as an activity related to socio-cultural context, rather than as an individual matter of internal reflection.
Abstract: This article outlines what it means to see taste as a social sense, that means as an activity related to socio-cultural context, rather than as an individual matter of internal reflection. Though culture in the science of taste is recognized as an influential parameter, it is often mentioned as the black box, leaving it open to determine exactly how culture impacts taste, and vice versa, and often representing the taster as a passive recipient of multiple factors related to the local cuisine and culinary traditions. By moving the attention from taste as a physiological stimulus–response of individuals to tasting as a shared cultural activity, it is possible to recognize the taster as a reflexive actor that communicates, performs, manipulates, senses, changes and embodies taste—rather than passively perceives a certain experience of food. The paper unfolds this anthropological approach to taste and outlines some of its methodological implications: to map different strategies of sharing the experience of eating, and to pay attention to the context of these tasting practices. It is proposed that different taste activities can be analysed through the same theoretical lens, namely as sharing practices that generates and maintains a cultural understanding of the meaning of taste.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of kokumi peptides on reduced-fat peanut butter was investigated, and a comparison test was conducted between full-fat model peanut butter and reduced fat peanut butter.
Abstract: Recent studies have demonstrated that kokumi substances, which enhance basic tastes and modify mouthfulness and continuity although they have no taste themselves, are perceived through the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). Screening by a CaSR assay and sensory evaluation have shown that γ-glutamyl-valyl-glycine (γ-Glu-Val-Gly) is a potent kokumi peptide. In our previous study, it was reported that the addition of γ-Glu-Val-Gly to chicken consomme significantly enhanced mouthfulness, continuity and thickness. In this study, the effect of γ-Glu-Val-Gly on reduced-fat peanut butter was investigated. Prior to the evaluation of the effect of γ-Glu-Val-Gly, a comparison test was conducted between full-fat model peanut butter and reduced-fat peanut butter. The sensory attributes in which the score of the full-fat model was significantly higher than that of the reduced-fat sample were used for the evaluation of the effect of γ-Glu-Val-Gly. The addition of γ-Glu-Val-Gly significantly enhanced thick flavour, aftertaste, and oiliness in the reduced-fat peanut butter. A kokumi peptide, γ-Glu-Val-Gly, can enhance thick flavour, aftertaste and oiliness in reduced-fat peanut butter. This suggests that addition of γ-Glu-Val-Gly can improve the flavour of low-fat foods.
TL;DR: The importance of food chemical signals in their association with the neuroendocrine mechanisms they trigger, which are the core for metabolism and appetite regulation, is examined.
Abstract: In the last 15 years, advancements in molecular biology have unraveled the proteins that function as taste receptors. There are at least five taste qualities that are consciously perceived, sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Of these five, sour and salty are mediated by ion channels, whereas the perception of sweet, umami, and bitter tastes is mediated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). These taste GPCRs belong to the TAS1R and TAS2R gene families. There are other nutrient-binding GPCRs whose taste function is still being studied such as CaSR, GPRC6A, GPR92, or GPR120. It has been suspected for more than a century that the gut can sense the chemical composition of foods. The description of multiple taste GPCRs in gastrointestinal (GI) cells suggests that there are nutrient-sensing mechanisms in the GI tract, oral, gastric, and intestinal mucosa. Oral sensing seems to mainly influence food discrimination and nutrient appetite, while post-oral chemosensors may relate to nutrient utilization and inhibition of appetite. The most common accepted view is that taste GPCRs are present in enteroendocrine cells among others also known as chemosensory cells. These cells express taste receptors and other taste-related genes. Although, functional cells of the GI mucosa that are not enteroendocrine or brush cells such as enterocytes or gastric cells may also hold receptive mechanisms that transduce the presence of certain nutrients in ingested foods and regulate gastric functions. This paper examines the importance of food chemical signals in their association with the neuroendocrine mechanisms they trigger, which are the core for metabolism and appetite regulation.
TL;DR: It is considered that improvement in salivary flow may serve as a treatment for patients with taste disorders and that maintenance of umami taste function contributes not only to the preservation of good oral health but also to the general overall health in elderly people.
Abstract: There is a close relationship between an individual’s perception of umami taste and that individual’s physical condition. Our newly developed umami taste sensitivity test revealed the loss of only the umami taste sensation with preservation of the other four basic taste sensations (sweet, salty, sour, and bitter) in some elderly patients. All such patients complained of appetite and weight loss, resulting in poor overall health. We also found that treatment of hyposalivation diminishes hypogeusia, indicating that salivation is essential to the maintenance of normal taste function. Based on these findings, we consider that improvement in salivary flow may serve as a treatment for patients with taste disorders. Umami taste stimulation increases the salivary flow rate because of the gustatory–salivary reflex. We used Japanese Kobucha (kelp tea: tea made of powdered tangle seaweed) to stimulate umami taste and promote reflexive salivation. Improvements were noted in salivation, taste function, appetite, weight, and overall health. Maintenance of umami taste function contributes not only to the preservation of good oral health but also to the general overall health in elderly people.
TL;DR: A review of the evidence that has been published to date suggesting that the music people listen to can change the particular taste/flavour profiles that they create is reviewed in this article.
Abstract: A growing body of scientific research has recently started to demonstrate how both music and soundscapes can influence people’s perception of the taste, flavour, and mouthfeel of food and drink. However, to date, far less research has investigated the question of whether the music that happens to be playing in the background might also influence the way in which chefs, home cooks, and others making food (or, for that matter, mixing drinks) develop or season their creations. One of the aims of this review is to highlight the markedly different views currently held by chefs concerning the appropriateness of music in their kitchens (and the different roles that it might play). Next, the evidence that has been published to date suggesting that the music people listen to can change the particular taste/flavour profiles that they create is reviewed. A number of putative explanations for the crossmodal effects of music on taste are evaluated, including the suppressive effect of loud noise on certain aspects of taste perception, priming through crossmodal correspondences, and/or the influence of any music-induced changes in mood on taste/flavour perception. Given that what we hear influences what we taste, and hence, how the person in the kitchen likely creates/seasons the dish, some commentators have been tempted to wonder whether the same music should perhaps also be played in the spaces (e.g., the restaurant or home dining room) where that food will be consumed in order to equate the conditions in which the dish or drink is seasoned/created with the environment in which it is tasted. This opinion piece ends by stressing the limitations with such an approach. One of the main problems being the kinds of music that the majority of chefs apparently prefer to listen to while working in the kitchen, music which is often chosen to motivate the staff who will likely be working a long shift.
TL;DR: In this paper, three traditional onion preparations (sue, sauteed, and pan-fried) were analyzed using headspace solid phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography (GC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS), flame ionization detection (FID), and olfactometry were used to analyze the onion preparations.
Abstract: Onions (Allium cepa) are widely used as a flavor agent ingredient in culinary preparations to bring specific cooked onion notes. In this study, three traditional types of preparations—sue, sauteed, and pan-fried onions—were used to investigate their differences in aroma profile. Headspace solid phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography (GC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS), flame ionization detection (FID), and olfactometry were used to analyze the onion preparations. The study enables to identify 66 major compounds in the preparations. Among these compounds, sulfur compounds, aldehydes, and furans were the most represented. The pan-fried onion preparation distinguishes itself by the highest number of compounds represented in a large amount. This result is consistent with this mode of cooking that combines high temperature with long cooking time and favors the formation of compounds from the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation. In comparison, the sue and sauteed preparations contain globally fewer compounds and, for most of them, in a lower amount compared to the pan-fried preparation. An innovative olfactometric approach was performed, based on a laboratory-developed software using an aroma wheel especially designed for the study of cooked onion. It enables an intuitive, efficient, and precise characterization of odor events along elution. A statistical comparison of intensities perceived for each odor detected during olfactometric analysis was used to understand the aroma balance and nuances perceived for these three traditional onion preparations. In accordance with chromatographic results, the pan-fried onion displays the highest number of odorant zones (65) associated with higher intensity scores and notably, to an enhanced perception of some Maillard compounds. Sue and sauteed onion profiles show an analog number of odorant zones (50 and 53), but the sauteed onion displays higher intensity scores and a particular contribution from pyrazines. The olfactometric approach used completes advantageously the instrumental characterization of cooked onions samples obtained by these three traditional cooking processes and reveals the essential contribution of minor compounds to the aroma of cooked onions. Particular compounds and balanced profile intensities were pointed out to explain the specific aroma nuances of traditional sue, sauteed, and pan-fried onions.
TL;DR: This brief review describes several examples of this coordination from studies of the sense of taste from species of the order Carnivora, particularly from species that are obligate carnivores, omnivores, and strict plant eaters.
Abstract: Each animal lives in its own sensory world that is coordinated with its diet. In this brief review, we describe several examples of this coordination from studies of the sense of taste, particularly from species of the order Carnivora. This order includes species that are obligate carnivores (e.g., Felis species), omnivores, and strict plant eaters. Many of the obligate carnivores have lost function for sweet taste, presumably through relaxation of selection for eating sugars from plants. In contrast, the giant panda, which feeds almost exclusively on bamboo, retains sweet taste function but may have lost amino acid (umami) taste perception. Finally, mammals that have “returned” to the sea, such as sea lions, have experienced even more extensive taste loss, presumably as a consequence of adaptations to a diet of fish and other sea creatures swallowed whole. Future comparative studies will surely reveal important relationships between diet and molecular, cellular, and behavioral taste adaptations that will shed light on how evolution moulds sensory structure and function.
TL;DR: Some of the methods, using geography as a starting point for the exploration of deliciousness, exemplified in the lunch menu served at the Science of Taste symposium in Copenhagen in August 2014 are described.
Abstract: Nordic Food Lab (NFL) is a non-profit, open-source organisation that investigates food diversity and deliciousness. We combine scientific and cultural approaches with culinary techniques from around the world to explore the edible potential of the Nordic region. We are intent on broadening our taste, generating and adapting practical ideas and methods for those who make food and those who enjoy eating. This paper describes some of our methods, using geography as a starting point for the exploration of deliciousness, exemplified in our lunch menu served at the Science of Taste symposium in Copenhagen in August 2014.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used GEneralised Multiplicative ANalysis of VAriance (GEMANOVA) to compare the behavior of 18 sensory descriptors in a sous-vide cooking of beef.
Abstract: Long-time low-temperature sous-vide cooking of meat enables the chef to precisely and robustly reach a desired gastronomic outcome. In long-time low-temperature sous-vide cooking, time and temperature can be used as independent parameters to control the outcome. From a scientific point of view, this raises the question how different sensory properties of meat respond to time and temperature and the nature of the underlying processes. Sensory properties of beef cooked at different combinations of low temperatures and long times were found to show three different time-temperature behaviours. By means of GEneralised Multiplicative ANalysis of VAriance (GEMANOVA), the behaviour of 18 descriptors could be reduced to three common time-temperature behaviours. This resulted in three groups of sensory descriptors: group A where temperature and time dependency strongly affect descriptors in the same direction, group B where temperature strongly and time less strongly affect descriptors in opposite directions, and group C where temperature and only to a small degree time affect descriptors in the same direction. The underlying physical and chemical properties in these groups may be classified as depending on their response to time and temperature. Group A, consisting of mainly aroma and flavour descriptors but also juiciness, showed mainly kinetic nature; group B, consisting of texture descriptors (exemplified by tenderness), showed mostly kinetic nature as well; whereas group C, best exemplified by pink colour, showed little dependency on time and thus mostly reflected the effect of temperature. The results indicate that three different underlying main phenomena are responsible for the changes in the sensory properties during long-time low-temperature cooking of beef.