Showing papers in "Human Relations in 1994"

Petty Tyranny in Organizations

Abstract: A petty tyrant is defined as one who lords his or her power over others. Preliminary empirical work suggests that tyrannical behaviors include arbitrariness and self-aggrandizement, belittling others, lack of consideration, a forcing style of conflict resolution, discouraging initiative, and noncontingent punishment. A model of the antecedents of tyrannical management and the effects of tyranny on subordinates is presented. Petty tyranny is argued to be the product of interactions between individual predispositions (beliefs about the organization, subordinates, and self, and preferences for action) and situational facilitators (institutionalized values and norms, power, and stressors). Tyrannical management is argued to cause low self-esteem, performance, work unit cohesiveness, and leader endorsement, and high frustration, stress, reactance, helplessness, and work alienation among subordinates. It is further argued that these effects may trigger a vicious circle which sustains the tyrannical behavior. Re...

Healthy Mind; Healthy Organization— A Proactive Approach to Occupational Stress

Abstract: Against a background of mounting research evidence (Cooper & Payne, 1988), there can be little dispute that stress has a dysfunctional impact on both individual and organizational outcomes. Links have been demonstrated between stress and the incidence of Coronary Heart Disease, mental breakdown, poor health behaviors, job dissatisfaction, accidents, family problems and certain forms of cancer (e.g., McLean, 1980; Frese, 1985; Cooper & Watson, 1991). Almost half of all premature deaths in the U.K. are attributed to lifestyle and stress-related illnesses (Palmer, 1989).

Understanding Our Differences: Performance in Decision-Making Groups with Diverse Members

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to develop a model to explain performance in decision-making groups characterized by high diversity in composition. It begins with a brief discussion on the nature and effects of diversity. Previous research on group performance is then reviewed with the general conclusion that diverse groups perform less well than homogeneous ones do. This conclusion is challenged by closely examining a small group of studies specifically researching the effects of diversity, and it is shown that diversity can enhance a group's performance if it is integrated. Communication is proposed as an integrating mechanism, and a theory of communication in terms of preconditions is described. This theory is then used to develop propositions concerning the relationships among diversity, integration, and performance in decision-making groups. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The Effectiveness of Self-Managing Teams: A Quasi-Experiment

Abstract: This study used a quasi-experimental design to assess the effectiveness of self-managing teams in a telecommunications company. These teams performed customer service, technical support, administrative support, and managerial functions in a variety of locations. The balance of evidence indicates that self-managing teams were more effective than comparable traditionally-managed groups that performed the same type of work. The study illustrates the value of a collaborative research project in which researchers and clients jointly define the research questions, study design, and methods.

The Gender We Think, The Gender We Do in Our Everyday Organizational Lives

Abstract: We “do gender” while we are at work, while we produce an organizational culture and its rules governing what is fair in the relationship between the sexes. The inner ambiguity of gender construction is expressed in the dilemma: how can we do gender without second-sexing the female? The management of cross-gendered situations (dual presence) is based on a two-stage ritual involving the ceremonial work of paying homage to the symbolic order of gender (a deep trans-psychic structure) and the remedial work of repairing the inequality inherent in gender difference. Studying the ambiguity of gender symbols enables us to use indirect speech and discoursively to change gender relationships in organizations.

Occupational Stress, Social Support, Job Control, and Psychological Well-Being

Abstract: The effects of social support, job control, participative decision making practices, and locus of control upon the relationship between occupational stress and psychological well-being have been well discussed and researched. In order to synthesize these areas of research, a 1-month follow-up study of 244 accountants was conducted. The results indicated complex interactions between stressors, locus of control, and social support or job autonomy in predicting psychological well-being, controlling for initial measures of well-being. These interactions reveal that an internal locus of control, and social support/job autonomy synergistically buffer the effects of stressors upon well-being.

Who Gets Involved in Collective Action?: Social Psychological Determinants of Individual Participation in Trade Unions

Abstract: This study examined social psychological factors associated with willingness to participate in collective action. These factors were group identification, collectivist orientation, outgroup stereotyping, perceived intergroup conflict, egoistic and collective relative deprivation, and political efficacy. Three hundred and fifty members of a trade union completed questionnaires where items measured these factors along with their prospective participation in a range of union activities. Regression analyses indicated that the most significant correlate of participation was the strength of the respondent's sense of group identification. Other significant correlates were collectivist orientation and the degree to which the outgroup (management) was perceived in a stereotypical fashion. Further analyses were undertaken to examine the possible moderating effect of group identification on the relationships between independent and dependent variables. These indicated a broadly similar pattern of results for both st...

Patterns of Organizational Commitment and Perceived Management Style: A Comparison of Public and Private Sector Employees

Abstract: Organizational commitment and perceived management styles were examined using survey responses from 1418 employees from both public (N = 474) and private (N = 944) sector organizations, operating in Australia. Comparisons between the two groups of employees revealed higher commitment among private sector employees. These differences were consistent with differences in perceived management styles. In agreement with previous research, factor analysis unveiled that the concept of organizational commitment was multidimensional. However, in the present study, that concept was found to incorporate the notion of "corporate loyalty/citizenship" and the notion of "attachment to the organization." The operational concept of management style used in the study was found to incorporate four subdimensions: (factor 1) the degree of "emphasis on flexibility and adaptation"; (factor 2) the degree of "emphasis on rules and regulations"; (factor 3) the degree of emphasis on "hierarchy and role specialization" and (factor 4)...

A Definition and Illustration of Democratic Leadership

Abstract: Renewed calls for democracy make it imperative that we understand the nature of democratic leadership. Existing definitions of democratic leadership are inconsistent and inadequate, so this essay provides a clear definition that applies to social groups both large and small. As defined herein, democratic leadership is conceptually distinct from positions of authority; rather, it is defined as the performance of three functions: distributing responsibility among the membership, empowering group members, and aiding the group's decision-making process. Many, most, or all members of a group serve these functions, regularly exchanging the roles of leader and follower. A limited number of practical and moral considerations are identified for assessing the appropriateness of the democratic leadership model for different groups. In addition, the National Issues Forums program is used to illustrate the model, and suggestions are made for future research on democratic leadership.

Acculturation in Acquired Organizations: A Force-Field Perspective

Abstract: The acculturation process involved when one organization is acquired by another, and the two organizational cultures merge, has not been adequately conceptualized in the strategic management literature. It is argued here that the acculturation process can be more fully understood by utilizing Lewin's (1951) force-field approach. In addition, major forces of cultural differentiation and organizational integration are identified. It is also argued that the dynamic acculturative change process will both influence and be influenced by postacquisition organizational performance. Predictions as to how post-acquisition performance influences subsequent acculturation modes are offered.

An Examination of the Antecedents of Subjective Career Success Among a Managerial Sample in Singapore

Abstract: Data obtained with a questionnaire instrument from managerial employees (N = 200) in Singapore were used to examine some antecedents of subjective career success. The choice of antecedents was informed by recent calls to place research on career issues in the context of an individual's life roles. Confirmatory factor analysis (LISREL VII) was used to examine the one-factor and three-factor models hypothesized to underlie the subjective career success data. The results revealed a three-factor model to have adequate fit statistics - financial and hierarchical success, and career satisfaction. The antecedent sets of human capital, work values, family and structural or work variables accounted for over 40% of the explained variance in each career success dimension. While the career success dimensions were influenced by different variables, individual-organizational value congruity, quality of parental role and internal labor market emerged as consistent antecedents of the career success dimensions. The patter...

Understanding the Meaning of Participation: Views from the Workplace

Abstract: It is now generally agreed that there has been a growth in the extensiveness of employee involvement (El) in Britain in recent years. However, the value of this information is limited because many of the studies rely heavily on management viewpoints about the impact of El. Even when surveys of employee opinion are undertaken, however, the results are typically abstracted from the organizational context in which they are located. In this article, we present information from six organizations collected as part of a larger study on El in Britain. This illustrates that employee attitudes to El are dependent, inter alia, upon the prior experiences which employees have of El and work in general, management's approaches to employee relations, and the recent and projected corporate performance of the organization. This leads us to suggest that El is as much affected by the prevailing organizational culture and environment as it is a source of change. The authors call for more research studies of this kind to be u...

Critical Incidents in Communicating Culture to Newcomers: The Meaning is the Message

Abstract: Recent hires (n = 149) in 12 electronics manufacturing firms were asked to relate their experiences of formative events and the messages derived from them. Newcomers also described the behavioral norms characterizing their organization, one facet of its culture. Critical incidents newcomers reported were significantly related to their perceptions of behavioral norms. The messages newcomers interpreted from these incidents were coded in terms of positive or negative frame (emphasizing desirable or undesirable outcomes). Positively framed events were related to experiencing the organization's culture as team-oriented. Negatively framed events were related to describing the culture as more control-oriented. Analyses indicate that the critical incidents impact beliefs regarding cultural norms through their effect on the frame of the message newcomers derive from the events. Moreover, team norms were negatively related to role conflict and positively related to role clarity. Findings are interpreted with respe...

Empowered Managers and Empowered Workers: The Effects of Managerial Support and Managerial Perceived Control on Workers' Sense of Control over Decision Making

Abstract: In this study, we sought to identify conditions under which workers could experience empowered managers as empowering. Within an organizational context, we defined empowerment as the belief that one has control over decision making. Specifically, we proposed that when workers believe that their managers both have a high level of control over decision making and are supportive, workers will report that they themselves are empowered. We reasoned that managers who exercise power in a supportive manner will be an empowering force for their workers. In support of these hypotheses, we found that it is possible for both workers and supportive managers to enjoy relatively high levels of perceived control over organizational decisions.

Social Information Processing and Social Networks: A Test of Social Influence Mechanisms

Abstract: After identifying the implicit assumptions about social influence mechanisms and the social structural bases reflected in the social information processing literature, social network analysis concepts and structural models are used to clearly specify three alternative influence mechanisms. Simple interaction contact, norm enforcing cohesive groups, and the occupation of structurally equivalent positions or roles in an interaction structure are hypothesized as the structures underlying different social influence processes. The relative efficacy of these various structural configurations in predicting similarity of perception of and attitudes about organizational phenomena are then evaluated. While the evidence seems to indicate that the social influence of norm enforcing groups is most robust, multiple mechanisms appear to operate, sometimes simultaneously, for different kinds of perceptions. The limits of social information processing effects are discussed in light of the findings here of no significant e...

Is Computer-Mediated Communication Intrinsically Apt to Enhance Democracy in Organizations?

Abstract: Recent studies on social and organizational processes involved in computer-mediated communication (CMC) are discussed. A technological deterministic approach, which views CMC as inherently apt to support democracy in organizations, is challenged. Claims about equal access, overcoming socialbarriers, openness and de-individuation, are critically examined with reference to up-to-date literature. Our point, consistent with sociotechnical theory, is that CMC, especially in E-mail use, can alter rhythms and patterns of social interactions in ways both powerful and pervasive, neither positive nor negative in themselves, but shaped by local contexts of use. Stress on social identity processes involved in CMC is suggested as relevant to further research.

Organizational and Environmental Determinants of Functional and Dysfunctional Turnover: Practical and Research Implications

Abstract: This study investigates organizational and environmental determinants of functional and dysfunctional turnover. Functional turnover is negatively associated with levels of pay and unemployment and positively associated with the availability of individual incentive programs. Dysfunctional turnover is positively associated with the presence of group incentive programs and negatively associated with the presence of unions. The implications of these findings are explored.

The Relationship Between Interpersonal Attachment Styles and Work Difficulties

Abstract: Hazan and Shaver (1990) have argued that attachment theory can be used to predict relationships between adult attachment types (love) and aspects of work behavior. They found that anxious/ambivalent attachments were associated with poorer work performance. Avoidantly attached individuals tended to be overinvolved with work which resulted in effective work performance but disrupted home life. The present study aimed to develop scales of insecure attachment problems for use with a clinical population and to further replicate Hazan and Shaver's findings. In this context the study also looked at the effects of psychological interventions on attachment difficulties. Using data from 219 depressed clients receiving psychological treatment for stress at work, differences in orientation to work were associated with the two insecure attachment groups as predicted. The anxious/ambivalent scale correlated significantly with reported anxiety about work performance and relationships at work. In contrast, the avoidant s...

Sales Agents and Clients: Ethics, Incentives, and a Modified Theory of Planned Behavior

Abstract: Commission is popularly believed to engender unethical intentions, although little research has directly examined this relationship. This paper directly examines the influence commission, along with experience, income, professional accreditation, and a modified theory of planned behavior, has on agents' ethical intentions toward clients. The study sample was systematically drawn from a national group of financial service industry professionals. Only a modified theory of planned behavior significantly predicted agents' ethical intentions. Implications and limitations are discussed.

The Effects of Absence Culture on Individual Absence

Abstract: This field study provided empirical evidence for the effects of absence culture on individual absenteeism among employees (N = 264) within five clerical units. Absence culture was derived from the aggregation of an individual-level measure of the beliefs about the perceived costs (i.e., deterrent outcomes) and benefits (i.e., encouraging outcomes) of being absent from work. It was hypothesized that these individual beliefs about absence could be aggregated meaningfully to the unit level. In addition, it was hypothesized that absence culture would explain a significant amount of variance in individual absence beyond the effects of demographics and general work attitudes. Paid and unpaid absence data for the 3-month period following collection of the beliefs measures were collected from organizational records. This study demonstrated support for the existence of an absence culture and its impact on individual absence. Implications for managing absence and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Interpersonal Attachment and Organizational Commitment: Subgroup Hypothesis Revisited

Abstract: Studies have hypothesized conflicting results regarding the effect of actors' interpersonal attachment on commitment to the encompassing large group. The cohesion approach hypothesizes that interpersonal attachment among actors will enhance group cohesiveness, which produces more commitment to the large group. In contrast, the subgroup approach predicts that interpersonal attachment among actors will contribute more to subgroup fragmentation which sets up barriers to actors' commitment to the large group. We derive hypotheses from these opposing approaches and test the hypotheses over a sample of 1621 employees drawn from 62 work organizations in Korea. The empirical tests indicate the following: (1) Interpersonal attachment among employees in local work units is shown to have a positive effect on commitment to the work organization encompassing the work units. (2) Interpersonal attachment between dissimilar positions in the same work units is shown to have a more positive effect on commitment than that b...

From Groupthink to Teamthink: Toward the Creation of Constructive Thought Patterns in Self-Managing Work Teams:

Abstract: Groups have been subject to a number of weaknesses and problems that interfere with their effectiveness. One notable destructive group tendency has been labeled "groupthink"-a defective decision-making process afflicting highly cohesive and conforming groups (Janis, 1972, 1983). One contemporary type of group that appears particularly vulnerable to groupthink is the self-managing or self-directing team (Manz & Sims, 1982). In this article we examine the vulnerability of self-managing teams to groupthink and propose a theory regarding the establishment of constructive synergistic team thinking and problem solving-"teamthink."

National Attitudes to Competitiveness, Money, and Work Among Young People: First, Second, and Third World Differences

Abstract: Over 12,000 young people from 41 countries on all five continents completed questionnaires measuring such things as the work ethic, achievement motivation, competitiveness, and attitudes to money and saving. Attitudes to competitiveness, money, and saving were clearly and logically related to gross domestic product and economic growth over a 10-year period. The European nations (N = 16) had lower scores on these dimensions than the non-European nations (N = 27). Countries from North and South America scored highest on work ethic and mastery while Far and Middle Eastern countries' young people reported highest competitiveness and acquisitiveness for money. These results are discussed in terms of the limited research in this field.

Work/Family Fit as a Mediator of Work Factors on Marital Tension: Evidence from the Interface of Greedy Institutions

Abstract: This study tests the notion that the relation between work hours and marital quality is mediated by the perceived fit between work and family. A structural model was developed to examine this hypothesis in a sample of 407 male U.S. Army members and their wives, where both spouses' perceptions of the husband's work are considered. A sample of military families was used for this study because, at the interface between "greedy institutions" (Coser, 1974), the clash of demands between the role domains of work and family may be accentuated. Strong support for the mediation hypothesis was obtained. Actual work hours were unrelated to marital tension, and predicted only wives' satisfaction with husbands' work hours and with husbands' work settings. For husbands, satisfaction with work hours and job satisfaction were positively related to work/family fit, which, in turn, negatively predicted marital tension. No direct associations were seen for work variables on marital tension, but significant indirect relations...

The Dominant Logic of Employer-Sponsored Work and Family Initiatives: Human Resource Managers' Institutional Role

Abstract: This paper argues that concepts from institutional theory and managerial dominant logic can be used to examine human resource managers' institutional role supporting the adoption of employer-sponsored childcare as a form of organizational adaptation to change. Three components of the dominant logic of employer-sponsored childcare were found: management control, environmental, and a coercive component. These components overlap to form an overall management orientation toward employer-sponsored childcare, which are related to management's demographic backgrounds, and their organizational and industry environments. The extent of adoption of employer-sponsored childcare was found to be positively related to (1) the strength of human resource manager's global orientation, and (2) their interpretations of favorable executive attitudes toward employer-sponsored childcare.

Professional/Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction for Employed Lawyers:

Abstract: This paper presents the results of a two part field study designed to examine issues of organizational-professional conflict (OPC) amongst employed layers (corporate counsel). The study adopts the Johnson (1972) collegiate/oligarchic typology, and hypothesises that the unexpectedly low OPC found by Aranya and Ferris (1984) amongst employed accountants is a function of the nature of the profession. It replicates the Aranya and Ferris study using subjects from a collegiate profession where, arguably, external reference groups and traditions are more powerful. Using standard multi-variate analysis, the study suggests that for this sample, OPC is no more of an issue than in the Aranya and Ferris study. There was, however, evidence of career factors impacting strongly upon organizational commitment, suggesting that previous ideas on the nature of the link between professionals and their employers are an oversimplification. The theoretical and practical iplications of these findings are discussed.

Testing the Effect of Level and Importance of Pay Referents on Pay Level Satisfaction

Abstract: Using 162 pharmaceutical managers in a longitudinal research design, this study tested whether level and importance of a pay referent interacted to affect pay level satisfaction. Five pay referents (financial, historical, organization, market, and social) and three standardized pay level satisfaction scales (Job Descriptive Index, Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, and Pay Satisfaction Questionnaire) were used. After controlling for employee salary, job inputs, job characteristics, pay system administration, and level and importance pay referent main effects, interactive effects were found which varied by pay satisfaction scale. Results and limitations of this study are discussed.

Attributions for Job Termination and Psychological Distress

Abstract: The nature of job termination and causal attribution for termination were examined for their association with psychological distress among a sample of working-class men in San Antonio, Texas who had recently become unemployed. Laid-off workers were found to experience significantly lower levels of distress than fired workers, largely because the former overwhelmingly defined job loss as a function of the economy. The fired typically attributed job loss to unfair treatment by employers, and they, like the laid off who made similar attributions, indicated significant distress. Psychological reactivity was by far the highest among fired and laid-off workers who reported having been unjustly terminated because of personal shortcomings or deficiencies. Contrary to conventional thought, job loss self-blame was not found to be associated with high levels of distress.

Objectivity, Reflexivity, and Fiction: Humanity, Inhumanity, and the Science of the Social

Abstract: Problems of perspective, proximity and distance, objectivity, and self-interest perpetuate tensions in the social sciences. In positivistic research, still dominant in the organizational sciences, attention has been concentrated on the eradication of bias in the researcher. The effects of this approach have extended into areas where it is implicit and remains unrecognized, particularly in the tradition of “reflexive sociology.” The focal problem here is one of self-knowing and declaration. Focusing on distanciation, the problem of stepping outside one's data, is an alternative perspective. Esthetic approaches to this issue demonstrate that the processes of fictionalization are endemic to the interpretation of data and the production of research accounts. Language is the central element in creating accounts which are constitutive of the world rather than revelatory of its essence, and hence are partial and persuasive versions of reality. This is discussed with reference to the work of organizational and oc...

A Taxonomy of Behavioral Strategies for Coping with Work-Home Role Conflict

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to catalogue specific behavioral strategies used by dual-career couples to solve work-home role conflicts in each of seven broad areas: domestic chores, maintaining social relations, role cycling, job relocations, sex-role socialization, social pressure, and direct competition between spouses. Twenty-four men and women from dual-career families were interviewed using the critical incident method. Results show that six of the seven dimensions could be supported empirically with behaviorally defined solutions; the exception being sex-role socialization. Differences between the results of this study and those of previous studies which have investigated coping behaviors are discussed, and suggestions are offered as to how the findings may be of help to practitioners.