Showing papers in "Frontiers in Education in 2019"

The Gender Gap in STEM Fields: The Impact of the Gender Stereotype of Math and Science on Secondary Students' Career Aspirations

Abstract: Studies have repeatedly reported that math and science are perceived as male domains, and scientists as predominantly male. However, the impact of the gender image of school science subjects on young people’s career choice has not yet been analyzed. This paper investigates the impact of the masculinity image of three school subjects – chemistry, mathematics and physics – on secondary students’ career aspirations in STEM fields. The data originated from a cross-sectional study among 1’364 Swiss secondary school students who were close to obtaining their matriculation diploma. By means of a standardized survey, data on students’ perception of masculinity of science school subjects were collected using semantic differentials. The results indicate that for both sexes, math has the strongest masculinity attribution, followed by physics as second, and, finally, chemistry with the lowest masculinity attribution. With respect to gender differences, our findings have shown that among female students, the attribution of masculinity to the three school subjects does not differ significantly, meaning that female students rated all subjects similarly strongly as masculine. Within the group of male students however, the attribution of masculinity to math compared to chemistry and physics differs significantly, whereas the attribution of masculinity to chemistry and physics does not. Our findings also suggest that gender-science stereotypes of math and science can potentially influence young women’s and men’s aspirations to enroll in a STEM major at university by showing that a less pronounced masculine image of science has the potential to increase the likelihood of STEM career aspirations. Finally, the paper discusses ways of changing the image of math and science in the context of secondary education in order to overcome the disparities between females and males in STEM.

A Critical Review of Research on Student Self-Assessment

Abstract: This article is a review of research on student self-assessment conducted largely between 2013 and 2018. The purpose of the review is to provide an updated overview of theory and research. The treatment of theory involves articulating a refined definition and operationalization of self-assessment. The review of 76 empirical studies offers a critical perspective on what has been investigated, including the relationship between self-assessment and achievement, consistency of self-assessment and others’ assessments, student perceptions of self-assessment, and the association between self-assessment and self-regulated learning. An argument is made for less research on consistency and summative self-assessment, and more on the cognitive and affective mechanisms of formative self-assessment.

Learning and Satisfaction in Webinar, Online, and Face-to-Face Instruction: A Meta-Analysis

Abstract: Kirkpatrick’s four-level training evaluation model assumes that a positive correlation exists between satisfaction and learning. Several studies have investigated levels of satisfaction and learning in synchronous online courses, asynchronous online learning management systems, and synchronous face-to-face classroom instruction. The goal of the present meta-analysis was to cumulate these effect sizes and test the predictive validity of Kirkpatrick’s assumption. In this connection, particular attention was given to a prototypical form of synchronous online courses – so called “webinars”. The following two research questions were addressed: (a) Compared to asynchronous online and face-to-face instruction, how effective are webinars in promoting student learning and satisfaction? (b) What is the association between satisfaction and learning in webinar, asynchronous online and face-to-face instruction? The results showed that webinars were descriptively more effective in promoting student knowledge than asynchronous online (Hedges’ g = 0.29) and face-to-face instruction (g = 0.06). Satisfaction was negligibly higher in webinars compared to asynchronous online instruction (g = 0.12) but was lower in webinars to face-to-face instruction (g = -0.33). Learning and satisfaction were negatively associated in all three conditions, indicating no empirical support for Kirkpatrick’s assumption in the context of webinar, asynchronous online and face-to-face instruction.

Reaching Social Impact Through Communicative Methodology. Researching With Rather Than on Vulnerable Populations: The Roma Case

Abstract: Communicative methodology has been acknowledged as having an impact at all levels: social, political and scientific. The social impact is achieved with the communicative methodology by involving the people or communities we intend to study from the beginning to the end of the research. There are positive benefits to those involved, which increases the impact. Therefore, the communicative methodology enhances the potential of stakeholders (including those traditionally excluded) for social transformation through the use of egalitarian dialogue. Additionally, those stakeholders co-lead the research and promote change in their own social environments because of their inclusion in all stages of the research process. The theoretical basis of the communicative methodology led to the assumption of postulates that enable social transformation. Researchers, taking into account the theoretical principles and postulates, interpret reality through dialogic knowledge while researching with vulnerable populations. This article illustrates how it is possible to attain social impact using the communicative methodology in diverse contexts and points out how the communicative organization of research and the communicative analysis of data can be decisive in attaining social impact. Such change contributes to the social and educational transformation of reality and to improving the lives of vulnerable populations.

Innovative Pedagogies of the Future: An Evidence-Based Selection

Abstract: There is a widespread notion that educational systems should empower learners with skills and competences to cope with a constantly changing landscape. Reference is often made to skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, collaborative skills, innovation, digital literacy, and adaptability. What is negotiable is how best to achieve the development of those skills, in particular which teaching and learning approaches are suitable for facilitating or enabling complex skills development. In this paper, we build on our previous work of exploring new forms of pedagogy for an interactive world, as documented in our Innovating Pedagogy report series. We present a set of innovative pedagogical approaches that have the potential to guide teaching and transform learning. An integrated framework has been developed to select pedagogies for inclusion in this paper, consisting of the following five dimensions: (a) relevance to effective educational theories, (b) research evidence about the effectiveness of the proposed pedagogies, (c) relation to the development of twenty-first century skills, (d) innovative aspects of pedagogy, and (e) level of adoption in educational practice. The selected pedagogies, namely formative analytics, teachback, place-based learning, learning with drones, learning with robots, and citizen inquiry are either attached to specific technological developments, or they have emerged due to an advanced understanding of the science of learning. Each one is presented in terms of the five dimensions of the framework.

The Development of Students' Understanding of Science

Abstract: Children construct intuitive understandings of the physical world based on their everyday experiences. These intuitive understandings are organized in skeletal conceptual structures known as framework theories. Framework theories are different from currently accepted science and impose constraints on how students understand the scientific explanations of phenomena causing the creation of fragmented or synthetic conceptions. It is argued that in order to understand science students need to make important changes in the way they represent and explain the physical world as well as in their ways of reasoning. During the development of science knowledge students must also create new concepts and new belief systems which do not necessarily supplant their framework theories but co-exist with them. These developments are gradual and slow and follow a learning progression. In order to be effective science education needs to make students aware of their intuitive understandings, provide scientific information gradually and in agreement with students’ learning progressions and develop students’ reasoning abilities and executive function skills.

Students' Achievement Emotions and Online Learning in Teacher Education

Abstract: Online learning has become widely accepted and is considered as an important approach that can overcome the limitations of on-campus learning, especially in higher education. The acceptance of learning technologies generally depends on technology related beliefs and the perceived ease of use. The use of learning technology depends on how students experience it emotionally. Although research on emotions in technology-supported learning environments has increased in recent years, the question how students experience online learning environments emotionally, and how these emotions are intervened with technology acceptance has not yet been answered in more detail. Up to now, only a limited number of studies has focused on emotions and technology acceptance of university students, especially in teacher education. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze students’ technology acceptance and achievement emotions after participating in an online course (in comparison to an on-campus course) in teacher education. Survey data from 182 students (88 of them participated in an on-campus course, 94 students attended an online course) revealed a higher level of positive emotions than of negative emotions, regardless of the learning environment. Students who attended the online course reported a higher level of boredom, anxiety, and anger, but less enjoyment. Furthermore, the results show that online students reported significantly higher levels of achievement task value und technological control. Technological value correlated significantly with enjoyment. In contrast to the theoretical assumptions, no systematic differences were found between the two learning environments for the achievement emotions hope, shame, hopelessness, and anxiety. Regardless of the learning environment, enjoyment was essential for the value that students attach to both, learning content and technology. The online and the on-campus group differed in terms of domain specific achievement outcome. Interestingly, however, these differences cannot be explained by the covariates, the two control and value scales, the technology related beliefs, and age. Main results of the study regarding the control-value theory and implications for online learning environments, as well as limitations of the study are presented and discussed.

Head-Mounted Display Virtual Reality in Post-secondary Education and Skill Training

Abstract: Background: This review focused on how immersive head-mounted display virtual reality (VR) was used in post-secondary level education and skill training, with the aim to better understand its state of the art as found from the literature. While numerous studies describe the use of immersive VR within a specific educational setting, they are often standalone events not fully detailed regarding their curricular integration. This review aims to analyse these events, with a focus on immersive VR’s incorporation into post-secondary education. Objectives: O1) Review the existing literature on the use of immersive VR in post-secondary settings, determining where and how it has been used within each educational discipline. This criterion focused on literature featuring the use of immersive VR, due to its influence on a user’s perceived levels of presence and imagination. O2) Identify favourable outcomes from the use of immersive VR when compared to other learning methods. O3) Determine the conceptual rationale (purpose) for each implementation of immersive VR as found throughout the literature. O4) Identify learning theories and recommendations for the utilization of immersive VR in post-secondary education. Methods: A literature review was undertaken with searches of Education Research Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE, EMBASE, IEEE Xplore, Scopus and Web of Science: Core Collection to locate reports on the use of immersive VR in post-secondary curricula. Results: 119 articles were identified, featuring disciplines across Arts and Humanities, Health Sciences, Military and Aerospace, Science and Technology. 35 out of 38 experiments reported to have found a positive outcome for immersive VR, after being compared with a non-immersive platform. Each simulation’s purpose included one or more of the following designations: skill training, convenience, engagement, safety, highlighting, interactivity, team building and suggestion. Recommendations for immersive VR in post-secondary education emphasize experiential learning and social constructivist approaches, including student-created virtual environments that are mainly led by the students themselves under team collaboration. Conclusion: Immersive VR brings convenient, engaging and interactive alternatives to traditional classroom settings as well as offers additional capability over traditional methods. There is a diverse assortment of educational disciplines that have each attempted to harness the power of this technological medium.

The Kids and Teens at School (KiTeS) Framework: An Inclusive Bioecological Systems Approach to Understanding School Absenteeism and School Attendance Problems

Abstract: The Warnock report was instrumental in highlighting the need to individualise educational supports for children and adolescents with disabilities in order to foster optimal educational outcomes. When children and adolescents are absent from school or experience school attendance problems, their educational outcomes are jeopardized as is their social and emotional development. Proximal and distal individual, parental, familial, and environmental factors have been implicated in the development and maintenance of absenteeism and school attendance problems. The complex interaction amongst these factors calls for a multifactorial approach to understanding the development of school attendance problems. The current paper presents a bioecological systems framework for examining risk factors for school absenteeism and school attendance problems among all school-aged students. The framework aims to identify the concurrent influence of factors across multiple contexts such as home, school, and society. We propose candidate factors of particular relevance to school attendance problems in school age students, and organise them in a bioecological systems framework, known as the Kids and Teens at School (KiTeS) framework. The framework is inclusive of students with and without disabilities and provides a guiding structure to researchers aiming to improve understanding of the factors that influence absenteeism and school attendance problems.

Building Feedback Literacy: Students’ Perceptions of the Developing Engagement With Feedback Toolkit

Abstract: Developing the requisite skills for engaging proactively with feedback is crucial for academic success. This paper reports data concerning the perceived usefulness of the Developing Engagement with Feedback Toolkit (DEFT) in supporting the development of students' feedback literacy skills. In Study 1, student participants were surveyed about their use of feedback, and their perceptions of the utility of the DEFT resources. In Study 2, students discussed the resources in focus groups. Study 3 compared students' responses on a measure of feedback literacy before and after they completed a DEFT feedback workshop. Participants perceived the DEFT favorably, and the data indicate that such resources may enhance students' general feedback literacy. However, the data raise questions about when such an intervention would be of greatest value to students, the extent to which students would or should engage voluntarily, and whether it would engage those students with the greatest need for developmental support.

Teachers' Conceptions of Assessment: A Global Phenomenon or a Global Localism

Abstract: How teachers conceive of the nature and purpose of assessment matters to the implementation of classroom assessment and the preparation of students for high-stakes external examinations or qualifications. It is highly likely that teacher beliefs arise from the historical, cultural, social, and policy contexts within which teachers operate. Hence, it may be that there is not a globally homogeneous construct of teacher conceptions of assessment. Instead, it is possible that a statistical model of teacher conceptions of assessment will always be a local expression. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine whether any of the published models of teacher assessment conceptions could be generalised across data sets from multiple jurisdictions. Research originating in New Zealand with the Teacher Conceptions of Assessment self-report inventory has been replicated in multiple locations and languages (i.e., English in New Zealand, Queensland, Hong Kong, and India; Greek in Cyprus; Arabic in Egypt; Spanish in Spain, Ecuador) and at different levels of instructional contexts (Primary, Secondary, Senior Secondary, and Teacher Education). This study conducts secondary data analyses in which eight previously published models of teacher conceptions of assessment were systematically compared across 11 available data sets. Nested multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (using Amos v25) was carried out to establish sequentially configural, metric, and scalar equivalence between models. Results indicate that only one model (i.e., India) had configural invariance across all 11 data sets and this did not achieve metric equivalence. These results indicate that while the inventory can be used cross-culturally after localized adaptations, there is indeed no single global model. Context, culture, and local factors shape teacher conceptions of assessment.

School Readiness Profiles and Growth in Academic Achievement

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to identify the presence of different school readiness profiles and to determine whether profiles could differentially predict academic growth. The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study: 2010-11 (ECLS-K: 2011) public data set was used, and participants were 14,954 first-time kindergarteners. The age of entering kindergarten ranged from 44.81–87.98 months with a mean of 76.13 months. In Study 1, a six-dimensional construct of school readiness was used: health, self-regulation, social and emotional development, language development, cognitive development, and approaches to learning. Results revealed 41 profiles with the top six school readiness profiles covering 85% of the sample: (1) Positive Development (28%); (2) Comprehensive At-Risk (24%); (3) Personal and Social Strengths (20%); (4) Cognitive and Language Strengths (5%), (5) Health Strength (5%); and (6) Cognitive, Personal and Social Strengths (3%). Study 2 examined whether school readiness profiles could predict children’s reading and math achievement growth using growth curve models. Results showed that different school readiness profile membership had unique academic growth patterns and could predict academic growth above and beyond child and family background variables. Moreover, children with the Positive Development profile had higher academic achievement over time. Children with the Personal and Social Strengths profile had the largest growth rates. In sum, findings support the inclusion of self-regulation as another dimension of school readiness and the important role of personal and social skills in the development of reading and math achievement.

Radical-Transformative Agency: Continuities and Contrasts With Relational Agency and Implications for Education

Abstract: The recent scholarship on agency is mostly centered around a relational (also known as situative, contextual, distributed, and ecological) approach that draws attention to agency being situated in context and contingent on sociocultural interactivities and contextual dynamics. My central argument is that there is a residue of passivity in these conceptions. Illustrative of this are the works by Bietsa and colleagues which I analyze to reveal conceptual flaws that need to be addressed. To overcome these flaws, it is important to reconstrue no less than the very basic premises about human development, context/reality, and teaching-learning to foreground a more radical view of agency conducive to combatting inequalities and injustices in education. In the alternative approach, termed the Transformative Activist Stance, human development is posited to be not only fully immersed in the world and its contextual dynamics but, more critically, realized by each individual’s agentive contributions to communal practices, whereby these practices are changed as a whole every time a person acts as an active member of community. The emphasis is on the nexus of people changing the world and being changed in this very process of them changing the world – as two poles of one and the same, bi-directional and recursive, co-constitution of people and the world in a simultaneous self- and world-realization. People never merely react or respond to what exists but agentively act in co-realizing both the world and themselves. Agency in this account is accorded with a formative role in the processes of co-realizing both human development, the overall sociohistorical dynamics, and the world itself. Importantly, agency development is contingent on access to cultural tools that need to be provided by society and agentively taken up by each individual. There are starkly contrasting sociopolitical conjectures and implications geared to the issues of inequalities and injustices in education. The notion of a radical-transformative agency is deploeyd in order to expose and overcome ideologies of passive adaptation to, and acquiescence with, the existing order of things and the world as it presumably “is.”

Trajectory of university dropout: investigating the cumulative effect of academic vulnerability and proximity to family support

Abstract: University dropout is a major policy concern around the world because of its consequences for the individual, institutions and society. In this study, we offer new evidence by examining the cumulative effect of academic vulnerability and family support on trajectory of dropout among cohorts of undergraduate students in Thailand. Data were drawn from administrative records of two cohorts of students (n=1613), and consisted of information on which semester individual’s dropped out of university. Using discrete time survival analysis, we first modelled the trajectory of dropout without predictors followed by a conditional model which examined the effects of predictors on the trajectory of dropout. Cumulative effects of predictors were then examined by plotting the probabilities of their combined effects on dropout in each semester. Our findings show that while the beginning of the second year was a critical period of dropout with almost 20% of students leaving by this time, as much as 10% of students drop out between the second and final year. Students with the lowest entry grades were about 2.17 times more likely to dropout while those who were farther away from family support were 1.32 times more likely to drop out across each semester. The cumulative effect of low entry grades and living away from family support resulted in a 30% probability of dropping out in the second year. The dropout rate among this category of students by the final year was 60% compared to only 14% for students with high entry grades and who live close to their families. Among other things, we recommend that interventions to reduce dropout should encompass both helping students to access family support and develop personal connections at university to compensate for absence of family support, as well as academically focused support for student who do not have a strong entry qualification.

Gender Performance Gaps Across Different Assessment Methods and the Underlying Mechanisms: The Case of Incoming Preparation and Test Anxiety

Abstract: A persistent ‘gender penalty’ in exam performance disproportionately impacts women in large introductory science courses, where exam grades generally account for the majority of the students’ assessment of learning. Previous work in introductory biology demonstrates that some social psychological factors may underlie these gender penalties, including test anxiety and interest in course content. In this paper, we examine the extent that gender predicts performance across disciplines, and investigate social psychological factors that mediate performance. We also examine whether a gender penalty persists beyond introductory courses, and can be observed in more advanced upper division science courses. We ran analyses (1) across two colleges at a single institution: the College of Biological Sciences and the College of Science and Engineering (i.e., physics, chemistry, materials science, math); and (2) across introductory lower division courses and advanced upper division courses, or those that require a prerequisite. We affirm that exams have disparate impacts based on student gender at the introductory level, with female students underperforming relative to male students. We did not observe these exam gender penalties in upper division courses, suggesting that women are either being ‘weeded out’ at the introductory level, or ‘warming to’ timed examinations. Additionally, results from mediation analyses show that across disciplines and divisions, for women only, test anxiety negatively influences exam performance.

Hidden Identities Shape Student Perceptions of Active Learning Environments

Abstract: Active-learning pedagogies represent one suite of tools commonly thought to promote greater classroom inclusivity. However, the social aspects of many active-learning techniques, such as in-class group work, may differentially impact students who feel pressure to conceal certain aspects of their identity, such as sexual orientation, political affiliation, or religion. We used a post-course survey of over 1300 students at a large midwestern University to ascertain which aspects of a student’s identity are most salient in their experiences in active-learning environments, especially with respect to group work. Using path analysis, we show that students who are politically conservative, religious, or who commute to campus perceive lower inclusion in active-learning environments, while students who identify as queer report negative experiences in groups. These and other findings lead us to conclude that targeted efforts to improve classroom climate, such as equitable teaching strategies, will benefit students who might feel marginalized in peer-learning environments.

Perceived Differentiation and Personalization Teaching Approaches in Inclusive Classrooms: Perspectives of Students and Teachers

Abstract: As indicated by the Warnock Report, even forty years ago, the necessity of responding to different student abilities and needs in school and thus the importance of adequate adaption of a regular curriculum regarding differentiation and personalization had already been described. Due to changes in policy and legislative frameworks, more and more students with special educational needs (SEN) attend regular education. However, placing the students with SEN within mainstream classrooms does not automatically lead to changes in teaching practices in these classrooms. In line with this, it would be interesting to know the way in which and to what extent students in inclusive classes perceive established inclusive practices, such as differentiation and personalization. Therefore, data from 47 inclusive classes from North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany) were collected. In total, 872 primary school students (grade 4; ages 9–11 years) were asked to rate how frequently their class teachers used inclusive instructional practices (personalization and differentiation) using the Inclusive Classroom Practices Scale (ITPS). In addition to students, teachers were also asked to rate their own teaching practices in general and then in addition for each student separately. As differentiated instruction and multifaceted teaching practices are considered to be measures for meeting the needs of children with different educational needs, results that show a high use of these approaches were expected. Descriptive results indicate a consistent homogeneous understanding of prevailing inclusive teaching practices, which could be characterized by existing, but not intensive implementation, of inclusive practices. Differences regarding students’ gender, migrant background, or SEN were not found for the students’ ratings of teachers’ inclusive practices or the teachers’ self-ratings group. Moreover, the teachers’ student-specific ratings indicate that teachers did not strongly differentiate or personalize with a focus on students’ characteristics. A small overlap between teachers’ general ratings of their own inclusive teaching practices and students’ individual ratings was found. The results of the current study provide insights into actual inclusive teaching practices in German inclusive classrooms and make it possible to address the need for action and inclusive interventions.

Retrieval Practice in Classroom Settings: A Review of Applied Research

Abstract: Tests have been vastly used for the assessment of learning in educational contexts. Recently, however, a growing body of research have shown that the practice of remembering previously studied information (i.e., retrieval practice) is more advantageous for long-term retention than restudying that same information; a phenomenon often termed “testing effect”. The question remains, however, whether such practice can be useful to improve learning in actual educational contexts, and whether in these contexts specific types of tests are particularly beneficial. We address these issues by reviewing studies that investigated the use of retrieval practice as a learning strategy in actual educational contexts. The reviewed studies adopted from free-recall to multiple-choice tests, and involved from elementary school children to medical school students. In general, their results are favorable to the use of retrieval practice in classroom settings, regardless of whether feedback is provided or not. Importantly, however, the majority of the reviewed studies compared retrieval practice to repeated study or to “no-activity”. The results of the studies comparing retrieval practice to alternative control conditions were less conclusive, and a subset of them found no advantage for tests. These findings raise the question whether retrieval practice is more beneficial than alternative learning strategies, especially learning strategies and activities already adopted in classroom settings (e.g., concept mapping). Thus, even though retrieval practice emerges as a promising strategy to improve learning in classroom environments, there is not enough evidence available at this moment to determine whether it is as beneficial as alternative learning activities frequently adopted in classroom settings.

The Importance of Autonomous, Self-Regulated Learning in Primary Initial Teacher Training

Abstract: This article grew from the author’s doctoral study into the development of self-regulated learning (SRL) at the end of the primary school. A brief outline of SRL is included to provide the context for this article. The focus of learning in schools is seen as shifting from a knowledge-based focus to a skills-based curriculum as the role of the teacher adapts to the changing nature of education. Work on collaborative enquiry learning and the inclusion of pupil voice are also factors in this paradigm shift in teaching. Much of the previous research in the area of self-regulation has focused on older learners. However, interest in developing SRL throughout the primary years of schooling is growing. Initially the study focused on considering the curriculum as the driver of the development of self-regulated learning. However, when analysing the pupil and teacher questionnaire results from a variety of schools it became apparent that the teacher-pupil relationship was central to the initiation and support of autonomous learning irrespective of the curricula background of the school. The teacher’s role is viewed as paramount in the development of self-regulated learning. This article moves to focus on the preparation teachers receive in their training to support them through facilitating students to become self-regulated, autonomous learners. Teacher training is seen as requiring the incorporation of self-regulation, autonomy and the notion of lifelong learning at the heart of the courses offered to student teachers. Student teachers should be viewed as learning about self-regulation as lifelong learners themselves and teacher training practices need to change to reflect a more active and collaborative pedagogy. There is discussion of the more constructivist approaches teacher trainers can utilise to engage their students, which includes instructing their teaching students in ways, which reflect the strategies required for the students to employ with their classes.

Game-Based Learning of the Structure and Functioning of Body Cells in a Foreign Language: Effects on Motivation, Cognitive Load, and Performance

Abstract: Research has evidenced that digital educational games can be effective tools to impart knowledge. Researchers have recommended to focus on motivation and gaming load and their interaction when investigating learning process and success. Gaming expertise and the English proficiency of learners seem to be further important aspects of learning success, especially when non-native speakers play an English game. However, knowledge about the motivational and cognitive impact of games and learner characteristics on learning outcomes needs to be augmented and clarified. The present study aimed to address this need. We conducted an experimental media comparison to investigate the effects of game play and expertise in gaming and English on motivation, cognitive load, and performance. The participating German university students were randomly assigned to an educational gaming group and a hypertext group. Aspects of motivation were assessed before and after studying and gaming, cognitive load was rated during and after learning, and level of performance was measured before and after studying. The gaming group reported a higher level of interest, challenge, and anxiety of failing after introducing the task. Groups did not differ significantly in their perceived probability of success. The group levels of interest were the same after a one-hour learning phase. When learning, cognitive load increased after the initial phase in the gaming group and then stayed on a constant level, whereas the opposite pattern was found in the hypertext group. No differences were found in load ratings after learning between the two groups. Both groups improved their knowledge after learning, but the gain was larger for the hypertext group. Results point to gaming and English expertise as two mediating factors for learning success with educational games. We suggest that gaming expertise and English comprehension ability reduce cognitive load and thus enable learners to focus their resources on meaningful learning.

Is Assessment for Learning Really Assessment

Abstract: This presentation was given to the NZ Cancelled Conference Conversations Digital Conference in May 2020. I question the legitimacy of treating assessment for learning (AfL) as assessment. The distinction between testing and assessment is first made, then the defining characteristics of contemporary AfL are identified. While AfL claims to be assessment, my analysis argues that AfL is a pedagogical curriculum approach that has some process aspects of assessment. However, because of the interactive and in-the-moment characteristics of AfL, it fails to meet requirements of an assessment. Specifically, because the in-the-moment and on-the-fly aspects of effective classroom discussions and providing feedback happen in ephemeral contexts it is not possible to scrutinize the interpretations teachers make of student products and processes. Furthermore, we cannot know if those interpretations were sufficiently accurate to guide classroom interactions. Without social or statistical moderation, stakeholders cannot be assured that valid conclusions are reached. Additionally, the scale of error in both teacher and student judgment means that AfL practices cannot be relied upon for decision making beyond curriculum-embedded actions within a pedagogical process. Because teaching requires robust evidence to support decisions made about students and teachers, the practices commonly associated with AfL cannot provide sufficient evidence on which to base anything more than teaching interactions.

A Single-Item Measure for Assessing STEM Identity

Abstract: Science identity based frameworks have proven fruitful in predicting persistence in careers in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). However, much of the research in this area is qualitative or relies on measures of science identity that have not been validated. Here, we propose and provide initial evidence for the validity and reliability of the single-item STEM Professional Identity Overlap measure (STEM-PIO-1) that aims to assess the broader construct of STEM identity via students’ perceived overlap between the image they have of themselves and the image they have of STEM professionals. Across three studies, we provide evidence of convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity—the measure displays moderate positive associations with adapted measures of STEM identity, explains unique variance relative to related but distinct measures of STEM identity, and is positively associated with STEM attitudes, STEM self-efficacy, mastery goal orientation, and agentic behavior toward one’s graduation goals. The measure differentiates between STEM and non-STEM majors, and is associated with self-reported persistence in one’s STEM major. The single-item measure displays moderate test-retest reliability and an expanded four-item version yields good internal consistency. Although continued validation is needed, the simplicity of the STEM-PIO-1 may prove valuable in its ability to promote consistency in measurement of the STEM identity construct across time, age groups, and disciplines.

What Is My Next Step? School Students' Perceptions of Feedback

Abstract: Feedback literature is dominated by claims of large effect sizes, yet there are remarkable levels of variability relating to the effects of feedback. The same feedback can be effective for one student but not another, and in one situation but not another. There is a need to better understand how students are receiving feedback and currently there is relatively little research on school students' perceptions of feedback. In contrast, current social constructivist and self-regulatory models of feedback see the learner as an active agent in receiving, interpreting, and applying feedback information. This paper aims to investigate school student perceptions of feedback through designing a student feedback perception questionnaire (SFPQ) based upon a conceptual model of feedback. The questionnaire was used to collect data about the helpfulness to learning of different feedback types and levels. Results demonstrate that the questionnaire partially affirms the conceptual model of feedback. Items pertaining to feed forward (improvement based feedback) were reported by students as most helpful to learning. Implications for teaching and learning are discussed, in regard to how students receive feedback.

Toward an Understanding of the Characteristics of Secondary School Cyberhate Perpetrators

Abstract: While the Internet offers many opportunities to access information, training and communication, it has created new grounds for risks, threats and harm. With the rise of populism and extremism, new forms of cyberbullying emerge, more specifically cyberhate. The Internet has become a privileged tool to disseminate hatred, based on racism, xenophobia, bigotry and islamophobia. Organized groups use the internet as a dissemination tool for their ideas, to build collective identity and to recruit young people. The presence of these groups has been facilitated worldwide thanks to technology. Yet, little attention has been granted to the way the Internet eases the activities of individuals who promote and propagate hate online. The role they play in spreading racism, xenophobia and bigotry is paramount as they regularly comment online about news and events, interacting with like-minded people with impunity because the web prevents people from being easily identified or controlled. While literature on exposure to hateful contents and cyberhate victimization is growing, little is known about who the perpetrators really are. A survey with young people aged 12-20 (N= 1,889) was completed in France and forms the basis of this article. It provides an understanding of the characteristics and associated variables of cyberhate perpetration. The Structural Equation model shows that cyberhate perpetration is heavily related to time spent online, victimization, belonging to a deviant youth group, positive attitudes towards violence and racism. Results from the SEM further suggest that people who suffered from online victimization will themselves have a greater tendency to belong to deviant youth groups. Multiple mediation analysis further suggests that trust in institutions may however prevent young people from belonging to a deviant youth group and decrease positive attitudes toward violence, thus diminishing the tendency to perform hateful aggression.

Predicting Student Depression With Measures of General and Academic Anxieties

Abstract: Universities are increasingly cognizant of the importance of attending to the psychological and emotional needs of undergraduate learners, recognizing that anxiety and depression have significant negative impacts on student retention and success. The focus of the current study was to evaluate the connections among various forms of anxiety and examine the relationships these indicators of anxiety have with depression. The results demonstrated that a broad measure of neuroticism was a meaningful predictor for depression. However, precision in detecting depressive symptoms was improved when examining an additional measure specifically focused on academic anxiety. The results provide support for a nested model of anxiety, which suggests that broad neuroticism, then academic anxiety, and finally test anxiety are progressively more specific manifestations of anxious indicators in university students.

Rethinking professional experience through a learning community model: toward a culture change

Abstract: Preparing pre-service teachers to become effective future educators has become increasingly complex in an environment of rapid change, economic uncertainty, technological advancements, and cultural diversity. Contemporary initial teacher education is evolving and adapting to the changing organizational environments and cultures in organizations who partner in equipping pre-service teachers to become knowledgeable, innovative, and professional in their teaching and skilled in effectively connecting, interacting, and collaborating in professional communities. Professional experience placements provide pre-service teachers with the opportunity to participate in teaching in real-world settings guided by experienced teachers and supported by university supervisors; however, the diverse approaches to professional experience adopted by educational organizations, influence pre-service teachers’ experiences, and outcomes. Cultural and socio-economic factors across different sites also impact on the outcomes of students’ professional experience due to variations in the organizational culture and settings. In this paper we explore the evolution of professional experience from traditional to contemporary, the role of the third space in professional experience, and the complexities in developing a unified approach in universities and early childhood sites/schools, organizations that have very different cultures yet are committed to developing effective teachers. We highlight the advantages of adopting a learning community model for professional experience in which mentoring is central to success. A theory-based model of professional experience, 3PEx, based on a learning community approach and the merging of cultures in professional experience and learning contexts, is introduced. This model is informed by the literature and results of a recent study of professional experience in a university reimagining initial teacher education to meet contemporary standards. The challenges of achieving cultural change in the professional experience arena are explored, and a range of strategies suggested that can lead to a deeper understanding of the cultural landscape and the needs of pre-service teachers in their transition to teaching.

The Influence of Variance in Learner Answers on Automatic Content Scoring

Abstract: Automatic content scoring is an important application in the area of automatic educational assessment. Short texts written by learners are scored based on their content while spelling and grammar mistakes are usually ignored. The difficulty of automatically scoring such texts varies according to the variance within the learner answers. In this paper, we first discuss factors that influence variance in learner answers, so that practitioners can better estimate if automatic scoring might be applicable to their usage scenario. We then compare the two main paradigms in content scoring: (i) similarity-based and (ii) instance-based methods, and discuss how well they can deal with each of the variance-inducing factors described before.

Physics Teachers' Acceptance of Multimedia Applications—Adaptation of the Technology Acceptance Model to Investigate the Influence of TPACK on Physics Teachers' Acceptance Behavior of Multimedia Applications

Abstract: Although multimedia applications can undeniably have a positive impact on the learning success of students, they are not used by all physics teachers. The study presented in this paper examines the influence of technological knowledge of physics teachers on their acceptance behaviour by adding TPACK of a physics teacher, as an additional variable to an adapted technology acceptance model (TAM). In addition, the TAM has been adapted to study the acceptance of multimedia applications of physics teachers in physics education. For this purpose, both, the design features were adapted and items were reworded to adjust them to the usage of multimedia applications in school and teaching context. While the first part of the study evaluates the changes of the TAM, the second part of the study deals with the extension of the TAM by the factor TPACK. TPACK acts as a superordinate moderator variable, which has a highly significant influence on the adapted TAM’s design features “perceived ease of use“, “perceived usefulness for pupils“ and the “personal job relevance assessment“. Interestingly, the results of the study show that TPACK has no significant influence on the "perceived personal usefulness" of multimedia applications in physics teaching. Nevertheless, the prediction of the acceptance behaviour of multimedia applications in physics teaching can be improved by extending the adapted TAM2/UTAUT model by TPACK.

Multidimensional Item Response Theory for Factor Structure Assessment in Educational Psychology Research

Abstract: This study demonstrates the use of multidimensional item response theory (MIRT) to investigate an instrument’s factor structure. For didactic purposes, MIRT was used to assess the factor structure of the 9-item Effort Beliefs Scale (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2006), based on data obtained from 1,127 undergraduate engineering students (20.9% female) across two academic years attending a large, metropolitan university in the east south-central region of the United States at the beginning and end of the first semester of freshman year. MIRT results supported the scale’s multidimensional structure, which were compared to those based on confirmatory factor analysis. Specifically, comparisons of competing models supported the scale’s bifactor structure in which the collective item set related to a primary dimension and each item related to one of two domain-specific factors: Positive Relationship, Inverse Relationship. Furthermore, the utility of item response theory for assessing effort beliefs changes across the first semester and the relationship of IRT and observed scores is provided. The paper concludes with an overview of MIRT for scale development and dimensionality assessment to advance the reader’s awareness of its use as a psychometric tool.

Humanoid Robots as Teachers and a Proposed Code of Practice

Abstract: This article will discriminate between kinds of robot, point to its burgeoning development and application in the home and workplace, and describe its growing use in the classroom as a teacher. It will describe its potential to support, for instance, language development, social, and emotional training [e.g., for children with an autistic spectrum disorder (ASD)], and teaching and assessment, and will review researchers', teachers', students', and parents' responses to this use. Some of these responses recognize the potential usefulness of humanoid robots, but also show an awareness that digital “thought” (AI) is not the same as human thought (HI), and show some caution about using robots as teachers. This disparity generates problems and dilemmas. These stem from, for example, a lack of discretion in decision-making, a lack of emotion (other than by simulation), a limited creative ability (in the foreseeable future), the nature of AI/HI relationships, ethical/legal matters, and culturally unsuitable programming. These matters point to the need for forethought about robot roles and for a code of practice for teachers who work with them. Derived from the discussion, such a code is proposed. The introduction of robot teachers will have significant implications for teachers' roles and their professional identity as human teachers move from being often solitary sources of learning to becoming teaching and learning managers who need to provide learning opportunities creatively. The change in teacher identity and the teacher's roles is described.