Showing papers in "Group & Organization Management in 1977"
TL;DR: The authors examined published research on small-group development done in the last ten years that would constitute an empirical test of Tuckman's (1965) hypothesis that groups go through the stages of "forming," "storming," "norming," and "performing".
Abstract: The purpose of this review was to examine published research on small-group development done in the last ten years that would constitute an empirical test of Tuckman's (1965) hypothesis that groups go through the stages of "forming," "storming," "norming," and "performing." Of the twenty-two studies reviewed, only one set out to directly test this hypothesis, although many of the others could be related to it. Following a review of these studies, a fifth stage, "adjourning," was added to the hypothesis, and more empirical work was recommended.
2,039 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors integrate behaviorism with cognitive theory, explaining how people learn to behave, and propose three additional processes: vicarious learning, symbolic functioning, and self-regulatory processes.
Abstract: This is an important book. Unfortunately, it is not very readable. Except for the jargonistic academic style, the presentation would be lively and often exciting. The author is one of the best known and most respected social psychologists in the United States; the book is an integration of his most recent research and thought. Bandura’s aim is to integrate behaviorism with cognitive theory, explaining how people learn to behave. He rejects the &dquo;pure&dquo; Skinnerian view (sometimes called &dquo;radical behaviorism&dquo;), noting that &dquo;theorists who exclude the capacity for self-direction from their view of human potentialities restrict their research to external sources of influence.&dquo; Behaviorists will, of course, reject Bandura’s approach and argue that a purely behavioristic (noncognitive process) model does not necessarily assume that individuals learn only by overt behavioral experience of rewards and punishments. Bandura goes beyond direct experience by specifying three additional processes: vicarious learning (by observing); symbolic functioning (learning through conceptualization) ; and self-regulatory processes (learning through self-direction, for example, rewarding oneself for certain behavior). Bandura deals with &dquo;antecedent determinants&dquo; of behavior, that is, environmental stimuli that &dquo;indicate which outcomes particular actions are likely to produce.&dquo; In other words, expectations are created,
309 citations
TL;DR: Among cross-cultural trainers and researchers, considerable attention has been fo cused on problems individuals encounter in adapting to new cultures or subcul tures as discussed by the authors. But for the many volunteers and pr...
Abstract: Among cross-cultural trainers and researchers, considerable attention has been fo cused on problems individuals encounter in adapting to new cultures or subcul tures. For the many volunteers and pr...
58 citations
TL;DR: Rogers and Schutz as discussed by the authors discuss the impact of the human potential movement on social change in therapy, education, and life, and how people realize their inherent power to make their lives meaningful experiences of growth and change rather than attempting to force themselves into impossible models of perfection determined by social institutions.
Abstract: sees it, but on its political implications as well. As I read the book, I was reminded of Will Schutz’ Here Comes Everybody, an earlier treatise on the impact of the human potential movement on social change. Dr. Rogers’ central premise is that the person-centered approach to therapy, education, and life is helping more and more people realize their inherent power to make their lives meaningful experiences of growth and change rather than attempting to force themselves into impossible models of &dquo;perfection&dquo; determined by social institutions. Authoritarian institutions take heed; church, education, military, government, industry, and family beware-a &dquo;quiet revolution&dquo; is taking place. People are achieving the heady experience of taking total responsibility for their own lives. This test of real &dquo;freedom&dquo; tends to
34 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, political strategies and power tactics are necessary for the effective implementation of systemic change programs in organizations, and since the organization is a highly political environment, the co-...
Abstract: Political strategies and power tactics are necessary for the effective im plementation of systemic change programs in organizations. Since the organization is a highly political environment, the co...
29 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a comparison of the personalities of Turkish and American first-line supervisors and their attitudes toward participative, considerate, and directive lead-ership was made, and the perceived leadership behavior of their superiors was found to be more authoritarian than the Americans.
Abstract: Previous studies have indicated differences in managerial characteristics between supervisors from different nationalities and cultures. A compar ison of the personalities of Turkish and American first-line supervisors and their attitudes toward participative, considerate, and directive lead ership, and a comparison of the perceived leadership behavior of their superiors showed that the Turks were more authoritarian than the Americans and that the Americans had a slightly higher need for inde pendence than the Turks. The American managers (superiors), as per ceived by their subordinates, appeared to exercise more participative and considerate leadership than did the Turkish managers. The American supervisors demonstrated higher satisfaction with participative, consid erate, and directive superiors than did the Turks. The difference between the two groups with respect to satisfaction with participative and consid erate superiors can be explained partially by a difference in authoritar ianism and other cult...
29 citations
TL;DR: Organization development (OD), as an applied arm of the field of organizational behavior, purports to facilitate organizational change through the use of a variety of change interventions as discussed by the authors, which can be classified as:
Abstract: Organization development (OD), as an applied arm of the field of organizational behavior, purports to facilitate organizational change through the use of a variety of change interventions. Its prop...
26 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on determining the factors that motivate an individual to commit an act of key-communicating in a key- communicator role, but relatively little attention has been paid to determining the reasons that motivate a person to do so.
Abstract: Although much has been written to document the existence of the key- communicator role, relatively little attention has been directed toward determining the factors that motivate an individual to a...
25 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a logical synthesis of leader-behavior typologies is proposed to make it easier to teach and demonstrate the benefits of different types of leader behavior in four typologies and ten ideal-type leadership typologies.
Abstract: There are now so many leader-behavior typologies that appear to conflict with each other that a logical synthesis seems useful. Such a synthesis can be accomplished only by using a dimension of effectiveness that in fact makes leadership easier to teach. The dimension chosen for this study can be defended by reference to its empirically demonstrated independence, its suggested presence in four typologies, and its explicit support in ten ideal-type leadership typologies, including those that use single types and those that use multiple types. The resulting classification can be shown to include eight widely known typologies. These eight include a wide variety of leadership behaviors, relate directly to all well-known models, are logically related, and are linked to more and less effective behavior.
23 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the importance of self-esteem, how it is affected in organization contexts, and what implications are apparent, given this evidence, for researchers, managers, and consultants.
Abstract: Studies on leadership, by both laymen and academicians, abound. It is an oft- studied concept that has experienced a distinct evolutionary cycle typical of much of social science research. This paradigm is utilized to describe a variety of investi gations that suggest that self-esteem is a significant variable in individual produc tive functioning and leadership effectiveness. This literature is reviewed, focusing not on characteristics of a leader, but on superior-subordinate interactions. A con ceptual framework is presented that describes the importance of self-esteem, how it is affected in organization contexts, and what implications are apparent, given this evidence, for researchers, managers, and consultants.
21 citations
TL;DR: In this article, both cohesiveness and collaboration are identified as co-determinants of group productivity and affective responses of group members, and a theoretic model detailing the interaction of these variables is presented.
Abstract: Both cohesiveness and collaboration are identified as co-determinants of group productivity and affective responses of group members. A theoreti cal model detailing the interaction of these variables is presented. Four situations are given that describe the effects of cohesiveness and collab oration on important group, individual, and organizational outcomes. In each case, managerial strategies are discussed that may have beneficial effects on groups low on either or both of the variables. Finally, it is argued that application of group-dynamic models to specific organiza tional settings could improve management practice and performance assessment.
TL;DR: In this article, a contingency model for analyzing transactions between clients and consultants is presented, where independent variables are "healer roles" taken by consultants, influence orientation and cognitive style of clients, and type of change problem.
Abstract: A rudimentary contingency model for analyzing transactions between clients and consultants is presented. Independent variables are "healer roles" taken by consultants, influence orientation and cognitive style of clients, and type of change problem. Predictions about fit among these variables suggest differential outcomes in terms of tension and stability in the working relationships between clients and consultants.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined thirty-eight research studies that were conducted on various aspects of organization development (OD) technology and compared them along eight dimensions, and argued that more systematic, longitudi nal research on OD is needed.
Abstract: This paper examines thirty-eight research studies that were conducted on various aspects of organization development (OD) technology. The studies are compared along eight dimensions. Problems associated with evaluating OD and the limited amount of OD research are discussed. It is argued that more systematic, longitudi nal research on OD is needed.
TL;DR: This paper used a semantic differential questionnaire to examine the persistence of changes in racial attitudes induced via a required training course for supervisors at a large military installation and found that a general, but small, positive change in attitude was observed immediately following the course and subsequently decayed over a twelve to thirteen-week period.
Abstract: A posttest-only control group design procedure was used with a semantic differential questionnaire to examine the persistence of changes in racial attitudes induced via a required training course for supervisors at a large military installation Overall, a general, but small, positive change in attitude was observed immediately following the course This attitude change subsequently decayed over a twelve- to thirteen-week period Surprisingly, a "sleeper effect" seemed to emerge four to five weeks after the training session, resulting in significant, but short-term, positive attitude changes The sleeper effect emerged in the absence of previously postulated conditions for its occurrence, such as close interaction of participants and reward systems to encourage behavior consistent with the changed attitudes
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore two central processes that are basic to any social system's sur vival adaptability and copability: adaptability is the ability of a social system to sense and understand its internal and external environments and to take action to achieve a fit or balance between the two.
Abstract: This paper explores two central processes that are basic to any social system's sur vival-adaptability and copability. Adaptability refers to a social system's ability to sense and understand its internal and external environments and to take action to achieve a fit or balance between the two. Adaptability leads to greater relevancy of a system. Copability (cope-ability) is a social system's ability to conserve its identity, deal with internal disharmonies, and internally overcome change-in duced problems. They are not totally independent of one another and are com plementary. Emery and Trist's typology of environments is used to construct an appropriate model of behavior for system survival. Implications of these concepts and their contingent characteristics with other organizational variables are dis cussed. The author stresses that as the environment becomes more turbulent it be comes increasingly important that social-system practitioners (managers, organization development consultants, therapists) as...
TL;DR: This paper found that workers acceptance of or alienation from middle-class work norms may determine whether or not autonomous groups are both productive and satisfying to their members, and that individual differences may affect autonomous group functioning.
Abstract: Additional research suggesting that individual differences may affect autonomous group functioning was reviewed. In particular, it was found that workers’ acceptance of or alienation from middle-class work norms (or values) may determine whether or not autonomous groups are both productive and satisfying to their members. Data were collected from fifty-six blue-collar workers who had been working in autonomous groups (of about six persons) for approximately nine months. All workers were union members who had volunteered to participate in a union-management job-redesign experiment in an industrial
TL;DR: In this paper, a change agent was an interim director of a professional school within a major western university, and the intervention technique was almost entirely the manipulation of the school's structural properties.
Abstract: Accounts of organization development interventions typically deal with business or industrial organizations, stress the significance of an external consultant, and use group-centered educational or attitudinal change methods. This study departs from tradition in all three instances. The client system in this study was a professional school within a major western university. The primary change agent was an interim director of the school; thus, he held line authority over the business of the school as well as the nature of the change process. The intervention technique was almost entirely the manipulation of the school's structural properties. The conceptual framework for the change process stressed two primary elements: (1) the appropriateness of the Lewinian model of social-system change, and (2) the necessity to recognize the "systemness" of the inter vention process. The study reviews literature in the field that is important in understanding the nature of this intervention, presents the background of t...
TL;DR: The authors empirically examined the value of interorganizational relations to voluntary associations; the data are from questionnaires sent to rape crisis centers in the United States. But no relationship was found between structure and cooperation; however, centers with staff tended to have community ties and more of them.
Abstract: The study empirically examined the value of interorganizational rela tions to voluntary associations; the data are from questionnaires sent to rape crisis centers in the United States. Interorganizational cooperation was studied as it was associated with structural variations and as it affected organizational effectiveness. No relationship was found between structure and cooperation; however, centers with staff tended to have community ties and more of them. The more centralized the decision making, the more organizational contacts; the difference between this and previous research seems to be due to differences in conceptualization of centralization. Cooperation was not found to be related to demands for services or speakers; there was a relationship to the extent of programs designed to train agency personnel. The number of interorganizational contacts was directly related to the number of volunteers active in a center and to the number of minority-group members. It was concluded that there are no benef...
TL;DR: A review of work done in the past twenty years with the Control Graph, including the evolution of Control-Graph studies, its relationship to other perspectives of organizations, and an overview of study findings can be found in this article.
Abstract: This is a review of work done in the past twenty years with the Control Graph, including the evolution of Control-Graph studies, its relationship to other perspectives of organizations, and an overview of study findings. These findings are reviewed within the context of contingency theory, and attention is given to the use of the Control Graph in the implementa tion and measurement of organizational change. Advantages of the Con trol Graph for applied research are cited, including its integration with theory, acceptance by practicing managers, and limited demand on re spondent's time. Greater attention needs to be given, however, to the need to tailor the instrument to each organization; systematic evaluation of its use in survey feedback; its relationship to more objective measures of control; and study findings that cannot currently be explained by con tingency theory.
TL;DR: The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) is frequently used to measure changes that have occurred in participants as a result of an encounter- or growth-group experience as mentioned in this paper, and the positive results from many studies led this author to attempt to explain possible reasons why some of the groups she has facilitated have failed to demonstrate significant gains as reflected on the POI.
Abstract: The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) is frequently used to measure changes that have occurred in participants as a result of an encounter- or growth-group experience. The positive results from many studies led this author to attempt to explain possible reasons why some of the groups she has facilitated have failed to demonstrate significant gains as reflected on the POI. The nine groups discussed were held at three different edu cational institutions; the participants were students in master's degree programs in counseling. The pseudo-self-actualizing tendency of counsel ing students is explored, and rationale is presented as to why the POI should be used with other instruments-if it is used at all-to measure group change in this population.
TL;DR: Work groups in organizations are differentiated from the research groups and literary examples of teams that frequently are used to guide analyses of groups in their natural settings as mentioned in this paper, and actual organizational groups are influenced by outside expectations and membership changes that make their functioning different from model groups.
Abstract: Work groups in organizations are differentiated from the research groups and literary examples of teams that frequently are used to guide analyses of groups in their natural settings. Actual organizational groups are influenced by outside expectations and membership changes that make their functioning different from model groups. A framework for diagnos ing real groups focuses on group origins and membership differences. This perspective is offered as an aid to interpreting communication be havior of groups in organizational settings.
TL;DR: In this article, the contrasting interaction potentials of commonly used seating arrangements for small and large group meetings are discussed from the vantage point of contemporary definitions of privacy, which define pri vacy as the right individuals have to control what information about themselves should or should not be communicated to others and under what circumstances.
Abstract: The contrasting interaction potentials of commonly used seating ar rangements for small and large group meetings are discussed from the vantage point of contemporary definitions of privacy, which define pri vacy as the right individuals have to control what information about themselves should or should not be communicated to others and under what circumstances. Privacy is further defined as a functional aspect of the design of physical environments. Research is reviewed to show that seat location is associated with verbal interaction rates and visual acces sibility among and between group members and leaders. Furthermore, it is argued that group members' seating choices may be manifestations of coping behavior and privacy regulation and that it might be appropriate, therefore, to design and test seating layouts that allow individual users self-selected options for involvement or withdrawal. A seating arrange ment that provides these options is suggested along with some pos sibilities for enhancing privacy...
TL;DR: In this paper, an account of errors made by the author in his role as an organiza tional change agent working as a process consultant is presented, along with an illustrative case study in which he was directly involved.
Abstract: This is an account of errors made by the author in his role as organiza tional change agent working as a process consultant. For each error there is an illustrative case study in which he was directly involved. Although some of the case studies could be used to illustrate more than one error, this is avoided in order to provide more examples. The errors include initiating change from the bottom up, creating a change overload, raising expectations beyond what is possible, allowing inappropriate attach ment, becoming trapped in one part of the organization, changing only asubsystem, inappropriately using behavioral interventions instead ofstructural interventions, losing professional detachment, assuming that a change is needed, and failing to seek help.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors determine if varying sociological backgrounds could account for varying opinions concerning the efficacy of personal-growth groups (PGGs) and find that diverse opinions (some positive, some neutral, and some negative) exist concerning the effectiveness of personal growth groups.
Abstract: Diverse opinions (some positive, some neutral, and some negative) exist concerning the efficacy of personal-growth groups (PGGs). To determine if varying sociological backgrounds could account for ...
TL;DR: In this article, a case study of an organizational crisis is presented to illustrate the applicability of crisis theory to an organization and suggests that the major sign of a crisis is progressively rising tension, which results in emergency efforts to mobilize tension-reducing sources.
Abstract: For both the administrator and the consultant, it is important to distin guish among crisis, stress, and conflict in an organization. Crisis theory, previously concerned mainly with the state of the individual, suggests that the major sign of organizational crisis is progressively rising tension, which results in emergency efforts to mobilize tension-reducing re sources. A case study of an organizational crisis is presented to illustrate the applicability of crisis theory to an organization. Factors that appear to precipitate organizational crisis and those that lead to its satisfactory resolution can be compiled from careful case studies. An awareness of such factors and of the nature of a crisis has important implications for organizational consultants and administrators. Suggestions for interven tions are offered.
TL;DR: In this paper, the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was used to assess the impact of a semester-long encounter-group, personal-growth experience on students seeking degrees in counseling.
Abstract: The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was used to assess the impact of a semester-long encounter-group, personal-growth experience on stu dents seeking degrees in counseling. Both the experimental and control groups showed gains in self-actualization. The groups differed signifi cantly only on the Spontaneity Scale. Design procedures and selection artifacts associated with obtaining participants for research are dis cussed, especially as these relate to the nature of the control-group studies cited by Knapp and Shostrom (1976).
TL;DR: Most task-group structures are hierarchical, but what kind would people create if they had a choice? as mentioned in this paper showed that structures built by group members in dealing with conflict and decision making are hierarchical.
Abstract: Most task-group structures are hierarchical, but what kind would people create if they had a choice? Our hypothesis was that structures built by group members in dealing with conflict and decision ...
TL;DR: In the applied behavioral sciences, competence education as mentioned in this paper is defined as "the integration of subjective as well as objective judgments, many different methods of measurement and evaluation, including self-evaluation by learners and personal feed back, and a high degree of openness and trust".
Abstract: Competency education in the applied behavioral sciences can be en hanced by synethesizing the values of humanistic psychology with the measurement, evaluation, and accountability that characterize be havioral psychology. Since a competency-education program specifies learning outcomes in advance in measurable terms, includes experiences to aid the learner in achieving competence, and specifies evaluative criteria by which competence will be measured, it limits learner depend ence and competition and increases learner independence. Such a pro gram is characterized by (1) the integration of subjective as well as objective judgments, (2) many different methods of measurement and evaluation—including self-evaluation by learners and personal feed back, and (3) firmness as well as a high degree of openness and trust.
TL;DR: Action research was undertaken by a large midwestern utility company to learn what would happen to an organization that was undergoing severe reorganizational stresses while attempting to use organization development techniques to reduce those stresses as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Action research was undertaken by a large midwestern utility company. Although 3,000 individuals were in the affected areas, particular atten tion was paid to 300 engineers and technicians. The study was undertaken to learn what would happen to an organization that was undergoing severe reorganizational stresses while attempting to use organization development techniques to reduce those stresses. The OD work included inside and outside consultation with the top executive, team-building activities, attitude surveys and survey feedback, and vertical communi cations meetings. The dependent variables of organizational per formance and process improved during the ten-month test period. The research identified structural changes that may have had some effects, but these could not be isolated because of the multidimensionality of the situation. Additional research is needed to determine what impact the different OD interventions actually have on an organization and to de termine the half-life of those interventions.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors defined organization romance as a relationship between two members that is perceived by a third party to be characterized by sexual attraction, and defined it as "a great deal of routine interaction across time that allows people to discover each other's attractive aspects".
Abstract: a great deal of routine interaction across time that allows people to discover each other’s attractive aspects. The present study defined organization romance as a &dquo;relationship between two members that is perceived by a third party to be characterized by sexual attraction.&dquo; Data were gathered from third-party observers who knew both the persons involved. A questionnaire format was utilized to generate data used in the study, in which subjects were middle-class persons. Motives for involvement included advancement, job security, increased power, financial rewards, easier work, and job proficiency. Ego involvement was another general theme that emerged-excitement, ego satisfaction, sense of adventure, and to have a sexual experience-each of these dimensions was found to correlate with the existence of the romantic involvement.