Showing papers in "Frontiers in Plant Science in 2012"
TL;DR: Different strategies and achievements through the genetic engineering of flavonoid biosynthesis with implication in the industry and the combinatorial biosynthesis in microorganisms by the reconstruction of the pathway to obtain high amounts of specific compounds are discussed.
Abstract: Flavonoids are widely distributed secondary metabolites with different metabolic functions in plants. The elucidation of the biosynthetic pathways, as well as their regulation by MYB, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH), and WD40-type transcription factors, has allowed metabolic engineering of plants through the manipulation of the different final products with valuable applications. The present review describes the regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis, as well as the biological functions of flavonoids in plants, such as in defense against UV-B radiation and pathogen infection, nodulation, and pollen fertility. In addition, we discuss different strategies and achievements through the genetic engineering of flavonoid biosynthesis with implication in the industry and the combinatorial biosynthesis in microorganisms by the reconstruction of the pathway to obtain high amounts of specific compounds.
1,260 citations
TL;DR: The abundance and diversity of CaCA genes throughout all branches of life indicates the importance of this class of cation transporter, and that many transporters with novel functions are waiting to be discovered.
Abstract: Cation transport is a critical process in all organisms and is essential for mineral nutrition, ion stress tolerance, and signal transduction. Transporters that are members of the Ca(2+)/cation antiporter (CaCA) superfamily are involved in the transport of Ca(2+) and/or other cations using the counter exchange of another ion such as H(+) or Na(+). The CaCA superfamily has been previously divided into five transporter families: the YRBG, Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX), Na(+)/Ca(2+), K(+) exchanger (NCKX), H(+)/cation exchanger (CAX), and cation/Ca(2+) exchanger (CCX) families, which include the well-characterized NCX and CAX transporters. To examine the evolution of CaCA transporters within higher plants and the green plant lineage, CaCA genes were identified from the genomes of sequenced flowering plants, a bryophyte, lycophyte, and freshwater and marine algae, and compared with those from non-plant species. We found evidence of the expansion and increased diversity of flowering plant genes within the CAX and CCX families. Genes related to the NCX family are present in land plant though they encode distinct MHX homologs which probably have an altered transport function. In contrast, the NCX and NCKX genes which are absent in land plants have been retained in many species of algae, especially the marine algae, indicating that these organisms may share "animal-like" characteristics of Ca(2+) homeostasis and signaling. A group of genes encoding novel CAX-like proteins containing an EF-hand domain were identified from plants and selected algae but appeared to be lacking in any other species. Lack of functional data for most of the CaCA proteins make it impossible to reliably predict substrate specificity and function for many of the groups or individual proteins. The abundance and diversity of CaCA genes throughout all branches of life indicates the importance of this class of cation transporter, and that many transporters with novel functions are waiting to be discovered.
915 citations
TL;DR: Recent insights into the physical biology of plant cell walls are reviewed, summarizing the essential differences between primary and secondary cell walls and identifying crucial gaps in knowledge of their structure and biomechanics.
Abstract: Recent insights into the physical biology of plant cell walls are reviewed, summarizing the essential differences between primary and secondary cell walls and identifying crucial gaps in our knowledge of their structure and biomechanics. Unexpected parallels are identified between the mechanism of expansion of primary cell walls during growth and the mechanisms by which hydrated wood deforms under external tension. There is a particular need to revise current “cartoons” of plant cell walls to be more consistent with data from diverse approaches and to go beyond summarizing limited aspects of cell walls, serving instead as guides for future experiments and for the application of new techniques.
340 citations
TL;DR: Larger and more detailed surveys of the green algal taxa including incorporation of emerging genomic and transcriptomic data are required in order to more fully resolve evolutionary trends within the green algae and in relationship with higher plants as well as potential applications of wall components in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Abstract: The green algae represent a large group of morphologically diverse photosynthetic eukaryotes that occupy virtually every photic habitat on the planet. The extracellular coverings of green algae including cell walls are also diverse. A recent surge of research in green algal cell walls fueled by new emerging technologies has revealed new and critical insight concerning these coverings. For example, the late divergent taxa of the Charophycean green algae possess cell walls containing assemblages of polymers with notable similarity to the cellulose, pectins, hemicelluloses, arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs), extensin, and lignin present in embryophyte walls. Ulvophycean seaweeds have cell wall components whose most abundant fibrillar constituents may change from cellulose to β-mannans to β-xylans and during different life cycle phases. Likewise, these algae produce complex sulfated polysaccharides, AGPs, and extensin. Chlorophycean green algae produce a wide array of walls ranging from cellulose–pectin complexes to ones made of hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins. Larger and more detailed surveys of the green algal taxa including incorporation of emerging genomic and transcriptomic data are required in order to more fully resolve evolutionary trends within the green algae and in relationship with higher plants as well as potential applications of wall components in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
339 citations
TL;DR: Recent advances in the understanding of cell wall-associated defenses induced by pathogen perception as well as the impact of changes in cell wall polymers on interactions with pathogens are summarized and significant unanswered questions driving future research are highlighted.
Abstract: Prospective plant pathogens must overcome the physical barrier presented by the plant cell wall. In addition to being a preformed, passive barrier limiting access of pathogens to plant cells, the cell wall is actively remodeled and reinforced specifically at discrete sites of interaction with potentially pathogenic microbes. Active reinforcement of the cell wall through the deposition of call wall appositions, referred to as papillae, is an early response to perception of numerous categories of pathogens including fungi and bacteria. Rapid deposition of papillae is generally correlated with resistance to fungal pathogens that attempt to penetrate plant cell walls for the establishment of feeding structures. Despite the ubiquity and apparent importance of this early defense response, relatively little is known about the underlying molecular mechanisms and cellular processes involved in the targeting and assembly of papillae. This review summarizes recent advances in our understanding of call wall-associated defenses induced by pathogen perception as well as the impact of changes in cell wall polymers on interactions with pathogens and highlights significant unanswered questions driving future research in the area.
335 citations
TL;DR: Evidence is emerging that WAKs serve as pectin receptors, for both short oligogalacturonic acid fragments generated during pathogen exposure or wounding, and for longer pectins resident in native cell walls, which correlates with a demonstrated role for Waks in both the pathogen response and cell expansion during plant development.
Abstract: The Wall Associated Kinases, WAKs, are encoded by 5 highly similar genes clustered in a 30 kb locus in Arabidopsis. These receptor-like proteins contain a cytoplasmic serine threonine kinase, a transmembrane domain, and a less conserved region that is bound to the cell wall and contains a series of Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) repeats. Evidence is emerging that WAKs serve as pectin receptors, for both short oligogalacturonic acid fragments (OGs) generated during pathogen exposure or wounding, and for longer pectins resident in native cell walls. This ability to bind and respond to several types of pectins correlates with a demonstrated role for WAKs in both the pathogen response and cell expansion during plant development.
264 citations
TL;DR: Evidence for the existence in terrestrial plants of a similar “primitive” Ca2+–pectate-based growth control mechanism in parallel to the more recent, land plant-specific, expansin-dependent process is discussed.
Abstract: How is the extensibility of growing plant cell walls regulated? In the past, most studies have focused on the role of the cellulose/xyloglucan network and the enigmatic wall-loosening agents expansins. Here we review first how in the closest relatives of the land plants, the Charophycean algae, cell wall synthesis is coupled to cell wall extensibility by a chemical Ca(2+)-exchange mechanism between Ca(2+)-pectate complexes. We next discuss evidence for the existence in terrestrial plants of a similar "primitive" Ca(2+)-pectate-based growth control mechanism in parallel to the more recent, land plant-specific, expansin-dependent process.
262 citations
TL;DR: Prior contributions of cotton fiber to building fundamental knowledge about cell walls will be summarized and the dynamic changes in cell wall polymers throughout cotton fiber differentiation will be described.
Abstract: Cotton fibers are single-celled extensions of the seed epidermis. They can be isolated in pure form as they undergo staged differentiation including primary cell wall synthesis during elongation and nearly pure cellulose synthesis during secondary wall thickening. This combination of features supports clear interpretation of data about cell walls and cellulose synthesis in the context of high throughput modern experimental technologies. Prior contributions of cotton fiber to building fundamental knowledge about cell walls will be summarized and the dynamic changes in cell wall polymers throughout cotton fiber differentiation will be described. Recent successes in using stable cotton transformation to alter cotton fiber cell wall properties as well as cotton fiber quality will be discussed. Future prospects to perform experiments more rapidly through altering cotton fiber wall properties via virus induced gene silencing will be evaluated.
245 citations
TL;DR: Genetic and biochemical evidence show that each member of the AUX/LAX family is a functional auxin influx carrier and mediate auxin related developmental programmes in different organs and tissues.
Abstract: Auxin regulates several aspects of plant growth and development. Auxin is unique among plant hormones for exhibiting polar transport. Indole-3-acetic acid, the major form of auxin in higher plants, is a weak acid and its intercellular movement is facilitated by auxin influx and efflux carriers.. Polarity of auxin movement is provided by asymmetric localisation of auxin carriers (mainly PIN efflux carriers). PIN-FORMED (PIN) and P-GLYCOPROTEIN (PGP) family of proteins are major auxin efflux carriers whereas AUXIN1/LIKE-AUX1 (AUX/LAX) are major auxin influx carriers.. Genetic and biochemical evidence show that each member of the AUX/LAX family is a functional auxin influx carrier and mediate auxin related developmental programmes in different organs and tissues. Of the four AUX/LAX genes, AUX1 regulates root gravitropism, root hair development and leaf phyllotaxy whereas LAX2 regulates vascular development in cotyledons. Both AUX1 and LAX3 have been implicated in lateral root development as well as apical hook formation whereas both AUX1 and LAX1 and possibly LAX2 are required for leaf phyllotactic patterning.
241 citations
TL;DR: Evidence is presented that suggests which pathway of DAG/TAG synthesis is utilized in different plants, and examples of how the endogenous DAG synthesis pathway in a transgenic host plant can produce bottlenecks for engineering of plant oil FA composition, to produce crop plants with designer vegetable oil compositions.
Abstract: The unique properties of vegetable oils from different plants utilized for food, industrial feedstocks, and fuel is dependent on the fatty acid (FA) composition of triacylglycerol (TAG). Plants can use two main pathways to produce diacylglycerol (DAG), the immediate precursor molecule to TAG synthesis: 1) De novo DAG synthesis, and 2) conversion of the membrane lipid phosphatidylcholine (PC) to DAG. The FA esterified to PC are also the substrate for FA modification (e.g. desaturation, hydroxylation, etc.), such that the FA composition of PC-derived DAG can be substantially different than that of de novo DAG. Since DAG provides two of the three FA in TAG, the relative flux of TAG synthesis from de novo DAG or PC-derived DAG can greatly affect the final oil FA composition. Here we review how the fluxes through these two alternate pathways of DAG/TAG synthesis are determined and present evidence that suggests which pathway is utilized in different plants. Additionally, we present examples of how the endogenous DAG synthesis pathway in a transgenic host plant can produce bottlenecks for engineering of plant oil FA composition, and discuss alternative strategies to overcome these bottlenecks to produce crop plants with designer vegetable oil compositions.
229 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that a 90% reduction in m6A levels during later growth stages gives rise to plants with altered growth patterns and reduced apical dominance in Arabidopsis thaliana plants.
Abstract: We previously showed that the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) mRNA methylase is essential during Arabidopsis thaliana embryonic development. We also demonstrated that this modification is present at varying levels in all mature tissues. However, the requirement for the m6A in the mature plant was not tested. Here we show that a 95% reduction in m6A levels during later growth stages gives rise to plants with altered growth patterns and reduced apical dominance. The flowers of these plants commonly show defects in their floral organ number, size and identity. The global analysis of gene expression from reduced m6A plants show that a significant number of down regulated genes are involved in transport, or targeted transport, and most of the upregulated genes are involved in stress and stimulus response processes. An analysis of m6A distribution in fragmented mRNA suggests that the m6A is predominantly positioned towards the 3’ end of transcripts in a region 100-150 bp before the poly(A) tail. In addition to the analysis of the phenotypic changes in the low methylation Arabidopsis plants we will review the latest advances in the field of mRNA internal methylation
TL;DR: Evidence that supports the mutual influence of extracellular and chloroplastic ROS production on nuclear gene regulation and how this interaction might occur is summarized.
Abstract: The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in different plant subcellular compartments is the hallmark of the response to many stress stimuli and developmental cues. The past two decades have seen a transition from regarding ROS as exclusively cytotoxic agents to them being considered as reactive compounds which participate in elaborate signalling networks connecting various aspects of plant life. We have now arrived at a stage where it has become increasingly difficult to disregard the communication between different types and pools of ROS. Production of ROS in the extracellular space, the apoplast, can influence ROS generation in the chloroplast and both can regulate nuclear gene expression. In spite of existing information on these signalling events, we still barely grasp the mechanisms of ROS signalling and communication between the organelles. In this review we summarize evidence that supports the mutual influence of extracellular and chloroplastic ROS production on nuclear gene regulation and how this interaction might occur. We also reflect on how and via which routes signals might reach the nucleus where they are ultimately integrated for transcriptional reprogramming. New ideas and approaches will be needed in the future to address the pressing questions of how ROS as signalling molecules can participate in the coordination of stress adaptation and development and how they are involved in the chatter of the organelles.
TL;DR: Understanding the O-acetylation mechanism is important as acetyl-substituents inhibit the enzymatic degradation of wall polymers and released acetate can be a potent inhibitor in microbial fermentations, thus impacting the economic viability of lignocellulosic based biofuel production.
Abstract: Plant cell walls are composed of structurally diverse polymers, many of which are O-acetylated. How plants O-acetylate wall polymers and what its function is remained elusive until recently, when two protein families were identified in the model plant Arabidopsis that are involved in the O-acetylation of wall polysaccharides – the reduced wall acetylation (RWA) and the trichome birefringence-like (TBL) proteins. This review discusses the role of these two protein families in polysaccharide O-acetylation and outlines the differences and similarities of polymer acetylation mechanisms in plants, fungi, bacteria and mammals. Members of the TBL protein family had been shown to impact pathogen resistance, freezing tolerance, and cellulose biosynthesis. The connection of TBLs to polysaccharide O-acetylation thus gives crucial leads into the biological function of wall polymer O-acetylation. From a biotechnological point understanding the O-acetylation mechanism is important as acetyl-substituents inhibit the enzymatic degradation of wall polymers and released acetate can be a potent inhibitor in microbial fermentations, thus impacting the economic viability of e.g. lignocellulosic based biofuel production.
TL;DR: Results all point to the involvement of the phenylpropanoid pathway in T. hamatum T382-induced ISR, the systemic defense response that is triggered in plants upon pathogen infection leading to increased resistance toward secondary infections.
Abstract: In this study, the molecular basis of the induced systemic resistance (ISR) in Arabidopsis thaliana by the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma hamatum T382 against the phytopathogen Botrytis cinerea B05-10 was unraveled by microarray analysis both before (ISR-prime) and after (ISR-boost) additional pathogen inoculation. The observed high numbers of differentially expressed genes allowed us to classify them according to the biological pathways in which they are involved. By focusing on pathways instead of genes, a holistic picture of the mechanisms underlying ISR emerged. In general, a close resemblance is observed between ISR-prime and systemic acquired resistance, the systemic defense response that is triggered in plants upon pathogen infection leading to increased resistance toward secondary infections. Treatment with T. hamatum T382 primes the plant (ISR-prime), resulting in an accelerated activation of the defense response against B. cinerea during ISR-boost and a subsequent moderation of the B. cinerea induced defense response. Microarray results were validated for representative genes by qRT-PCR. The involvement of various defense-related pathways was confirmed by phenotypic analysis of mutants affected in these pathways, thereby proving the validity of our approach. Combined with additional anthocyanin analysis data these results all point to the involvement of the phenylpropanoid pathway in T. hamatum T382-induced ISR.
TL;DR: KEA genes are conserved from green algae to angiosperms, and their presence in red algae and secondary endosymbionts suggest a role in plastids, while the great diversity of CHX genes in land plants compared to metazoa, fungi, or algae would imply a significant role of ion and pH homeostasis at dynamic endomembranes in the vegetative and reproductive success of flowering plants.
Abstract: All organisms have evolved strategies to regulate ion and pH homeostasis in response to developmental and environmental cues. One strategy is mediated by cation-proton antiporters (CPA). CPA1 genes found in bacteria, fungi, metazoa and plants have been functionally-characterized; though roles of plant CPA2 genes in KEA (K+-efflux antiporter) and CHX (cation/H+ exchanger) families are largely unknown. Phylogenetic analysis showed that three clades of the Na+-H+ exchanger (NHX) family have been conserved from single-celled alga to Arabidopsis. These are i) plasma membrane-bound SOS1/AtNHX7 that share ancestry with prokaryote NhaP, ii) endosomal AtNHX5/6 that is part of the eukaryote Intracellular-NHE clade, and iii) a vacuolar NHX clade (AtNHX1-4) specific to plants. Early diversification of KEA genes possibly from ancestral genes of a cyanobacterium is suggested for three K+-efflux antiporter clades (KEA/Kef) seen in all plants. Intriguingly, the CHX gene family blossomed from a few members in early land plants to >40 genes in legumes. Homologs from spirogyra or moss share high similarity with guard cell-specific AtCHX20, suggesting that AtCHX20 and its relatives (AtCHX16-19) are founders of the family. Evolutionary analysis suggests pollen-expressed CHX genes appeared later in monocots and early eudicots. AtCHX proteins have been localized to intracellular and plasma membrane of plants, and shown to mediate K+ transport and pH homeostasis. Thus KEA genes are conserved from green algae to angiosperms, and their presence in red algae and secondary endosymbionts suggest a role in plastids. In contrast, AtNHX1-4 subtype evolved in ancestral plants to handle ion homeostasis of vacuoles in all cell types. The strong presence of CHX genes in land plants, but not in metazoa or fungi, would infer a role of ion and pH homeostasis at dynamic endomembranes to support vegetative and reproductive success of flowering plants.
TL;DR: A tool for syntenic gene analysis between species of Brassicaceae was developed, SynOrths, which could be used to accurately identify syntenic genes in differentiated but closely-related genomes.
Abstract: Chromosomal synteny analysis is important in genome comparison to reveal genomic evolution of related species. Shared synteny describes genomic fragments from different species that originated from an identical ancestor. Syntenic genes are orthologs located in these syntenic fragments, so they often share similar functions. Syntenic gene analysis is very important in Brassicaceae species to share gene annotations and investigate genome evolution. Here we designed and developed a direct and efficient tool, SynOrths, to identify pairwise syntenic genes between genomes of Brassicaceae species. SynOrths determines whether two genes are a conserved syntenic pair based not only on their sequence similarity, but also by the support of homologous flanking genes. Syntenic genes between Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica rapa, Arabidopsis lyrata and B. rapa, and Thellungiella parvula and B. rapa were then identified using SynOrths. The occurrence of genome triplication in B. rapa was clearly observed, many genes that were evenly distributed in the genomes of A. thaliana, A. lyrata, and T. parvula had three syntenic copies in B. rapa. Additionally, there were many B. rapa genes that had no syntenic orthologs in A. thaliana, but some of these had syntenic orthologs in A. lyrata or T. parvula. Only 5,851 genes in B. rapa had no syntenic counterparts in any of the other three species. These 5,851 genes could have originated after B. rapa diverged from these species. A tool for syntenic gene analysis between species of Brassicaceae was developed, SynOrths, which could be used to accurately identify syntenic genes in differentiated but closely-related genomes. With this tool, we identified syntenic gene sets between B. rapa and each of A. thaliana, A. lyrata, T. parvula. Syntenic gene analysis is important for not only the gene annotation of newly sequenced Brassicaceae genomes by bridging them to model plant A. thaliana, but also the study of genome evolution in these species.
TL;DR: This mini-review discusses recent progress in this field with a focus on the Arabidopsis MAPKs MPK3, MPK4, MPk6, and MPK11 in their apparent pathways.
Abstract: Plant mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades generally transduce extracellular stimuli into cellular responses. These stimuli include the perception of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by host transmembrane pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) which trigger MAPK-dependent innate immune responses. In the model Arabidopsis, molecular genetic evidence implicates a number of MAPK cascade components in PAMP signaling, and in responses to immunity-related phytohormones such as ethylene, jasmonate and salicylate. In a few cases, cascade components have been directly linked to the transcription of target genes or to the regulation of phytohormone synthesis. Thus MAPKs are obvious targets for bacterial effector proteins and are likely guardees of resistance (R) proteins, which mediate defense signaling in response to the action of effectors, or effector-triggered immunity (ETI). This mini-review discusses recent progress in this field with a focus on the Arabidopsis MAPKs MPK3, 4, 6 and 11 in their apparent pathways.
TL;DR: A novel role for cis-OPDA in seed germination regulation has recently been uncovered based on evidence from double mutants and feeding experiments showing that cis-opDA interacts with abscisic acid (ABA), inhibits seed gernation, and increases ABA INSENSITIVE5 (ABI5) protein abundance.
Abstract: Oxylipins are lipid-derived compounds, many of which act as signals in the plant response to biotic and abiotic stress. They include the phytohormone jasmonic acid (JA) and related jasmonate metabolites cis-(+)-12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (cis-OPDA), methyl jasmonate, and jasmonoyl-L-isoleucine (JA-Ile). Besides the defense response, jasmonates are involved in plant growth and development and regulate a range of processes including glandular trichome development, reproduction, root growth, and senescence. cis-OPDA is known to possess a signaling role distinct from JA-Ile. The non-enzymatically derived phytoprostanes are structurally similar to cis-OPDA and induce a common set of genes that are not responsive to JA in Arabidopsis thaliana. A novel role for cis-OPDA in seed germination regulation has recently been uncovered based on evidence from double mutants and feeding experiments showing that cis-OPDA interacts with abscisic acid (ABA), inhibits seed germination, and increases ABA INSENSITIVE5 (ABI5) protein abundance. Large amounts of cis-OPDA are esterified to galactolipids in A. thaliana and the resulting compounds, known as Arabidopsides, are thought to act as a rapidly available source of cis-OPDA.
TL;DR: The current state of knowledge on AGPs is overviewed, key challenges impeding progress in the field are identified and approaches using modern bioinformatic, (bio)chemical, cell biological, molecular and genetic techniques that could be applied to redress these gaps in knowledge are proposed.
Abstract: Arabinogalactan-proteins (AGPs) are complex glycoconjugates that are commonly found at the cell surface and in secretions of plants. Their location and diversity of structures have made them attractive targets as modulators of plant development but definitive proof of their direct role(s) in biological processes remains elusive. Here we overview the current state of knowledge on AGPs, identify key challenges impeding progress in the field and propose approaches using modern bioinformatic, (bio)chemical, cell biological, molecular and genetic techniques that could be applied to redress these gaps in our knowledge.
TL;DR: The available data suggest that the CWI maintenance mechanism may represent a component of the stress response mechanisms underlying biotic and abiotic stress responses, which has not been identified previously as a distinct mechanism.
Abstract: Plant cell walls provide structural support during development and represent together with the cuticle the first line of defense against biotic and abiotic stress. In recent years, evidence has accumulated that a dedicated plant cell wall integrity (CWI) maintenance mechanism exists. This mechanism monitors and maintains functional integrity of the cell wall during different biological processes. The available data suggest that it may represent a component of the stress response mechanisms underlying biotic and abiotic stress responses, which has not been identified previously as a distinct mechanism. Here I will review the available evidence regarding the mode of action of the CWI maintenance mechanism and discuss its role in the context of biotic plant stress response mechanisms.
TL;DR: This review cross examine and analyze the major findings that establish and strengthen the intimate connections between sphingolipid metabolism and plant programmed cell death (PCD) associated with plant defense or disease and identify potential parallels for immunity-related mechanisms involving spindingolipids across kingdoms.
Abstract: Sphingolipids comprise a major class of structural materials and lipid signaling molecules in all eukaryotic cells. Over the past two decades, there has been a phenomenal growth in the study of sphingolipids (i.e. sphingobiology) at an average rate of >1000 research articles per year. Sphingolipid studies in plants, though accounting for only a small fraction (~6%) of the total number of publications, have also enjoyed proportionally rapid growth in the past decade. Concomitant with the growth of sphingobiology, there has also been tremendous progress in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of plant innate immunity. In this review, we (i) cross examine and analyze the major findings that establish and strengthen the intimate connections between sphingolipid metabolism and plant programmed cell death (PCD) associated with plant defense or disease; (ii) highlight and compare key bioactive sphingolipids involved in the regulation of plant PCD and possibly defense; (iii) discuss the potential role of sphingolipids in polarized membrane/protein trafficking and formation of lipid rafts as subdomains of cell membranes in relation to plant defense; and (iv) where possible, attempt to identify potential parallels for immunity-related mechanisms involving sphingolipids across kingdoms.
TL;DR: A cost-effective RNA-Seq library synthesis protocol that is fast, starts with tissue, and is high-throughput from tissue to synthesized library, and addresses the problem of gene-length biases affecting differential gene expression calls.
Abstract: With the introduction of cost effective, rapid, and superior quality next generation sequencing techniques, gene expression analysis has become viable for labs conducting small projects as well as large-scale gene expression analysis experiments. However, the available protocols for construction of RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) libraries are expensive and/or difficult to scale for high-throughput applications. Also, most protocols require isolated total RNA as a starting point. We provide a cost-effective RNA-Seq library synthesis protocol that is fast, starts with tissue, and is high-throughput from tissue to synthesized library. We have also designed and report a set of 96 unique barcodes for library adapters that are amenable to high-throughput sequencing by a large combination of multiplexing strategies. Our developed protocol has more power to detect differentially expressed genes when compared to the standard Illumina protocol, probably owing to less technical variation amongst replicates. We also address the problem of gene-length biases affecting differential gene expression calls and demonstrate that such biases can be efficiently minimized during mRNA isolation for library preparation.
TL;DR: Transgenic lines bearing all three transgenic enzyme activities were identified and some with higher CAT activity showed higher dry weight, higher photosynthetic rates, and changes in glycine/serine ratio compared to the wild type, strongly suggests that the approach is valid and that it is possible to improve the growth of A. thaliana by introducing a synthetic glycolate oxidative cycle into chloroplasts.
Abstract: The photorespiratory pathway helps illuminated C3-plants under conditions of limited CO2 availability by effectively exporting reducing equivalents in form of glycolate out of the chloroplast and regenerating glycerate-3-P as substrate for RubisCO On the other hand, this pathway is considered as probably futile because previously assimilated CO2 is released in mitochondria Consequently, a lot of effort has been made to reduce this CO2 loss either by reducing fluxes via engineering RubisCO or circumventing mitochondrial CO2 release by the introduction of new enzyme activities Here we present an approach fol- lowing the latter route, introducing a complete glycolate catabolic cycle in chloroplasts of Arabidopsis thaliana comprising glycolate oxidase (GO), malate synthase (MS), and cata- lase (CAT) Results from plants bearing both GO and MS activities have already been reported (Fahnenstich et al, 2008) This previous work showed that the H2O2 produced by GO had strongly negative effects These effects can be prevented by introducing a plastidial catalase activity, as reported here Transgenic lines bearing all three transgenic enzyme activities were identified and some with higher CAT activity showed higher dry weight, higher photosynthetic rates, and changes in glycine/serine ratio compared to the wild type This indicates that the fine-tuning of transgenic enzyme activities in the chloro- plasts seems crucial and strongly suggests that the approach is valid and that it is possible to improve the growth of A thaliana by introducing a synthetic glycolate oxidative cycle into chloroplasts
TL;DR: The evolutionary origins of angiosperm SUTs and homologous transporters in a vascular early land plant, Selaginella moellendorffii, and a non-vascular plant, the bryophyte Physcomitrella patens, and the charophyte algae Chlorokybus atmosphyticus are explored, suggesting both plasma membrane and vacuolar sucrose transporter activities were present in early land plants.
Abstract: In angiosperms, sucrose uptake transporters (SUTs) have important functions especially in vascular tissue. Here we explore the evolutionary origins of SUTs by analysis of angiosperm SUTs and homologous transporters in a vascular early land plant, Selaginella moellendorffii, and a non-vascular plant, the bryophyte Physcomitrella patens, the charophyte algae Chlorokybus atmosphyticus, several red algae and fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Plant SUTs cluster into three types by phylogenetic analysis. Previous studies using angiosperms had shown that types I and II are localized to the plasma membrane while type III SUTs are associated with vacuolar membrane. SUT homologs were not found in the chlorophyte algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Volvox carterii. However, the characean algae Chlorokybus atmosphyticus contains a SUT homolog (CaSUT1) and phylogenetic analysis indicated that it is basal to all other streptophyte SUTs analyzed. SUTs are present in both red algae and S. pombe but they are less related to plant SUTs than CaSUT1. Both Selaginella and Physcomitrella encode type II and III SUTs suggesting that both plasma membrane and vacuolar sucrose transporter activities were present in early land plants. It is likely that SUT transporters are important for scavenging sucrose from the environment and intracellular compartments in charophyte and non-vascular plants. Type I SUTs were only found in eudicots and we conclude that they evolved from type III SUTs, possibly through loss of a vacuolar targeting sequence. Eudicots utilize type I SUTs for phloem (vascular tissue) loading while monocots use type II SUTs for phloem loading. We show that HvSUT1 from barley, a type II SUT, reverted the growth defect of the Arabidopsis atsuc2 (type I) mutant. This indicates that type I and II SUTs evolved similar (and interchangeable) phloem loading transporter capabilities independently.
TL;DR: Current knowledge of proteins that interact with T-strands in the plant cell is summarized, several models of T-complex (T-strand and associated proteins) trafficking are discussed, and a detailed understanding of how these macromolecular complexes enter the host cell and traverse the plant cytoplasm is discussed.
Abstract: The genus Agrobacterium is unique in its ability to conduct interkingdom genetic exchange. Virulent Agrobacterium strains transfer single-strand forms of T-DNA (T-strands) and several Virulence effector proteins through a bacterial type IV secretion system into plant host cells. T-strands must traverse the plant wall and plasma membrane, traffic through the cytoplasm, enter the nucleus, and ultimately target host chromatin for stable integration. Because any DNA sequence placed between T-DNA “borders” can be transferred to plants and integrated into the plant genome, the transfer and intracellular trafficking processes must be mediated by bacterial and host proteins that form complexes with T-strands. This review summarizes current knowledge of proteins that interact with T-strands in the plant cell, and discusses several models of T-complex (T-strand and associated proteins) trafficking. A detailed understanding of how these macromolecular complexes enter the host cell and traverse the plant cytoplasm will require development of novel technologies to follow molecules from their bacterial site of synthesis into the plant cell, and how these transferred molecules interact with host proteins, and cytoplasmic and nuclear structures.
TL;DR: A meta analysis of microarray data resulting in a core list of cytokinin response genes, corroborated by a compilation of genes that have been repeatedly found by independent gene expression profiling studies, indicates homeostatic mechanisms operating at the transcriptional level.
Abstract: The plant hormone cytokinin realizes at least part of its signaling output through the regulation of gene expression. A great part of the early transcriptional regulation is mediated by type-B response regulators, which are transcription factors of the MYB family. Other transcription factors, such as the CYTOKININ RESPONSE FACTORS of the AP2/ERF family, have also been shown to be involved in this process. Additional transcription factors mediate distinct parts of the cytokinin response through tissue- and cell-specific downstream transcriptional cascades. In Arabidopsis, only a single cytokinin response element to which type-B response regulators bind has been clearly proven so far, which has 5′-GAT(T/C)-3′ as a core sequence. This motif has served to construct a synthetic cytokinin-sensitive two-component system response element, which is useful for monitoring the cellular cytokinin status. Insight into the extent of transcriptional regulation has been gained by genome-wide gene expression analyses following cytokinin treatment and from plants having an altered cytokinin content or signaling. This review presents a meta analysis of such microarray data resulting in a core list of cytokinin-response genes. Genes encoding type-A response regulators displayed the most stable response to cytokinin, but a number of cytokinin metabolism genes (CKX4, CKX5, CYP735A2, UGT76C2) also belong to them, indicating homeostatic mechanisms operating at the transcriptional level. The cytokinin core response genes are also the target of other hormones as well as biotic and abiotic stresses, documenting crosstalk of the cytokinin system with other hormonal and environmental signaling pathways. The multiple links of cytokinin to diverse functions, ranging from control of meristem activity, hormonal crosstalk, nutrient acquisition, and various stress responses, are also corroborated by a compilation of genes that have been repeatedly found by independent gene expression profiling studies
TL;DR: Current knowledge about the unfolded protein response signaling pathways is summarized, two identified UPR pathways in plants are highlighted, and progress in elucidating the UPR in virus-infected cells and its functional roles in viral infection are discussed.
Abstract: The accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) results in ER stress that triggers cytoprotective signaling pathways, termed the unfolded protein response (UPR), to restore and maintain homeostasis in the ER or to induce apoptosis if ER stress remains unmitigated. The UPR signaling network encompasses three core elements, i.e., PKR-like ER kinase (PERK), activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6), and inositol-requiring protein-1 (IRE1). Activation of these three branch pathways of the UPR leads to the translation arrest and degradation of misfolded proteins, the expression of ER molecular chaperones, and the expansion of the ER membrane to decrease the load of proteins and increase the protein-folding capacity in the ER. Recently, the essential roles of the UPR have been implicated in a number of mammalian diseases, particularly viral diseases. In virus-infected cells, the cellular translation machinery is hijacked by the infecting virus to produce large amounts of viral proteins, which inevitably perturbs ER homeostasis and causes ER stress. This review summarizes current knowledge about the UPR signaling pathways, highlights two identified UPR pathways in plants, and discuss progress in elucidating the UPR in virus-infected cells and its functional roles in viral infection.
TL;DR: Mutants defective in seed mucilage identified by both forward and reverse genetic analyses are proving useful in establishing connections between carbohydrate structure and cell wall properties in vivo, and genetic engineering of seed coat mucilage carbohydrates should prove useful for testing hypotheses concerning cell wall structure and function.
Abstract: Arabidopsis seed coat epidermal cells produce a large quantity of mucilage that is extruded upon exposure to water. Chemical analyses and cell biological techniques suggest that this mucilage represents a specialized type of secondary cell wall composed primarily of pectin with lesser amounts of cellulose and xyloglucan. Once extruded, the mucilage capsule has a distinctive structure with an outer non-adherent layer that is easily removed by shaking in water, and an inner adherent layer that can only be removed with strong acid or base. Most of the cellulose in the mucilage is present in the inner layer and is responsible at least in part for its adherence to the seed. There are also differences in the pectin composition between the two layers that could contribute to the difference in adherence. The Arabidopsis seed coat epidermis and its mucilage are not essential for seed viability or germination. This dispensability, combined with the fact that the epidermal cells synthesize an accessible pectin-rich cell wall at a specific time in development, makes them well suited as a genetic model for studying cell wall biogenesis, function, and regulation. Mutants defective in seed mucilage identified by both forward and reverse genetic analyses are proving useful in establishing connections between carbohydrate structure and cell wall properties in vivo. In the future, genetic engineering of seed coat mucilage carbohydrates should prove useful for testing hypotheses concerning cell wall structure and function.
TL;DR: Plants appear to possess a diversity of exocyst variants unparalleled among other organisms studied so far, which might perhaps be directly related to the demands of building and maintenance of the complicated and spatially diverse structures of the endomembranes and cell surfaces in multicellular land plants.
Abstract: Exocyst is an evolutionarily conserved vesicle tethering complex functioning especially in the last stage of exocytosis. Homologs of its eight canonical subunits -Sec3, Sec5, Sec6, Sec8, Sec10, Sec15, Exo70 and Exo84 - were found also in higher plants and confirmed to form complexes in vivo, and to participate in cell growth including polarized expansion of pollen tubes and root hairs. Here we present results of a phylogenetic study of land plant exocyst subunits encoded by a selection of completely sequenced genomes representing a variety of plant, mostly angiosperm, lineages. According to their evolution histories, plant exocyst subunits can be divided into several groups. The core subunits Sec6, Sec8 and Sec10, together with Sec3 and Sec5, underwent few, if any fixed duplications in the tracheophytes (though they did amplify in the moss Physcomitrella patens), while others form larger families, with the number of paralogs ranging typically from two to eight per genome (Sec15, Exo84) to several dozens per genome (Exo70). Most of the diversity, which can be in some cases traced down to the origins of land plants, can be attributed to the peripheral subunits Exo84 and, in particular, Exo70. As predicted previously, early land plants (including possibly also the Rhyniophytes) encoded three basal Exo70 paralogs which further diversified in the course of land plant evolution. Our results imply that plants do not have a single "Exocyst complex" – instead, they appear to possess a diversity of exocyst variants unparalleled among other organisms studied so far. This feature might perhaps be directly related to the demands of building and maintenance of the complicated and spatially diverse structures of the endomembranes and cell surfaces in multicellular land plants.
TL;DR: It is suggested that often a plot of biomass fractions against total plant size, either across species or in the comparison of treatment effects, combines the best of both worlds.
Abstract: Plants can differentially allocate biomass to leaves, stems, roots, and reproduction, and follow ontogenetic trajectories that interact with the prevailing climate. Various methodological tools exist to analyze the resulting allocation patterns, based either on the calculation of biomass ratios or fractions of different organs at a given point in time, or on a so-called allometric analysis of biomass data sampled across species or over an experimental growth period. We discuss the weak and strong points of each of these methods. Although both approaches have useful features, we suggest that often a plot of biomass fractions against total plant size, either across species or in the comparison of treatment effects, combines the best of both worlds.