Showing papers in "Human Relations in 1997"

Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization: A Dichotomy Between Descriptive and Prescriptive Research

Abstract: Despite the growing popularity of the term 'organizational learning," writings on the topic have little consensus in terms of definition, perspective, conceptualization, and methodology. This article examines the dichotomy between two main streams of theorizing in the field. The first stream, prescriptive writings on the learning organization, is concerned with the question "How should an organization learn?" Targeting practitioners, these studies are usually based on the authors' consulting experience and seldom follow rigorous research methodologies. They also tend to overgeneralize their theories to all types of organization. Descriptive researches on organizational learning fall in the second stream which tackles the question "How does an organization learn?" These are academic studies striving for scientific rigor. Nevertheless, they often fail to generate useful implications for practitioners. In the final section of the article, brief suggestions are made to integrate the two streams of research.

Disciplines of Organizational Learning: Contributions and Critiques

Abstract: The paper argues against attempts to create asingle framework for understanding organizationallearning. Relevant literature is reviewed from sixdisciplinary perspectives: psychology and OD; management science; sociology and organizational theory;strategy; production management; and culturalanthropology. It is argued that each discipline providesdistinct contributions and conceptions of problems.Furthermore, a basic distinction between organizationallearning and the new idea of the learning organizationis noted. Whereas the former is discipline based andanalytic,the latter is multidisciplinary and emphasizes action and the creation of an“ideal-type” of organization. Due to thediversity of purpose and perspective, it is suggestedthat it is better to consider organizational learning asa multidisciplinary field containing complementary contributions andresearch agendas.

The Downside of Downsizing

Abstract: With the help of data obtained from open-ended interviews conducted with the various stakeholders in downsizing operations and applied within a clinical framework, individual reaction patterns are explored in the victims, the survivors (those staying with a company after layoffs), and the "executioners" (those responsible for the implementation of downsizing). Special emphasis is given to the reactions of the executives implementing the downsizing operation. Among this group of people, a number of ways of coping can be discerned, described as compulsive/ritualistic, abrasive, dissociative, alexithymic/anhedonic, and depressive. The article ends with a number of practical recommendations about how to facilitate the downsizing process. From the interviews conducted, it appears that downsizing, in the more narrow sense of the word, can be a quite destructive process. Reframing the concept so that downsizing is viewed as a continuous process of corporate transformation and change, a way to plan for the contin...

An Exploration of the Meaning and Consequences of Workaholism

Abstract: Although much has been written about“workaholism,” rigorous research andtheoretical development on the topic is in its infancy.We integrate literature from multiple disciplines andoffer a definition of workaholic behavior. We identify three types ofworkaholic behavior patterns: compulsive-dependent,perfectionist, and achievement-oriented workaholism. Apreliminary model is proposed; it identifies potential linkages between each type of workaholismpattern and important outcomes such as performance, joband life satisfaction, and turnover. Specificpropositions for future research are articulated. Weconclude that, depending on the type of workaholicbehavior pattern, workaholism can be good or bad, andits consequences may be experienced or evaluateddifferently by individuals, organizations, and societyat large. Researchers and managers should avoidmaking judgments about the positive or negative effectsof workaholism until more carefully controlled researchhas been published.

From Complex Organizations with Simple Jobs to Simple Organizations with Complex Jobs

Abstract: Organization redesign has become widely acceptedas a regular task for management, recently invigoratedby the interest in Business Process Reengineering. Inspite of that, it is still a neglected area in organization science. This paper emphasizesthe importance of design theory and design-orientedresearch. The potential role of design theory isexemplified by the description of IntegralOrganizational Renewal (IOR), a design theory grounded inpractical experience in the Netherlands. This approachcan be viewed as a Dutch variant of SociotechnicalSystems Design. The essence of this approach lies in the transformation of complex organizationsoffering simple jobs into simple organizations offeringcomplex jobs. IOR can both be regarded as an expertapproach and as a route for self-design. The approach enables the members of the organization todevelop and use their own design expertise. IOR istherefore not only a strategy for organization design,but for organization development as well. The paperpoints to opportunities to make organization researchmore relevant to organization practice.

How Can We Train Leaders if We Do Not Know What Leadership Is

Abstract: Views of leadership that focus on the traits and behaviors of the leader are commonly used to develop training programs. Although these leadership training programs have some application, they suffer from several problems. First, there is no reasonable agreement on what traits or behaviors are leadership traits or behaviors. Second, there is no way to differentiate what makes a good leader from what makes an effective manager or an effective person. And third, people who emerge from these training programs rarely become what anyone might define as good leaders. A view of leadership as a community development process is explored as an alternative to traditional leadership approaches, and its implications for training and education are discussed.

Whatever Happened to Organizational Anthropology? A Review of the Field of Organizational Ethnography and Anthropological Studies

Abstract: L'A. rappelle que le champ d'etude du comportement organisationnel a ete, a l'origine, cree par des anthropologues, notamment par les etudes pionnieres de Hawthorne, et celles de W. F. Whyte, premier anthropologue social a avoir ecrit un ouvrage de reference sur le comportement organisationnel ; mais les deux domaines se sont separes et les etudes organisationnelles ont graduellement perdu contact avec les qualites essentielles de l'anthropologie. Cet article propose une speculation sur la nature de la quete ethnographique et sur ce que l'on gagnerait a reconcilier etudes organisationnelles et anthropologie. Il passe en revue l'etat des recherches dans ce champ et souligne les differents aspects (methode, paradigme, rhetorique et ecriture) de l'ethnographie que le champ organisationnel devra considerer s'il est amene a prendre le tournant anthropologique. Apres avoir fait le constat du manque d'historicite, de contextualite et de processualite de la theorie des organisations, il note que, de son cote, l'anthropologie repond a de telles demandes et, dans ce sens, est porteuse de reelles alternatives pour le developpement futur de ce domaine de recherche. Enfin il insiste sur ce qu'il considere comme les qualites dictinctives de la recherche ethnographique et sur ce qu'elles pourraient apporter a la recherche sur les organisations si elles etaient plus largement adoptees

Ignoring Commitment Is Costly: New Approaches Establish the Missing Link Between Commitment and Performance

Abstract: The branch network of a bank was used toinvestigate the link between employee commitment andorganizational performance in terms of sales targets metand change in profits. Commitment was measured by the conventional Organizational CommitmentQuestionnaire (OCQ) and different variations of aspecifically designed new commitment scale. The approachtaken involved the application of multiple regressionanalysis. That way a variety of factors assumed tocontribute to performance, apart from commitment, couldbe included in the model and held constant. It emergedthat employee commitment is significantly related to the financial success of bank branches. Theresults varied depending on how commitment andperformance were measured. Supervisory commitmentappears to have a particularly strong impact on theoutcome indicators.

Experiencing Work: Values, Attitudes, and Moods

Abstract: This paper describes a model (the VAM model) which integrates three of the most significant dimensions of the work experience, work values, attitudes, and moods, into one overarching framework. The VAM model proposes that a rich and more complete understanding of the experience of work necessitates the simultaneous consideration of work values, attitudes, and moods. After describing how work values, attitudes, and moods, each capture key aspects of experiencing work, we discuss three important dimensions along which they vary: time, dynamism, and focus. These dimensions underscore the need for the simultaneous consideration of values, attitudes, and moods for a fuller understanding of the work experience. We then describe how work values, attitudes, and moods have the potential to influence each other. Finally, we discuss the implications of the VAM model for understanding important organizational outcomes including extra-role behavior, job performance, social loafing, absenteeism, and turnover.

Participative Decision-Making: An Integration of Multiple Dimensions:

Abstract: Few topics have resulted in as much theory, empirical study, controversy, and practical application as participative decision-making (PDM). Although most past empirical research has assumed that the decision-making process in PDM was unidimensional, this paper explores a multidimensional view and examines the integration of degree of participation and decision-making processes and their relationship with satisfaction and performance. The results suggest that the degree of involvement in generating alternatives, planning, and evaluating results are related significantly to satisfaction and that degree of involvement in generating alternatives and planning are related significantly to performance.

Reputation, Image, Prestige, and Goodwill: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Organizational Standing

Abstract: Reputation, image, prestige, and goodwill are concepts used by different disciplines, e.g., economics, marketing, sociology, and accounting, to denote the general standing of organizations among their counterparts. In this paper, the various concepts are reviewed and compared in terms of semantics, organizational cost, determinants, and implications, among others. An interdisciplinary, multiconstituency framework of organizational standing is developed, and research propositions are delineated.

Alternative Models for Antecedents and Outcomes of Work Centrality and Job Satisfaction of High-Tech Personnel

Abstract: Alternative causal models were developed,relating Work Centrality and Job Satisfaction toantecedents and outcomes. The antecedents examined weredemographics and need for achievement, and the outcomes included performance, wages, organizationalcommitment, and career planning. The models were testedusing data of Israeli high-tech personnel. Resultsindicated that organizational commitment, careerplanning, and wages were significantly affected by workcentrality, while performance was positively butnonsignificantly related to it. While all models provedto be acceptable, the best model posited JobSatisfaction as an antecedent rather than an outcome of WorkCentrality. It also revealed the importance ofdemographics for outcomes. Implications arediscussed.

The Cognitive Analysis of Competitive Structures: A Review and Critique

Abstract: In recent years, there has been a growth of interest in the study of business competition from a cognitive perspective. This paper reviews this rapidly expanding literature in order to synthesize key empirical findings and identify significant theoretical and methodological issues which warrant further investigation. It is argued that the notion of "competitive enactment" and the associated "cognitive life cycle" approach recently advanced by Porac and his associates (Porac, Thomas, & Baden-Fuller, 1989; Porac & Thomas, 1990; Levenhagen, Porac, & Thomas, 1993) represent a potentially major breakthrough in our understanding of the dynamics of competition in industries and markets. However, several important propositions are derived for which the currently available empirical evidence is found wanting. Furthermore, a number of methodological hurdles are identified which have yet to be overcome if the validity of these propositions is to be investigated with an acceptable degree of rigor.

Meeting God: When Organizational Members Come Face to Face with the Supreme Leader

Abstract: This paper focuses on a theme which features innumerous “organizational” stories, in whichan ordinary member of of an organization comes face toface with the organization's top leader This themeechoes not only the archetypical religious scene ofmeeting God as supreme judge, but also severalwell-known scenes in drama, opera, and literatureThrough a psychoanalytic study of this theme, a set ofprimal phantasies projected by organizational membersonto their leaders are explored The paper also throwsinto sharp relief the underlying asymmetry of therelationship between leader and follower: while the follower may shake the leader's hand once, theleader will shake innumerable hands The paper is basedon a detailed interpretation of three narrativessupplied by students, drawn from 6-month industrial placements (internships) which they undertookas part of their studies In the first narrative, astudent describes her encounter with the leader inalmost religious terms as a liminal moment in her life; the student idealizes the leader who serves asa role model In the second narrative, the student feelsshunned by a leader who is inadequately briefed for hismeeting with her; she proceeds to demonize the leader as well as the entire organizationIn the third narrative, a student loses his faith in hisdepartmental head, when he realizes that he is not trulyindependent bur merely follows directives from above The three narratives are used toidentify four core fantasies about the lader: (1) theleader as someone who cares for his/her followers; (2)the leader as someone accessible; (3) the leader as someone who is omnipotent and omniscient;and (4) the leader as someone who has a legitimate claimto lead others Two groups of follower fantasies arethen examined The charismatic and the messianic It is then suggested that the leader may beseen as a reincarnation of the primal mother, restoringthe members narcissism and rewarding them for who theyare rather than for what they have achievedAlternatively, the leader may be envisioned more closely tothe Freudian image of father substitute, who rewards andpunishes, arousing at once fear, loyalty, jealousy, andsuspicion It is suggested that the former is close to Kohut's account of charismaticleadership fantasy, while the latter is closer to hisaccount of messianic leadership fantasy

Lean Production: Denial, Confirmation or Extension of Sociotechnical Systems Design?

Abstract: This paper makes a comparison between the basicelements of lean production and sociotechnical systemsdesign (STSD) and compares them both with thecharacteristics of the traditional Fordist system of mass production. It argues that lean productioncan hardly be considered as an alternative to massproduction, as its proponents suggest, but is on thecontrary extending the life of mass production methods. However, lean production does appear to containsome building blocks for the innovative productionsystems that are expected to prevail in the 21stcentury. STSD, which has always presented itself as an alternative and possible successor to Fordistmethods, will need to link its traditional concerns forquality of work and flexibility of work organizationswith the new issues of continuous improvement, learning,and innovation.

The Protestant Ethic: Weber's Model and the Empirical Literature

Abstract: Empirical research with regard to the Protestantethic is reviewed in relation to Weber s model of thepart a specifically religious ethos played in the riseof capitalism. Weber argued that Western legal and commercial changes were not in themselvesan adequate explanation. Essential also was the set ofvalues emphasized by ascetic Protestantism:self-discipline, hard work, the careful use of time, the reinvestment of one s gains, personal honesty,creative innovation, and faith in the rewards of a justGod. Empirical research has found positive correlationsbetween Protestant ethic values and internal locus of control (self-discipline), hard work,honesty, and belief in a just world. Findings withregard to the use of time and money are inconclusive.The relationship with creative innovation has not been examined. There is a need for empiricalstudy of the relationship between the Protestant ethicand personal religious orientation.

Longevity and Cultural Differences of International Joint Ventures: Toward Time-Based Cultural Management

Abstract: This article explores the relationships amongtime, organizational, and national cultural distance inan international joint venture setting. Moreparticularly, the extent to which the longevity of aninternational joint venture affects the intensity of itscultural differences, is investigated in a sample of 51international joint ventures set up in Hungary. Itaddresses certain mechanisms available to aninternational joint venture's managers and to its partners todeal with cross-cultural issues. The results suggestthat the temporal dimension is a cultural moderator ofprime importance, but to be totally effective, it must be combined with a willful strategy ofcultural integration.

Task Interdependence as a Moderator of the Relation Between Group Control and Performance

Abstract: Data were collected from the managers of 77groups in a large service organization and a largemanufacturing organization. The results revealed thatthe relation between group control over decision making and group performance became more positive withincreased levels of task interdependence. The mainimplication of the findings is that increasing groupcontrol over decisions may result in high performance only for groups that are highly taskinterdependent. The performance of groups that are lowin task interdependence may suffer when provided withgroup-level control of decisions.

Human Resource Department Power and Influence Through Symbolic Action

Abstract: The present study integrates theory and research on power, politics, and social constructionism to investigate how human resource (HR) departments in organizations gain influence. Survey results from 242 organizations demonstrated that symbolic actions are stronger predictors of HR department power than unionization, HR performance, and top management attitudes. Implications of the results are discussed as are directions for future research.

Research Selectivity, Managerialism, and the Academic Labor Process: The Future of Nonmainstream Economics in U.K. Universities

Abstract: This paper reports the results of empirical research designed to explore the impact of research selectivity on the work and employment of academic economists in U.K. universities. Research selectivity is seen as part of the general trend toward "managerialism" in higher education in both the U.K. and abroad. Managerialism based on performance indicators and hierarchical control has been contrasted with collegiate control-based or informal peer review. However, analysis of the academic labor process has idealized collegiate relations at the expense of professional hierarchies and intellectual authority relations. We argue that in the U.K., there has evolved a mainstream economics which is located within a well-defined neoclassical core. We find that the existence of lists of core mainstream journals which are believed to count most in the periodic ranking exercise poses a serious threat to academic freedom and diversity within the profession, institutionalizing the control which representatives of the main...

A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Organization, Work Group, and Individual Effectiveness During and After Downsizing

Abstract: The need for a unified, cross-level (organization, work group, individual employee) model of organizational downsizing has been suggested by several authors (e.g., Kozlowski et al., 1993). The definition of downsizing, in terms applicable only at the organization level, prevents researchers from developing a more cohesive view of the interactive impact of downsizing for the organization, work groups, and individuals. In this paper, we define downsizing more broadly as a constellation of stressor events centering around pressures toward work force reductions which place demands upon the organization, work groups, and individual employees, and require a process of coping and adaptation. This stress-based view of downsizing allows researchers to develop concepts to guide research on downsizing that are more broadly applicable across levels of analysis. To show the advantages of this stress-based view of downsizing, this paper uses concepts from the stress coping literature to identify a set of critical depen...

Becker's Side-Bet Theory of Commitment Revisited: Is It Time for a Moratorium or a Resurrection?

Abstract: The results of Cohen and Lowenberg's 1990 meta-analysis of 50 studies that empirically test Becker's (1960) side-bet model provide little empirical support for his theory of commitment. They conclude that severe limitations of past research, both in terms of measuring commitment and the strategies used to test the side-bet model, may be responsible for the lack of empirical support. Alternatively, they submit that if these methodological problems are not at fault, we should consider abandoning the side-bet theory. Three limitations of past side-bet research are addressed in this study. The results of this study suggest that it is time to resurrect Becker's side-bet theory of commitment. In doing so, we should subject his theory to tests that employ more valid and direct measures of the side-bet variables, that use measures of continuance commitment rather than affective commitment, and that apply to both organizational and occupational commitment.

Organizational Hope: Reaffirming the Constructive Task of Social and Organizational Inquiry

Abstract: This paper develops the construct of organizational hope as a methodological imperative for studying and strengthening organizations. It calls on organizational scholars and practitioners to move beyond the critical impulse by advancing "textured vocabularies of hope" that affirm the best and most promising dimensions of social and organizational life and provide a moral image of the future to guide collective action. This can be accomplished by defining hopeful research agendas and choosing methods of inquiry that explore and illuminate the hopes and aspirations of a broad range of organizational members. After clarifying the concept of textured vocabularies of hope, this paper undertakes a thorough analysis of hope by tracing the construct throughout the Western intellectual tradition, highlighting four of hope's enduring qualities, and offering a set of propositions that extends the implications of organizational hope to our task as scholars and practitioners.

The Effects of Gender Role Congruence and Statistical Discrimination on Managerial Advancement

Abstract: This paper makes the argument that themanagerial advancement process is different for womenand men. Men in management who choose to participatemore fully in family labor experience gender rolecongruence pressures and are penalized in the workplace.Women in management experience statisticaldiscrimination, meaning that they are viewed withsuspicion and that their commitment and competence isover-tested. Findings from data collected in two large firmssupported the gender role congruence and statisticaldiscrimination perspectives. Specifically, effortexpended on paid work was more strongly positively associated with advancement for men than forwomen. Participating in household labor hurt men sadvancement more than it did women s. Demonstratingcompetence in a series of internal organizationalexperiences was more strongly associated with advancementfor women than for men. Implications for theory,management, and future research are discussed.

Unpacking Priscilla: Subjectivity and Identity in the Organization of Gendered Appearance

Abstract: This paper argues that our understandings of ourselves as gendered, as either masculine or feminine, are a power effect of the contemporary discourse of gender difference. The main premise of the paper is that this social construction of gender allows for gender difference to be resisted-and the form of resistance analyzed here is gender-inappropriate dress. Two forms of gender-inappropriate dress-male transvestism and female power dressing-are discussed in the paper and argued to present a particular kind of challenge to our discursively constituted sense of the rigidity and mutual exclusivity of the gender divide. This analysis is used in the conclusion to offer some critical comments regarding the strand of organizational analysis which argues for a "feminization/reeroticization" of the workplace.

Evolutionary Psychology: Toward a New View of Human Nature and Organizational Society

Abstract: The paper argues that evolutionary psychology offers a radical and challenging new perspective on human nature and organizational society. Its roots in a convergence of insights and scientific discoveries from diverse natural and human sciences are described, and how it seeks to avoid common fallacies of earlier biological reasoning about human society. Recurrent themes in human nature and their manifestations are summarized, including sex and personality differences, cognitive and affective biases, social orientations, and preferred modes of social exchange. The paper concludes that we suffer the consequences of poor fit between our inherited natures and many of the constructed environments in organizational society, but that new emerging forms of organization may present us with the opportunities for social relations closer to the ancestral paradigms of our psychology.

Nonwork Influences on Withdrawal Cognitions: An Empirical Examination of an Overlooked Issue

Abstract: The aim of this research is to examine several dimensions of nonwork domains such as nonwork-to-work spillover, work/nonwork conflict, coping strategies, and organizational support for nonwork, and their relationship to withdrawal cognitions. Questionnaires were mailed to all employees of a school district in western Canada. A total of 300 usable questionnaires were returned: a response rate of 42%. The findings show that nonwork domain variables are significantly related to withdrawal cognitions. This was demonstrated mainly in two strong interaction effects between the importance of nonwork and personal coping strategies on the one hand, and between the importance of nonwork and perceived organizational support for nonwork on the other. The two interactions remain significant when two work variables, i.e., organizational commitment and job satisfaction, were entered into the regression as control variables. The paper concludes with proposed directions for future research based on the findings of this pr...

Economic and Psychological Models of Job Search Behavior of the Unemployed

Abstract: Economic and psychological theories relating tojob search behavior by the unemployed are considered.There exists a noticeable contrast between the economicapproach which is almost exclusively based on a single model of the rational job seeker, andthe diverse approaches adopted by psychologists.Accordingly, the paper concentrates on areas of researchby psychologists which are relevant to the economic model. The paper starts with an overview of theresearch program in economics. Next, the psychologicalliterature on the general well-being of the unemployedis briefly surveyed; this research might be useful in informing economic studies of theeffects of the duration of unemployment on an individuals search behavior. Two psychological approaches to jobsearch behavior are then discussed, namelyexpectancy-value theory and prospect theory. Findings using theexpectancy-value approach suggest that certainpsychological variables, including normative pressures,might play an important role in job search. In addition, these findings highlight the complexrelationship between job expectations and searchintensity. Finally, it is suggested that the role andimportance of certain psychological variables such asstatus might be expected to vary over the course ofunemployment.

The Influence of Recruiter Characteristics and Organizational Recruitment Support on Perceived Recruiter Effectiveness: Views from Applicants and Recruiters

Abstract: There is very limited information available about whether organizational recruitment practices influence the impressions made by recruiters on job applicants. In response to the scarcity of two-sided information about recruitment processes, the present study obtained data directly from 1571 applicants and 216 matched recruiters who interviewed them. Results suggest that, similar to previous research, a large proportion of variance in applicants' overall impressions of recruiters could be explained as a function of their impressions about more specific recruiter characteristics and behaviors, particularly perceived concern for the applicant and information given to applicants, and enthusiasm regarding the job vacancy. In addition, recruiters' self-perceptions of overall effectiveness were also highly predictable on the basis of more specific self-perceptions, particularly self-perceived interpersonal effectiveness. However, applicants' perceptions of recruiter effectiveness were not well predicted by recru...