Showing papers in "Human Relations in 1993"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a typology of readiness programs for large-scale organizational change, and a large multinational corporation's efforts to create readiness for large scale change are described.
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to clarify the readiness for change concept and examine how change agents can influence employee readiness for organizational change. The article contributes to an improved understanding of change dynamics in four important ways. First, readiness for change is distinguished from resistance to change. Readiness is described in terms of the organizational members' beliefs, attitudes, and intentions. Second, a model is offered that describes the influence strategies as well as the importance of change agent credibility and interpersonal and social dynamics in the readiness creation process. Third, by combining urgency of, and employee readiness for, needed changes, a typology of readiness programs is offered. Fourth, a large multinational corporation's efforts to create readiness for large-scale change are described to provide a cogent illustration of the various readiness interventions described in the model.
1,780 citations
TL;DR: The authors argue that the notion of studied or vigilant trust based on the core conclusions of 20th century analytic philosophy as a way of squaring theory and stylized facts is ill-captured by mainstream theory.
Abstract: The understandings of individuality and sociability characteristic of modern liberal and sociological social theory are fatalistic about the potential for the creation of trust in economic relations. These understandings are reconsidered in light of the recent evolution of state-level industrial policy in the United States, focusing on the experience of the state of Pennsylvania where the state's efforts have shown early success in breaking down barriers of mistrust that block economic adjustment in the state's traditional manufacturing industries. Arguing that the sort of cooperation-in-the-making that characterizes the Pennsylvania case is ill-captured by mainstream theory, the paper proffers a notion of studied or vigilant trust based on the core conclusions of 20th century analytic philosophy as a way of squaring theory and stylized facts. Government-instigated discussion among key economic actors has the potential to spur reformulations of collective identities and common histories, resulting in the ...
831 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that participatory action research is always an emergent process that can often be intensified and that works effectively to link participation, social action, and knowledge generation.
Abstract: Participatory action research is presented as a social research method and process and as a goal that social research should always strive to achieve. After describing the key features and strengths of participatory action research, we briefly analyze its role in promoting social change through organizational learning in three very different kinds of organizations. We argue that participatory action research is always an emergent process that can often be intensified and that works effectively to link participation, social action, and knowledge generation.
616 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the survival of such relationships in the face of these inevitable inter-personal problems requires the establishment of interorganizational trust, characterized by community of interest, organizational cultures receptive to external inputs, and widespread and continually supplemented knowledge among employees of the status and purpose of the collaboration.
Abstract: Companies increasingly collaborate in their technological activities. Collaboration enables firms to learn about uncertain and turbulent technological change, and enhances their ability to deal with novelty. A number of studies reveal the importance for successful collaboration of high levels of inter-personal trust between scientists, engineers, and managers in the different partners. However, these individual relationships are vulnerable to labor turnover and inter-personal difficulties. Using two examples of highly successful technological collaborations, it is argued that the survival of such relationships in the face of these inevitable inter-personal problems requires the establishment of interorganizational trust. Such trust is characterized by community of interest, organizational cultures receptive to external inputs, and widespread and continually supplemented knowledge among employees of the status and purpose of the collaboration.
595 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the effects of a series of environmental, job characteristics, and personality variables that were excluded from the Price-Mueller model and found that the exclusion of an environmental factor (opportunity) and a personality variable (positive affectivity) was a serious omission.
Abstract: The job satisfaction model embedded in the Price-Mueller turnover model was revised and estimated. The revised model examined the effects of a series of environmental, job characteristics, and personality variables that were excluded from the Price-Mueller model. Two-wave longitudinal data were collected from 405 employees of a 327-bed Veterans Administration Medical Center. Four different models representing refinements of the proposed model were estimated using LISREL maximum likelihood methods. The exclusion of important job characteristics (role conflict, supervisory support, and task significance) by the Price-Mueller model was not found to have a significant impact on the explanatory power of the revised model. However, the exclusion of an environmental factor (opportunity) and a personality variable (positive affectivity) was found to be a serious omission. Overall, it was found that the degree to which employees like their job is influenced by a combination of characteristics of the environment (o...
539 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a broader view of the causes of boredom, including attributes of the task, environment, person, and person-environment fit, is proposed and individual choices of response to feelings of boredom are also considered, and a number of research propositions are suggested.
Abstract: Nearly everyone experiences episodes of boredom at work from time to time, regardless of the nature of their job. Previous research on industrial monotony is unable to explain boredom on any but the simplest of tasks. A broader view of the causes of boredom, including attributes of the task, environment, person, and person-environment fit, is proposed. Individual choices of response to feelings of boredom are also considered, and a number of research propositions are suggested.
519 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated whether the relationship between job satisfaction and citizenship could depend upon the nature of the job satisfaction measure used, and found that job satisfaction measures which reflect a cognitive basi cation may be more complex than originally reported.
Abstract: One of the most widely believed maxims of management is that a happy worker is a productive worker. However, most research on the nature of the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance has not yielded convincing evidence that such a relationship exists to the degree most managers believe. One reason for this might lie in the way in which job performance is measured. Numerous studies have been published that showed that using Organizational Citizenship Behavior to supplant more traditional measures of job performance has resulted in a more robust relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. Yet, recent work has suggested that the relationship between job satisfaction and citizenship may be more complex than originally reported. This study investigated whether the relationship between job satisfaction and citizenship could depend upon the nature of the job satisfaction measure used. Specifically, it was hypothesized that job satisfaction measures which reflect a cognitive basi...
511 citations
TL;DR: Action research is defined and its scientific basis is noted but not argued as mentioned in this paper, and there has recently emerged a variety of new models for doing action research today, which complement and extend the classic model.
Abstract: Action research is defined and its scientific basis is noted but not argued. Although its original, classical form established almost a half century ago still exists, there has recently emerged a variety of new models for doing action research today. The basic classical model is described in terms of five elements. These are, in turn, used to introduce the present collection of reports on new, emergent varieties of contemporary action research that complement and extend the classic model. The reports come from projects in hundreds of organizations, in communities and regions, and in numerous countries. The ideas behind the basic model of action research may remain viable today only because they are being practiced in new ways, in innovative research designs, and applied to new problems. The collection of cases presented in this special issue illustrates the rich variety of new thinking available in contemporary action research.
478 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate the controversy between universal and contingent approaches to corporate change and conclude that the traditional Organizational Development model is unrepresentative of how change in many contemporary organizations is actually made.
Abstract: To investigate the controversy between universal and contingent approaches to corporate change, a study was undertaken of 13 service sector organizations. The study used the Dunphy/Stace contingency model of organizational change strategies, developing measures to place the organizations within the model. Results indicate that universal models of change management are inadequate to describe the diversity of approaches actually used by these organizations. In particular, the traditional Organizational Development model is unrepresentative of how change in many contemporary organizations is actually made. The traditional OD model prescribes incremental change combined with a participative management style but most organizations in the study made rapid transformative change using a directive leadership style. The OD model is also inadequate as a prescriptive model because very different change strategies, some dramatically different from OD, resulted in successful financial performance. Four case studies are...
375 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a field study was conducted to examine the relationship between leader-member exchange (LMX) and two types of employee behavior: citizenship behavior and impression management, and the results showed that one form of citizenship behavior, altruism, and another form of impression management were significantly related to LMX.
Abstract: A field study was conducted to examine the relationship between leader-member exchange (LMX) and two types of employee behavior: citizenship behavior and impression management. One form of citizenship behavior, altruism, and one form of impression management, other-focused were significantly related to LMX. Implications of the results are discussed.
364 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a model of executive leadership consisting of four competing roles: Vision Setter, Motivator, Analyzer, and Task Master, and tested their relationships to three dimensions of firm performance using data collected from a sample of 916 top managers.
Abstract: This paper develops a model of executive leadership consisting of four competing roles: Vision Setter, Motivator, Analyzer, and Task Master. These four roles are operationalized and hypotheses are then tested concerning their relationships to three dimensions of firm performance using data collected from a sample of 916 top managers. Results suggest that CEOs with high "behavioral complexity" - the ability to play multiple, competing roles - produce the best firm performance, particularly with respect to business performance (growth and innovation) and organizational (stakeholder) effectiveness. Executive leadership role had little to do with firms' financial performance.
TL;DR: In this article, a study of middle managers involved in the merger of two U.K. Building Societies found that post-merger measures of mental health suggest merger to be a stressful life event, even when there is a high degree of cultural compatibility between the partnering organizations.
Abstract: The prospect of increasing profitability and market share by acquisition or merger has continued to exercise a more immediate and seductive appeal to organizations than a reliance on organic growth alone, despite the seemingly high risks attached. The human aspects of merger and acquisition and the impact such a major change event has on employee health and well being has received relatively little research attention. This article reports on a recent study of middle managers (n = 157) involved in the merger of two U.K. Building Societies. Post-merger measures of mental health suggest merger to be a stressful life event, even when there is a high degree of cultural compatibility between the partnering organizations.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors review the literature on the use of social accounts in conflict situations and find it supports the argument that social accounts can be an effective conflict management strategy, and identify tradeoffs and dilemmas created when social accounts are used to manage conflict.
Abstract: Considerable attention has been given to different behavioral strategies of conflict management (e.g., avoidance, compromise, collaboration). However, conflict theory and research has overlooked a simple, but effective strategy for managing conflict: the use of social accounts or explanations. In this paper, we review the literature on the use of social accounts in conflict situations and find it supports the argument that social accounts can be an effective conflict- management strategy. Based on this analysis, we propose several promising directions for future theory development and research concerning the role of social accounts in conflict situations. In addition, we identify tradeoffs and dilemmas created when social accounts are used to manage conflict.
TL;DR: In this paper, a synthesis of business history and organization studies is developed, using the historical concept of invented tradition in conjunction with the social cognition biases identified by organizational culture, and the major part of the article demonstrates how Cadbury, a British confectionery company well known for its Quaker traditions, invented its corporate culture by attributing significance to the Quaker beliefs of the Cadbury family retrospectively.
Abstract: The concept of culture promised to make organization studies more historical. This promise has not been fulfilled. Possible reasons for the failure to integrate business history and organization studies are explored and a synthesis developed, using the historical concept of invented tradition in conjunction with the social cognition biases identified by organizational culture. The major part of the article then demonstrates how Cadbury, a British confectionery company well known for its Quaker traditions, invented its corporate culture by attributing significance to the Quaker beliefs of the Cadbury family retrospectively. A history is reconstructed, mainly from published sources, to demonstrate how the histories constructed by the firm, including a centenary celebration in 1931, were part of the process of giving meaning to the firm's labor-management institutions.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the extent and direction of occupational stress transmission and the possible psychological mechanisms in a survey of 60 working couples and found evidence of transmission of stress from men to women, particularly where men have high strain levels.
Abstract: The associations between work demands, supports, and levels of psychological and physical health have been clearly established by research. There is growing evidence that occupational stressors are transmitted to spouses, with a possible subsequent effect on disease risks and life expectancy of both marital partners. The present study investigates the extent and direction of occupational stress transmission and the possible psychological mechanisms in a survey of 60 working couples. It analyzes the relationships between partners' psychological strain levels, investigates the accuracy of couples perceptions of each other's work stressors, and analyzes the complex interrelationships between an individual's work and the mental well-being of their spouse. Results show that work-related discussion is frequent among marital partners and that individuals have accurate perceptions of their partners' jobs. The study found evidence of transmission of stress from men to women, particularly where men have high strain...
TL;DR: In this article, the relationship between military academy leaders' personal attributes (e.g., traits, thinking styles) and others' ratings of transformational and transactional leadership was assessed. But the relevant predictors differed as a function of the positions of the individuals who rated leadership (i.e., superiors vs. subordinates of focal leaders).
Abstract: Relationships between military academy leaders' personal attributes (e.g., traits, thinking styles) and others' ratings of transformational and transactional leadership were assessed in this study. Regression analyses indicated that personal attributes significantly predicted leadership ratings. Consistent with implicit leadership theories, however, the relevant predictors differed as a function of the positions of the individuals who rated leadership (i.e., superiors vs. subordinates of focal leaders). For example, leader intelligence and athletic experience were related to subordinate ratings of leadership while the leader's degree of conformity was associated with superiors' ratings of leadership. Implications for organizations and for understanding the leadership rating process are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, a questionnaire was sent to public service employees seeking information on their expectations regarding a proposal to increase their functional flexibility, and it was proposed that beliefs concerning the unfavorability of outcomes of the intervention would be correlated with a range of biographical, affective, and job content variables.
Abstract: Public service employees (3044) completed a questionnaire seeking information on their expectations regarding a proposal to increase their functional flexibility. It was proposed that beliefs concerning the unfavorability of outcomes of the intervention would be correlated with a range of biographical, affective, and job content variables. Multivariate analyses revealed that the scope of an employees' existing job and biographical variables (apart from age) were not generally predictive of attitudes to functional flexibility. Rather, unfavorable attitudes were weakly associated with low levels of extrinsic satisfaction, perceived reward equity, aspiration organizational commitment, and age. The implications of these findings for work and skills restructuring interventions and organizational change in general are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify key dimensions that cut through the cases and allow for comparison and contrast, including the system level of the charge target, the degree of organization of the research setting, openness of the AR process, the goals and purpose of research effort, and the role of the researcher(s).
Abstract: Widely divergent forms of action research are emerging to meet requirements of new organizational and social environments. Cases in this special issue are tangible examples of these innovative AR efforts. This article identifies key dimensions that cut through the cases and allow for comparison and contrast. These dimensions include (1) the system level of the charge target, (2) the degree of organization of the research setting, (3) the degree of openness of the AR process, (4) the goals and purpose of the research effort, and (5) the role of the researcher(s). Dimensions are used to locate cases and to support discussion of qualitative aspects that are crucial to understanding. Several general learnings derived from the dimensional analysis and discussion are described.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the traditional social science goals of "prediction" and "control" of systems behavior are sometimes, if not usually, unobtainable.
Abstract: Based on theoretical and mathematical principles of chaos theory, we argue that the customary social science goals of "prediction" and "control" of systems behavior are sometimes, if not usually, unobtainable. Specifically, chaos theory shows how it is possible for nearly identical entities embedded in identical environments to exhibit radically different behaviors, even when the underlying systems are extremely simple and completely deterministic. Furthermore, chaos theory arguments are general enough to apply to any type of entity, including individuals, groups, and organizations, and therefore they are relevant to a large domain of social science problems. As a result, this paper concludes with six familiar claims about the study of social phenomena for which chaos theory provides new theoretical arguments.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model was developed to describe the roles of organizational obstacles (social and technical) in relation to three types of performance outcomes (customer satisfaction, financial performance, and employee job satisfaction), as well as to various moderators associated with different job types (e.g., customer contact, organizational commitment).
Abstract: A model was developed to describe the roles of organizational obstacles (social and technical) in relation to three types of performance outcomes (customer satisfaction, financial performance, and employee job satisfaction), as well as to various moderators associated with different job types (e.g., customer contact, organizational commitment). In a test of this model, employee perceptions of organizational obstacles were measured in a retail banking environment. For employees in highest contact with customers (i.e., tellers), reports of co-worker obstacles, work environment obstacles, and workbreak scheduling obstacles were associated with lower levels of customer satisfaction. However, there was very little relationship between tellers' perceptions of obstacles and tellers' job satisfaction. For employees in positions associated with more experience and commitment (i.e., account representatives), information timeliness obstacles were linked with higher customer satisfaction, while materials, workspace s...
TL;DR: In this paper, organizational stories are used to study often unstated and perhaps unconscious codes for resolving conflicts, approaching decision-making, determining perceptions of positive and negative organizational forces, guiding role behavior, and the like.
Abstract: An important aspect of corporate culture is its ability to influence relationship dynamics. This article examines how organizational stories can be used to study often unstated and perhaps unconscious codes for resolving conflicts, approaching decision-making, determining perceptions of positive and negative organizational forces, guiding role behavior, and the like. Stories are also defined, prior research is described, and the advantages and disadvantages in using this technique are discussed. We explain how our methodology can uncover comparative relationship patterns for human resource development professionals and business leaders in Fortune 500 companies.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of work and non-work stressors as determinants of burnout was examined based on data obtained from 95 dual-earner couples in Singapore.
Abstract: Based on data obtained from 95 dual-earner couples in Singapore, the study reported here examined a model of work and nonwork stressors as determinants of burnout. The model was underpinned by a conceptualization of burnout as emanating from the differential social roles performed by men and women within a gender stratified social structure. T-test, path, and moderated multiple regression analyses were used to examine the hypothesized relationships. Three findings were salient. First, wives reported significantly more burnout than husbands. Second, burnout in wives was influenced by both work and nonwork stressors while burnout in husbands was influenced only by work stressors. Third, the effect of job-spouse conflict on burnout in wives was moderated by quality of spouse experience. In general, the model was better able to predict burnout in wives (R = .34) than in husbands (R2 = .16). Limitations of the study, implications of the findings and directions for future studies are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored the relationship between personal value orientations and stages of moral reasoning in order to better understand, explain, and possibly predict decision-making and reasoning processes.
Abstract: Personal values and moral reasoning have been found to influence behavior. However, as presently developed, these theories do not provide a comprehensive understanding and explanation of an individual's decision-making process leading to behavior. This paper explores the four personal value orientations introduced by Milton Rokeach and the moral reasoning characteristics of Lawrence Kohlberg's stage theory of moral development. Relationships between personal value orientations and stages of moral reasoning are developed and hypothesized relationships are empirically tested. Theoretical and research implications are drawn from these relationships in order to better understand, explain, and possibly predict decision-making and reasoning processes.
TL;DR: In this article, a representative sample of 506 textile workers located at 15 separate worksites was examined and three propositions testing these hypothesized relationships between gender and "intent" and "actual turnover" were examined.
Abstract: Gender as a correlate of turnover has been inconclusive as a factor in understanding the development of a turnover decision. Yet, it is a decisive factor in the operation of key labor market processes which directly affect the entry and exit of labor to and from work organizations. Two possible conceptual and methodological explanations for this seemingly contradictory situation are proposed which distinguish "intent" from "actual turnover" and disaggregate male and female components of the "sex" variable. The lower and less consistent labor force participation rates of women in contrast to men led us to hypothesize that actual turnover behavior and intent to leave will be gender-specific, as well as influenced by differing sets of labor market and work environment factors. Three propositions testing these hypothesized relationships between gender and "intent" and "actual turnover" were examined. A representative sample of 506 textile workers located at 15 separate worksites was examined. A series of logi...
TL;DR: The authors considers the theoretical implications of the potential convergence of these strands, with particular reference to the ethnography of organizations, in which description is an active construction rather than a neutral recording of the other's world, and a tendency for the processes of interpretation to be abandoned to a free play of unlimited signification in which any and all meanings are possible.
Abstract: The social sciences have recently exhibited renewed interest in ethnography while traditional anthropology has been struggling with the challenges of postmodernism. This paper considers the theoretical implications of the potential convergence of these strands, with particular reference to the ethnography of organizations. Postmodernism is seen to affect ethnography by problematizing the processes of description, reference, and the establishment of authority in ethnographic texts. It offers, rather than a "scientific" model, a "literary" model of such texts in which description is an active construction rather than a neutral recording of the other's world. Ostensive reference becomes displaced by evocation, the single authorial voice by the "heteroglossia" of many contributing voices. Unfortunately, there is a tendency for the processes of interpretation to be abandoned to a free play of unlimited signification in which any and all meanings are possible, which jettisons rigor and with it critical acerbity...
TL;DR: In this article, the copying activities of business executives are compared with those of business faculty members, finding that executives report less unauthorized copying activities both personally and by colleagues; they also reject rationalizations for such copying.
Abstract: This study investigates attitudes toward unauthorized copying of microcomputer software, a practice which is costing the industry an estimated $800 million to $2 billion a year in lost revenue. Specifically, the copying activities of business executives are compared with those of business faculty members. Executives are found to report less unauthorized copying activities both personally and by colleagues; they also reject rationalizations for such copying. Academicians, on the other hand, tend to view unauthorized copying as being less unethical. Possible explanations for the differences between the two groups include the degree and type of job-related supervision, identification with the organization vs. the profession, and social-desirability bias. Implications of these findings and future research needs are discussed.
TL;DR: This article proposed a contract model of employment relations that integrates insights from economic and sociological perspectives on labor market transactions and demonstrated the utility of the contract model empirically using a large data set on organizations and their employees in U.S. and Japanese manufacturing industries.
Abstract: This paper proposes a contract model of employment relations that integrates insights from economic and sociological perspectives on labor market transactions. The utility of the contract model is illustrated empirically using a large data set on organizations and their employees in U.S. and Japanese manufacturing industries. The results are consistent with many transaction cost and agency theory predictions, though they also indicate the need to supplement these economic theories with sociological explanations based on political, cultural, and other institutional differences.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a sample of 4000 managers at various levels of a large corporation to evaluate the characteristics of the internal labor market and found that different career systems may coexist within the single organization, through advancement criteria differing across company levels.
Abstract: The managerial plateau is generally assumed to be problematic for organizations, generated by motives for advancement outstripping opportunities for upward mobility. However, previous research has used unitary criteria for plateauing of untested validity, and failed to examine the phenomenon contextually by taking account of internal labor market characteristics. Measurement of agegrading was used to address these problems. Drawing upon a sample of 4000 managers at various levels of a large corporation the present study had three objectives. First, in setting out to evaluate the characteristics of the internal labor market, results showed patterns consistent with a partial "tournament" career system, but also that different career systems may coexist within the single organization, through advancement criteria differing across company levels. Second, in aiming to assess the relationships between conventional plateau criteria and agegrading, agegrading was found to covary with the more widely used criteria...
TL;DR: In this paper, a study aimed to determine whether widely-used personality test scores would be significantly related to actual ratings of managers' performance in two different cultures, including Chinese and European middle and senior management of an Asian-based international airline.
Abstract: This study aimed to determine whether widely-used personality test scores would be significantly related to the actual ratings of managers' performance in two different cultures. Chinese and European middle and senior management of an Asian-based international airline completed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) which was related to reliable, behavioral ratings of the managers actual managerial practices (innovation, direction, support, decision making, planning, commitment, and participation) and departmental organizational climate (recognition, participation, unit-relations, standard maintenance, clarity, inter-unit communications, and inter-unit relations). The internal reliability of these measures was first checked and then both sets of scales were correlated with the four dimensions arising from the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - separately for the European expatriates and local Chinese managers. Because there were major cultural (and to a lesser extent gender) differences on the MBTI but not the...
TL;DR: In this paper, an insurance department is used as an illustrative and representative case, where a manager was a successful soul-of-fire (i.e., champion) during the change process.
Abstract: What may be learned from organizational innovations in a long-term perspective? This article is based on eight studies over a period of 10-20 years. An insurance department is used as an illustrative and representative case. The department manager was a successful soul-of-fire (i.e., champion) during the change process. The continuous defense of the organization's values and culture distanced him from the rest of the company. Legitimacy (especially top management acceptance) is something that has to be continuously regenerated. The soul-of-fire faces two major dilemmas: first, the learning dilemma, i.e., the need to balance the efforts for internal learning and development in the unit with diffusion activities and the creation of external legitimacy; second, the change dilemma, i.e., the need to balance the direction and control of change with support for employee autonomy and influence.