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Showing papers in "Harvard Educational Review in 2006"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Cohen argues that the goals of education need to be reframed to prioritize not only academic learning, but also social, emotional, and ethical competencies as mentioned in this paper, and advocates for action research partnerships between researchers and practioners to develop authentic methods of evaluation.
Abstract: In this article, Jonathan Cohen argues that the goals of education need to be reframed to prioritize not only academic learning, but also social, emotional, and ethical competencies. Surveying the current state of research in the fields of socialemotional education, character education, and school-based mental health in the United States, Cohen suggests that social-emotional skills, knowledge, and dispositions provide the foundation for participation in a democracy and improved quality of life. Cohen discusses contemporary best practices and policy in relation to creating safe and caring school climates, home-school partnerships, and a pedagogy informed by social-emotional and ethical concerns. He also emphasizes the importance of scientifically sound measures of social-emotional and ethical learning, and advocates for action research partnerships between researchers and practioners to develop authentic methods of evaluation. Cohen notes the gulf that exists between the evidence- based guidelines for soci...

730 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, Fine and McClelland examine the federal promotion of curricula advocating abstinence only until marriage in public schools and, in particular, how these policies constrict the development of "thick desire" in young women.
Abstract: Nearly twenty years after the publication of Michelle Fine's essay "Sexuality, Schooling, and Adolescent Females: The Missing Discourse of Desire," the question of how sexuality education influences the development and health of adolescents remains just as relevant as it was in 1988. In this article, Michelle Fine and Sara McClelland examine the federal promotion of curricula advocating abstinence only until marriage in public schools and, in particular, how these policies constrict the development of "thick desire" in young women. Their findings highlight the fact that national policies have an uneven impact on young people and disproportionately place the burden on girls, youth of color, teens with disabilities, and lesbian/gay/bisexual/ transgender youth. With these findings in mind, the authors provide a set of research guidelines to encourage researchers, policymakers, and advocates as they collect data on, develop curricula for, and change the contexts in which young people are educated about sexual...

579 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Zhou and Kim as mentioned in this paper argue that immigration selectivity, higher than average levels of premigration and postmigration socioeconomic status, and ethnic social structures interact to create unique patterns of adaptation and social environments conducive to educational achievement.
Abstract: Extraordinary Asian American educational achievement has often been credited to a common cultural influence of Confucianism that emphasizes education, family honor, discipline, and respect for authority. In this article, Min Zhou and Susan Kim argue that immigration selectivity, higher than average levels of premigration and postmigration socioeconomic status, and ethnic social structures interact to create unique patterns of adaptation and social environments conducive to educational achievement. This article seeks to unpack the ethnic effect through a comparative analysis of the ethnic system of supplementary education that has developed in two immigrant communities — Chinese and Korean — in the United States. The study suggests that the cultural attributes of a group interact substantially with structural factors, particularly tangible ethnic social structures on which community forces are sustained and social capital is formed. The authors conclude that "culture" is not static and requires structural ...

500 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Achinstein and Ogawa as discussed by the authors examined the experiences of two new teachers who resisted mandated fidelity to Open Court literacy instruction in California, and found that fidelity to open court literacy instruction was beneficial.
Abstract: In this article, Betty Achinstein and Rodney Ogawa examine the experiences of two new teachers who resisted mandated "fidelity" to Open Court literacy instruction in California. These two case stud...

329 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Cochran-Smith and Lytle as mentioned in this paper explored three common conceptions symbolic of basic attitudes and orientations about teachers and teaching that are explicit or implicit in No Child Left Behind (NCLB): images of knowledge, images of teachers, and teaching.
Abstract: In this article Marilyn Cochran-Smith and Susan Lytle offer a critique of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) related to the implications for teachers in educational improvement. Through an analysis of the NCLB legislation and accompanying policy tools that support it, the authors explore three images or central common conceptions symbolic of basic attitudes and orientations about teachers and teaching that are explicit or implicit in NCLB: images of knowledge, images of teachers and teaching, and images of teacher learning. The authors argue that NCLB leaves teachers void of agency and oversimplifies the process of teacher learning and practice. Furthermore, NCLB undermines the broader democratic mission of education, narrows curriculum, and exercises both technical and moralistic control over teachers and teaching. They conclude by sketching a richer framework for teaching that embraces its myriad complexities and acknowledges teachers' agency, activism, and leadership in generating local knowledge.

230 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors proposed specific amendments to NCLB that could help achieve the goal of providing high-quality, equitable education for all students by recruiting highly qualified teachers and defining such teachers in appropriate ways.
Abstract: Although No Child Left Behind (NCLB) aims to close the achievement gap that parallels race and class, some of its key provisions are at odds with reforms that are successfully overhauling the large, comprehensive high schools that traditionally have failed students of color and low-income students in urban areas. While small, restructured schools are improving graduation and college attendance rates, NCLB accountability provisions create counterincentives that encourage higher dropout and push-out rates for low-achieving students (especially English language learners), create obstacles to staffing that allow for greater personalization, and discourage performance assessments that cultivate higher-order thinking and performance abilities. In this article, Linda Darling-Hammond proposes specific amendments to NCLB that could help achieve the goal of providing high-quality, equitable education for all students by recruiting highly qualified teachers and defining such teachers in appropriate ways; by rethinki...

164 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper explored the progression of American social policy and its relation to educational reform from President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal to President George W. Bush's No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).
Abstract: In this article, Harvey Kantor and Robert Lowe explore the progression of American social policy and its relation to educational reform from President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal to President George W. Bush's No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). The authors assert that this progression has been marked by the federal government's gradual divestment in public social provisions, and that the potential for NCLB to deliver on its promise of improved achievement of all students is limited by the erosion of the social and economic supports that are key components of educational success. Kantor and Lowe conclude that while NCLB intensifies the importance placed on education at the federal level, it contributes at the same time to the diminution of political support for a more expansive view of public social provision.

63 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Sunderman and Orfield as discussed by the authors found that state education departments may not have the necessary human and financial resources or organizational capacity to adequately meet their increased responsibilities under the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).
Abstract: In recognition of the increased demands facing state education departments in this accountability-focused era, Gail L. Sunderman and Gary Orfield present results from a study on the response of these agencies to the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). In this article, Sunderman and Orfield analyze issues of state capacity, compiling data from interviews, policy and program document analysis, and budget and staffing information. They find that state education departments, which are tasked with intervening in underperforming schools to ensure 100 percent proficiency for all students under NCLB, may not have the necessary human and financial resources or organizational capacity to adequately meet their increased responsibilities. In addition to issues of capacity, structural, functional, and political factors all limit the ability of state education departments to completely fulfill their new administrative roles. Sunderman and Orfield suggest that state education departments have shown good faith in their resp...

61 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a case study of a grassroots nonprofit organization, Parent-U-Turn, demonstrates how parents can create what he calls public power by responding to structural and systemic educational problems through shared inquiry and collective action.
Abstract: Parental involvement is mentioned more than one hundred times in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). In this article, John Rogers argues that President Bush and former U.S. secretary of education Rod Paige have promoted policy narratives of test accountability, choice, and parental involvement that describe how poor parents can spur educators to have higher expectations and to work harder. What is missing from these policy narratives, Rogers argues, is a fundamental understanding of the problems facing poor communities: a lack of both resources and tools for collective action. Through the case study of a grassroots nonprofit organization, Parent- U-Turn, Rogers demonstrates how parents can create what he calls public power by responding to structural and systemic educational problems through shared inquiry and collective action. Rogers holds up this case as an example of how parents might become true forces for accountability in public education and outlines ways in which the lessons of this example migh...

56 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors investigates the definition and impact of community participation in schooling in rural Ethiopia and finds that a large portion of what is characterized as community participation is monetary contributions rather than involvement in decision-making or teaching and learning.
Abstract: Community participation is a term frequently used and often cited in international educational development. In this article, Jennifer Swift-Morgan investigates the definition and impact of community participation in schooling in rural Ethiopia. Although national governments, development agencies, and nongovernmental organizations across the developing world increasingly encourage community participation, our understanding of this term remains vague due to a lack of detailed analysis. Swift-Morgan's qualitative study examines the form and scope of community participation. She finds that in rural Ethiopia, this range is complex, but a large portion of what is characterized as community participation is monetary contributions rather than involvement in decisionmaking or teaching and learning. Swift-Morgan also shows that there are particular challenges for the participation of women and the poor, and that financial incentives and technical assistance that encourage broad-based decisionmaking create incentive...

50 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) as discussed by the authors was the culmination of more than half a century of urgent but largely unheeded calls for reform of the nation's public education system.
Abstract: In this essay, former secretary of education Rod Paige depicts the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) as the culmination of more than half a century of urgent but largely unheeded calls for reform of the nation's public education system. He explains the rationale for the design of NCLB and responds to several criticisms of the legislation, including the notion that it is a one-size-fits-all mandate and that its improvement targets are unrealistic. He further argues that the nation's public schools must become more responsive to the needs of students and their families in order to remain viable. Finally, he contends that subsequent reauthorizations should stay true to NCLB's original goal of holding school systems accountable for equipping all students with the academic skills on which America's future depends.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Borkowski and Sneed as discussed by the authors discuss the controversies surrounding the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and examine the federal funding needed to implement additional tests, accountability measures, and proven reforms necessary to improve educational outcomes.
Abstract: Drawing on their legal expertise and their experience working with public school districts, John W Borkowski and Maree Sneed discuss the controversies surrounding the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) They acknowledge that its principal benefits lie in its recognition of the right of each child to learn and be assessed by high academic standards, as well as in the act's requirement that test results be disaggregated by race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability, and English language learner status However, they critique the act's imposition of untested, federally mandated remedies driven by ideology rather than by scientific, educational research These unproven, federally mandated remedies, along with inconsistencies in state and local implementation, are potentially more harmful than helpful Finally, the authors examine the federal funding needed to implement additional tests, accountability measures, and the proven reforms necessary to improve educational outcomes They a

Journal ArticleDOI
Nel Noddings1
TL;DR: Cohen as discussed by the authors argues that a genuine education must address social, emotional, and ethical issues, as well as academic, and he provides readers with a useful review of research and policy in the relevant areas.
Abstract: Jonathan Cohen reminds us that a genuine education — an education for whole persons — must address social, emotional, and ethical issues, as well as academic. In doing so, he provides readers with a useful review of research and policy in the relevant areas. Most readers will agree that development of the whole person is important for both individuals and their society, but we may disagree on how and where this should be accomplished. I agree with Cohen that schools should be engaged in this form of education, but I want to raise a few questions about how to proceed. Cohen seems to favor what some character educators call a whole-school approach over courses designed specifically to address social, emotional, and ethical competencies. I agree that all teachers, in all subjects, should be involved in this work. We should say a bit more, however, about why the wholeschool approach is to be preferred. Schools have long practiced the “add-acourse” approach to meeting newly identified needs, and sometimes — as in driver training — that approach is exactly right. But any competency, skill, problem, or attitude that is fundamental to a fully human life should appear somehow in everything we teach. We have to show how it is possible to include social, emotional, and ethical learning in all curricular and extracurricular activities. Cohen discusses the possibilities in existing language arts, social studies, history, and arts courses, but these issues should also appear in mathematics and science classes. There are biographical and historical examples, such as the dispute between Leibniz and Newton over the invention of calculus, that can be used effectively in discussing ethical issues. Many examples can also be found in current events — for example, the recent fraudulent activity of a stem cell researcher. However, it isn’t just a matter of constructing lessons from a collection of cases. Perhaps even more important is the willingness of teachers to discuss social and ethical issues that arise in the everyday work of teaching and learning. Mathematics and science classes are especially significant places for this

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, Arnold Fege identifies parental and public engagement as critical to sustaining equity in public education and traces the history of this engagement from the integration of schools after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and the implementation in 1965 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act through the provisions of No Child Left Behind (NCLB).
Abstract: In this article, Arnold Fege identifies parental and public engagement as critical to sustaining equity in public education. He traces the history of this engagement from the integration of schools after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and the implementation in 1965 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act through the provisions of No Child Left Behind (NCLB). He finds that while NCLB gives parents access to data, it does not foster use of that information to mobilize the public to get involved in school improvement. Fege concludes with historical lessons applicable to the reauthorization of NCLB, emphasizing enforcement of provisions for both parental and community-based involvement in decisionmaking, resource allocation, and assurance of quality and equity.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Ancess and Allen as mentioned in this paper analyzed the varying extent to which small high schools have implemented curricular themes in order to promote academic quality and equity, and found that small theme high schools had the potential to boost student engagement and achievement, but they also expressed concern about the manner in which such themes may serve as socioeconomic, academic, or racial codes that threaten to merely repackage old patterns of school stratification and segregation.
Abstract: In this article, Jacqueline Ancess and David Allen use New York City as a case study to examine the promises and the perils of the small high school reform movement that is sweeping the nation. They analyze the varying extent to which New York City's small high schools have implemented curricular themes in order to promote academic quality and equity. After identifying a wide range in the level of theme implementation in the city's small schools, Ancess and Allen suggest that small theme high schools have the potential to boost student engagement and achievement. However, the authors also express concern about the manner in which curricular themes may serve as socioeconomic, academic, or racial codes that threaten to merely repackage old patterns of school stratification and segregation.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, Reyes analyzes the fate of the Aspira Consent Decree over the last thirty years and discusses the demographic and sociopolitical changes between 1974 and the present, the pedagogical and political struggles associated with the consent decree over the years, the lessons learned, and the emerging trends and prospects for bilingual education in New York City's public school system, which is now under direct mayoral control.
Abstract: In this article, Luis O. Reyes provides a retrospective of the historic 1974 Aspira Consent Decree between the New York City Board of Education and Aspira of New York, which established bilingual instruction as a legally enforceable federal entitlement for New York City's non-English-speaking Puerto Rican and Latino students. Reyes analyzes the fate of the Aspira Consent Decree over the last thirty years. He discusses the demographic and sociopolitical changes between 1974 and the present, the pedagogical and political struggles associated with the consent decree over the years, the lessons learned, and the emerging trends and prospects for bilingual education in New York City's public school system, which is now under direct mayoral control.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, Holst presented findings of his historical research on Paulo Freire's educational work in Chile from 1964 to 1969, which was informed by a liberal developmentalist outlook.
Abstract: In this article, John Holst presents findings of his historical research on Paulo Freire's educational work in Chile from 1964 to 1969. Freire's Education as the Practice of Freedom, which was written in 1965 from notes he brought from Brazil, was informed by a liberal developmentalist outlook. In contrast, his Pedagogy of the Oppressed, written toward the end of his stay in Chile from 1967 to 1968, was influenced by Marxist humanist ideology. Considering this relatively rapid change in Freire's educational philosophy, Holst explores the manner in which Freire's time and work in Chile affected his ideological evolution. Holst contributes to Freirean studies by demonstrating that Freire's work in the Chilean political context proved to be decisive in his ideological and pedagogical growth. Freire's ideological evolution inspired his writing of Pedagogy of the Oppressed, widely considered one of the most important books on education in the twentieth century. Ultimately, Holst argues that Freire's pedagogy, ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Maclure argues that research that falls into the exogenous "donor-control" paradigm far too often is irrelevant to the African educational policy context and does little to develop local research capacity.
Abstract: Multilateral donors like the World Bank and bilateral agencies such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the British Department for International Development exert a great deal of influence in international educational development — particularly in sub-Saharan Africa — both in the programs they fund and the types of research they engage in In this article, Richard Maclure investigates educational research in Africa and juxtaposes research done by large, exogenous, Western, results-oriented organizations with research performed by smaller, endogenous, local researchers aided by local research networks Maclure argues convincingly that research that falls into the exogenous "donor-control" paradigm far too often is irrelevant to the African educational policy context and does little to develop local research capacity The cases of two African research networks — the Educational Research Network of West and Central Africa and the Association for the Development of Education

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Hess as mentioned in this paper analyzed the general public's and parents' opinions on several issues, including the proper use of large-scale assessments, the appropriateness of punitive action for failing schools, the place of school choice, and the responsibility for closing achievement gaps across groups.
Abstract: In this article, Frederick Hess discusses public opinion trends related to educational issues from the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2002 through 2006. Using data from three separate public opinion polls, Hess analyzes the general public's and parents' opinions on several issues, including the proper use of large-scale assessments, the appropriateness of punitive action for failing schools, the place of school choice, and the responsibility for closing achievement gaps across groups. Among many important findings, the author determines that NCLB has had little effect on the public's general opinion of public schools; that there is little public support for the sanctioning of struggling schools; and that while the public feels that schools should not be blamed for existing achievement gaps, schools should be responsible for closing them. He concludes with a discussion of implications for policymakers and practitioners.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors in this article suggest that highly qualified teachers should cultivate safe, respectful, culturally sensitive, and responsive learning communities, establish relationships with students' families and communities, express their high expectations for their students through instructional planning and implementation, and know how students learn.
Abstract: In this article, four urban high school students and their student leadership and social justice class advisor address the question, "What are high school students' perspectives on the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act's (NCLB) definition of a highly qualified teacher?" As the advisor to the course, Garcia challenged her students to examine their high school experiences with teachers. The students offer personal stories that describe what they consider the critical qualities of teachers — qualities not based solely on the credentials and education status defined by NCLB. The authors suggest that highly qualified teachers should cultivate safe, respectful, culturally sensitive, and responsive learning communities, establish relationships with students' families and communities, express their high expectations for their students through instructional planning and implementation, and know how students learn. This article urges educators and policymakers to consider the students' voices and school experiences whe...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Edelstein, F. et al. as mentioned in this paper. (2006). Mayoral leadership and involvement in education: An action guide for success. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
Abstract: Edelstein, F. (2006). Mayoral leadership and involvement in education: An action guide for success. Washington, DC: U.S. Conference of Mayors. Edelstein, F., & LaRock, J. D. (2003, October 1). Takeovers or toeholds? Mayors don’t need to run the schools to make them better. Education Week, pp. 34, 44. Friedman, T. L. (2005). The world is flat. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Hodgkinson, H. (2003). Leaving too many children behind. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership. Kirst, M. W. (2002). Mayoral influence, new regimes and public school governance. Philadelphia: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk. Washington, DC: U.S Department of Education. Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and schools. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute. Usdan, M. (2005). The surprise architects of an intrusive federal role. School Administrator, 62, 49–50.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The standards-based reform movement has spread on a bipartisan basis to virtually every state in the country as discussed by the authors and every governor seeks to be an education governor, and our most recent presidents have sought to expand the influence of the federal government in the traditionally local sphere of public education.
Abstract: Over the last generation, a new politics of education has evolved throughout the United States. Since the 1983 watershed report A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), the country’s most influential business and political leaders — and, more recently, mayors — have spearheaded efforts to improve student achievement in America’s schools in unprecedented ways. Their concerns about the quality of education have been predicated on widespread apprehension that if its schools remained mediocre, the nation will be unable to compete in an increasingly competitive global economy (Friedman, 2005). The demands of political and business leaders for greater accountability in public education have been sustained for more than two decades and show little sign of abatement. Indeed, the standards-based reform movement has spread on a bipartisan basis to virtually every state in the country. Nowadays, every governor seeks to be an “education governor,” and our most recent presidents have sought to expand the influence of the federal government in the traditionally local sphere of public education. Ironically, through the No Child Left Behind Act, President George W. Bush — an avowed “compassionate conservative” — has expanded the influence of the federal government in a manner inconsistent with traditional Republican ideological opposition to centralized big government. This has been the case in particular in the field of education, which historically has been under the purview of state and local authorities (Usdan, 2005). Throughout the twentieth century, presidents, governors, and mayors have played subordinate and relatively passive roles in shaping educational policy. Professional educators in state education departments, local school boards

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Kwak et al. as mentioned in this paper studied the political dynamics of mayoral engagement in public education and showed that the effectiveness of city and state takeover as a school reform strategy can be measured.
Abstract: Hill, P. T., & Celio, M. B. (1998). Fixing urban schools. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Howell, W. (Ed.). (2005). Besieged: School boards and the future of education politics. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Kirst, M. W. (2002). Mayoral influence, new regimes, and public school governance. Philadelphia: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Kirst, M., & Bulkley, K. (2003). Mayoral takeover: The different directions taken in different cities. In J. Cibulka & W. Boyd (Eds.), A race against time: The crisis in urban schooling. Westport, CT: Praeger. Kirst, M. W., & Wirt, F. (2005). The political dynamics of American education. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan. National League of Cities. (2002). Improving public schools: Action kit for municipal leaders. Washington, DC: Author. Smith, H. (2005). Using community assets to build an “education system.” Voices in Urban Education Reform, 7, 25–35. Stone, C., Henig, J., Jones, B., & Pierannunzi, C. (2001). Building civic capacity: The politics of reforming urban schools. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. Tyack, D. (1974). The one best system: A history of American urban education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Usdan, M. D. (1994, January 1). The relationship between school boards and general purpose government. Phi Delta Kappan, 75, 374–378. Wong, K. K. (2005). The political dynamics of mayoral engagement in public education. Unpublished paper, Brown University. Wong, K. K., & Shen, F. (2003a). Big city mayors and school governance reform: The case of school district takeover. Peabody Journal of Education, 78, 5–32. Wong, K. K., & Shen, F. (2003b). Measuring the effectiveness of city and state takeover as a school reform strategy. Peabody Journal of Education, 78, 89–119.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Betty J Sternberg as mentioned in this paper argues that the increased money and time spent on meeting the summative testing requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) adds little to the existing "gold standard" testing conducted by the State of Connecticut.
Abstract: In this essay, Betty J Sternberg argues that the increased money and time spent on meeting the summative testing requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) adds little to the existing "gold standard" testing conducted by the State of Connecticut Sternberg highlights the challenges faced by one state in meeting the requirements of NCLB: She identifies the diversion of multiple resources, the limited usefulness of summative testing, and the inability of testing companies to meet increased demands as impediments to improving student achievement Using Connecticut's program-focused accountability model, Sternberg posits that the right combination of formative testing in conjunction with summative testing and supplementary programming ensures the academic success of all students



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Connecticut Attorney General Richard Blumenthal as mentioned in this paper argued that NCLB's unfunded testing mandates are illegal and may prove detrimental to Connecticut students' academic achievement, arguing that prior to ratification of the act, Connecticut had been nationally recognized for its assessment program aimed at closing the achievement gap and increasing accountability.
Abstract: In April 2005, Connecticut attorney general Richard Blumenthal filed the first lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Education over the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). In this essay, Attorney General Blumenthal presents Connecticut's reasons for legally challenging NCLB. He argues that prior to ratification of the act, Connecticut had been nationally recognized for its assessment program aimed at closing the achievement gap and increasing accountability. NCLB mandates that require testing at all grade levels would force Connecticut to replace its formative assessments with summative assessments and divert their limited educational funds from supplementary educational programs to the expansion of the state's testing office. Blumenthal argues that NCLB's unfunded testing mandates are illegal and may prove detrimental to Connecticut students' academic achievement. While he strongly supports the goals of NCLB, Blumenthal concludes that if schools are to achieve those goals, it is imperative that the federal...