Showing papers in "Human Relations in 1999"
TL;DR: In this paper, a study was conducted to explore what could and should be a reasonable response rate in academic studies and the average response rate was 55.6 with a standard deviation of 19.7.
Abstract: A study was conducted to explore what could and should be a reasonable response rate in academic studies. One hundred and forty-one papers which included 175 different studies were examined. They were published in the Academy of Management Journal, Human Relations, Journal of Applied Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Journal of International Business Studies in the years 1975, 1985, and 1995, covering about 200,000 respondents. The average response rate was 55.6 with a standard deviation of 19.7. Variations among the journals such as the year of publication and other variables were discussed. Most notable is the decline through the years (average 48.4, standard deviation of 20.1, in 1995), the lower level found in studies involving top management or organizational representatives (average 36.1, standard deviation of 13.3), and the predominance of North American studies. It is suggested that the average and standard deviation found in this study should be used as a norm ...
1,488 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the relationship between violations of employees' psychological contracts and their exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect behaviors, and found that psychological contract violations result in increased levels of exit and voice, and decreased levels of loyalty.
Abstract: This study examines the relationships between violations of employees' psychological contracts and their exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect behaviors. Using a sample of over 800 managers, this research found that psychological contract violations result in increased levels of exit, voice, and neglect behaviors and decreased levels of loyalty to the organization. In addition, this research examines the moderating effects that situational factors (such as the availability of attractive employment alternatives) have on the relationships between psychological contract violations and managers' behaviors. The results suggest that these situational factors moderate the relationship between psychological contract violations and exit, but not the relationships between psychological contract violations and voice, loyalty, or neglect. Finally, this research also examines differences in the nature of psychological contract violations experienced across three categories of workers: new managers entering the workforce, ...
894 citations
TL;DR: Choi et al. as mentioned in this paper investigated the moderating role of career commitment on the relationships between employees' perception of company practices and organizational commitment, and between organizational commitment and turnover intention, using a sample of 225 researchers from eight business-related research institutes in Korea.
Abstract: This study investigated the moderating role of career commitment on the relationships between employees' perception of company practices and organizational commitment, and between organizational commitment and turnover intention. Using a sample of 225 researchers from eight business-related research institutes in Korea, it was found that (1) career commitment was perceived as distinct from the two dimensions of organizational commitment (affective and continuance) by Korean researchers; (2) career commitment moderated the effect of employees' perception of supervisory support on affective commitment; and (3) career commitment also moderated the effect of affective commitment on turnover intention. The practical and conceptual implications of these results are discussed.
369 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the intention to quit an organization represents one of the better predictors of actual turnover behavior, but the intention-behavior relationship varies widely across studies and one reason for the variability is that individuals possess different motives for stating a high intention of leaving, and it is the motive that accounts in part for when the intention will manifest itself in actual turnover.
Abstract: Although intention to quit an organization represents one of the better predictors of actual turnover behavior, the intention-behavior relationship varies widely across studies. This study argues that one reason for the variability is that individuals possess different motives for stating a high intention of leaving, and it is the motive that accounts in part for when the intention will manifest itself in actual turnover. Using a longitudinal design, expectations were supported in that only those intentions motivated by disaffection with the organization and its values resulted in the loss of employees.
325 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, Anderson and Gerbing's (1988) two-step approach to structural equations modeling was used to examine the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and several outcome variables, including satisfaction, supervisor effectiveness, and self-reported individual performance.
Abstract: This study examined the Perceptions of PoliticsModel (Ferris, Russ, & Fandt, 1989) in a three-phaseprocess. In the first phase, the model was examinedusing Anderson and Gerbing's (1988) two-step approach to structural equations modeling. Themodel was tested on data collected from 786 employees ofa state government agency and 469 employees of anelectric utility cooperative. Results from this phase indicated that the model had acceptablefit and was more parsimonious than any of the competingmodels to which it was compared. In the second phase,understanding as a moderator of the relationships between perceptions of organizational politicsand several outcome variables was examined. Resultsindicated that understanding only moderated the outcomerelationship between politics and job satisfaction, not intent to turnover or job anxiety. Finally,in phase three, the additional outcome variables oforganizational satisfaction, supervisor effectiveness,and self-reported individual performance were included in an effort to expand the Ferris et al. (1989)framework. Additionally, the moderating effects ofunderstanding on the relationships between perceptionsof politics and these new outcome variables were explored. Results from the final step indicatedthat adding the new outcome variables increased theparsimonyof the model without decreasing model fit. Withrespect to the moderating effects, only thepolitics-performance relationship was moderated byunderstanding.Allof these results are discussed in light of theirimplications for future research.
301 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the author explores the nature of contemporary organizational controls, the extent to which they can be said to colonize employee subjectivity, and the types of resistance which they generate.
Abstract: In this article, the author explores the nature of contemporary organizational controls, the extent to which they can be said to colonize employee subjectivity, and the types of resistance which they generate. Labor process, psychoanalytic, critical theory, and Foucauldian perspectives are juxtaposed and a number of similarities and divergences are noted. It is argued that many of these perspectives prematurely lament the end of employee recalcitrance and exaggerate the magnitude and totality of organizational controls, generating over-managed and overcontrolled images of individuals, organizations, and societies. It is proposed that a rapprochement of psychoanalytic and labor theory approaches can lead to an appreciation of unmanaged and unmanageable terrains in organizations, in which human agency may be rediscovered, neither as a class-conscious proletariat nor as a transcendental subject, but as a struggling, feeling, thinking, suffering subject, one capable of obeying and disobeying, controlling and ...
288 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a metatheory of work motivation incorporating theories of self-concept that have been proposed in the sociological and psychological literatures is proposed, and the selfconcept-based sources of motivation are presented.
Abstract: This paper proposes a metatheory of work motivation incorporating theories of self-concept that have been proposed in the sociological and psychological literatures. Traditional theories of work motivation are reviewed, and the selfconcept-based sources of motivation are presented. How the self-concept influences behavior in organizations is explained and used to develop a metatheory of motivational sources. Both research and managerial implications of the model are presented.
287 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine primary processes and effects of the so-called "new organizational culture" that is organized on the principles and practices of Total Quality Management and increasingly practiced in corporate organizations in the 1990s.
Abstract: This article critically examines primary processes and effects of the so-called "new organizational culture" that is organized on the principles and practices of Total Quality Management (and its variations) and increasingly practiced in corporate organizations in the 1990s. The paper specifically analyzes the effects of the organizational cultural practices of "family" and "team" on the employee and discusses their role in corporate discipline, integration, and control. Data are drawn from field research conducted in a large multinational corporation and the analyses and interpretive propositions are informed by a critical social psychoanalytic perspective. The paper disputes the conventional view that the practices of the "new culture" and its purported reform of the hierarchical, specialized, conflict-ridden workplaces of traditional industrial organizations "empower" employees and provide "meaningful" relationships in the workplace. It is argued, on the contrary, that these new "designer" cultural pra...
249 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that supportive peer and customer relationships are predictive of higher levels of employee experienced empowerment, including meaningfulness, influence, and self-efficacy, in service workers in 21 private clubs.
Abstract: Data from 292 service workers in 21 private clubs show that supportive peer and customer relationships are predictive of higher levels of employee experienced empowerment. Both organizational and employee-customer relationships accounted for significant variation in the dimensions of empowerment: meaningfulness, influence, and self-efficacy. Peer helping and supportive customer relationships were the two most influential predictors of all three empowerment dimensions. Implications for future research and for management practice are discussed.
213 citations
TL;DR: This paper explored the "lived experience" of organizational politics from the standpoint of the change agent, focusing on qualitative, idiographic accounts drawn from five interviews from a pilot study designed to develop a research methodology for advancing understanding of the shaping role of political behavior in organizational change.
Abstract: This paper explores the "lived experience" of organizational politics from the standpoint of the change agent. While political behavior appears inevitably to accompany organizational change, the literature of change management seems to adopt an ambivalent approach to this area. The literature of organizational politics, on the other hand, identifies power bases, and offers prescriptive lists of "power tactics" without explaining how these are deployed in the context of driving, shaping, influencing, or implementing change. How do change agents become engaged in political activity, what forms does this take, and can these actions withstand public scrutiny? This paper is based on qualitative, idiographic accounts drawn from five interviews from a pilot study designed to develop a research methodology for advancing understanding of the shaping role of political behavior in organizational change. The case illustrations presented suggest that political behavior is an accepted rather than an objectionable dimen...
189 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the locus of organizational boundary activities has migrated from the organization to the work unit level as enterprises reengineer structures, increase the use of cross-functional teams, cut organizational slack and adopt advanced information technologies.
Abstract: In this paper, we propose that the locus of organizational boundary activities has migrated from the organization to the work unit level as enterprises reengineer structures, increase the use of cross-functional teams, cut organizational slack and adopt advanced information technologies. From an open systems perspective, we examine how environmental and organizational forces affect this migration process. Three types of boundary activity relevant for work units are identified: buffering, spanning, and bringing up boundaries. A set of preliminary propositions regarding relationships between environmental and organizational changes and boundary activities is offered as a guide for future research.
TL;DR: In this article, a longitudinal sample of medicaltechnologists (MTs) was used to investigate the impact of task responsibilities on overall job satisfaction over time, and the supervisor's role in affecting employee job satisfaction was discussed.
Abstract: Using a longitudinal sample of medicaltechnologists (MTs) this study found, after controllingfor prior overall job satisfaction, individualdifference, and organization-level variables, that taskresponsibilities and employee performance appraisal satisfactionsignificantly affected subsequent overall MT jobsatisfaction. Overall job satisfaction significantlydeclined for repeat-respondents over the 4-year period. Data also suggested that the impact of taskresponsibilities on overall job satisfaction candissipate over time, and that the supervisor's role inaffecting employee job satisfaction is important.Results and limitations are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, a taxonomy of specialist roles in the IT adoption process is proposed and illustrated in a series of brief case studies, and the relationships between different HR specialist roles and selected IS success measures were examined in more than 60 organizations across East and Southeast Asia.
Abstract: Despite remarkable advances in information technology (IT), many computer-based information systems (IS) still fall short of performance expectations. A growing share of these implementation failures are due to nontechnical factors. This article considers the human factors and human resource (HR) management issues associated with IT assimilation. A taxonomy of specialist roles in the IS adoption process is proposed and illustrated in a series of brief case studies. The results from a field investigation are then reported. The relationships between different HR specialist roles and selected IS success measures were examined in more than 60 organizations across East and Southeast Asia. Proactive and supportive HR roles were found to be associated with greater user satisfaction, smoother organizational change and improved productivity, but did not significantly affect perceived output quality. The implications for management practice are discussed and specific areas for further research are identified.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the relationship among three social dilemmas faced by organizations wishing to attain and maintain workforce diversity: the dilemma of organizational participation, managerial participation, and individual participation.
Abstract: This paper explores the relationship among three social dilemmas faced by organizations wishing to attain and maintain workforce diversity: the dilemmas of organizational participation, managerial participation, and individual participation. Functional and social category diversity offer benefits for organizations (creativity, adaptation and innovation, and access to external networks), but there are costs which deter organizations from pursuing these benefits. The costs associated with organizational participation in diversity initiatives arise because managers and their employees perceive organizational conflicts and organize their interactions along social identity lines, so that temporal traps and collective fences surround diversity. Resolving the subordinate dilemmas of managerial and individual participation provides the key to resolving the dilemma of organizational participation. Social identity theory is used to understand the dilemmas and to develop possible resolutions, which should make the b...
TL;DR: The authors provide an overview of the complexity sciences, provide a justification and rationale for their inclusion into the social sciences, and review the current organizational literature which utilizes and applies concepts from the complexity sciences to organizationalphenomena.
Abstract: Over the past two decades, several newperspectives have emerged in the physical and naturalsciences and are collectively referred to as thecomplexity sciences. Insights from these emergingperspectives have implications that merit consideration fordevelopments and extensions of existing work at themetatheoretical, theoretical, and methodological levelsin organization theory. The purpose of this manuscript is to: (a) provide an overview of thecomplexity sciences, (b) provide a justification andrationale for their inclusion into the social sciences,and (c) review the current organizational literaturewhich utilizes and applies concepts from thecomplexity sciences to organizationalphenomena.
TL;DR: In this article, the question des emotions dans les organisations dans une perspective sociologique is aborde, i.e., whether emotions are processus isoles and individuels, mais sont de nature sociale.
Abstract: Cet article aborde la question des emotions dans les organisations dans une perspective sociologique. L'A. passe en revue des theoriciens qui soutiennent l'idee systemique que les emotions ne sont pas des processus isoles et individuels, mais sont de nature sociale. Ce corpus de litterature est presente en contrepoint et comme defi aux theoriciens psychodynamiques qui ont historiquement proclame que l'aire des emotions residait sur le terrain de l'individu. Des considerations sociologiques sont apportees sur la relation des emotions a la rationalite, sur le fondement theorique des emotions et sur le controle des emotions par ceux qui sont en position de pouvoir et de domination
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe a test of Karasek's job demand control model using both group and individual level assessments of job characteristics, and find two interaction effects at group level and at individual level with regard to job satisfaction and work motivation, respectively.
Abstract: This article describes a test of Karasek's Job Demand-Control (JD-C) Model using both group and individual level assessments of job characteristics. By group assessments, we mean aggregated individual data. A random sample from general hospitals and nursing homes included 16 institutions, 64 units, and 1489 health care workers (82% response). Because of the hierarchically nested data structure (i.e., institutions, units, and individuals) the research questions and hypothesis were tested in multilevel regression analyses (VARCL). The results revealed both group level and individual level effects with regard to psychological outcomes, and stressed the usefulness of multilevel techniques. Karasek's JID-C Model was partly confirmed by finding two interaction effects at group level and at individual level with regard to job satisfaction and work motivation, respectively. The discussion focuses on theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of multilevel modeling with respect to the JD-C Model.
TL;DR: The authors tracked the leadership development of236 male cadets from matriculation through graduation at a military college and found that cognitive ability, physical fitness, prior influence experiences, and self-esteem measured in Year 1 were relevant to predicting those who assumed formal leadership positions in Year 4.
Abstract: This study tracked the leadership development of236 male cadets from matriculation through graduation ata military college. Cognitive ability, physical fitness,prior influence experiences, and self-esteem measured in Year 1 were relevant to predictingthose who assumed formal leadership positions in Year 4.Physical fitness and prior influence experiencesmeasured when cadets entered the college predicted leader effectiveness rated in their fourthyear. Stress tolerance and moral reasoning levels didnot predict leader emergence or effectiveness, thoughthe set of individual difference measures significantly predicted emergence and effectiveness. Physicalfitness levels and moral reasoning increased over timefor all cadets, though surprisingly, levels ofself-esteem and stress tolerance did not increase over time. Overall the study demonstrated thatleadership effectiveness and emergence could bepredicted from early measures of individualdifferences.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors test three hypotheses on who gets more support from his or her work organization: (1) the validation hypothesis predicts that employees with greater social support from their co-workers and supervisors receive more organizational support, because their support validates or legitimizes organizational support; (2) the positive affectivity hypothesis predicted that employees high on positive affect receive more organisational support because they are more likable; and (3) the moderation hypothesis predicts positive affect and social support do not generate organizational support independently, but each acts on the other to affect organizational support.
Abstract: This paper tests three hypotheses on who gets more support from his or her work organization: (1) The validation hypothesis predicts that employees with greater social support from their co-workers and supervisors receive more organizational support, because their support validates or legitimizes organizational support; (2) the positive affectivity hypothesis predicts that employees high on positive affect receive more organizational support, because they are more likable; and (3) the moderation hypothesis predicts that positive affect and social support do not generate organizational support independently, but each acts on the other to affect organizational support. An assessment of the hypotheses over a sample of 1882 hospital employees in Korea provided strong support for the validation hypothesis and partial support for the moderation hypothesis. Contrary to the positive affectivity hypothesis, employees' good disposition in itself works against the bringing forth of relevant organizational support, n...
TL;DR: In this article, the extended model of different forms of work satisfaction originally proposed by Bruggemann(1974) is validated. And the results from semistructured interviews, a free Q-sort, and aquestionnaire for differentiating forms of worksatisfaction for 46 nurses provide support for the model.
Abstract: Traditional work satisfaction research iscriticized for its personalistic approach inconceptualization and measurement. Its results aredoubted because of the artificially high proportions ofsatisfied. In order to overcome some of theseshortcomings, the extended model of different forms ofwork satisfaction originally proposed by Bruggemann(1974) is validated. Six forms of work satisfaction(progressive, stabilized, resigned satisfaction;constructive, fixated, resigned dissatisfaction) arederived from the constellation of four constituentvariables: comparison of the actual work situation andpersonal aspirations, global satisfaction, changes inlevel of aspiration, controllability at work. Resultsfrom semistructured interviews, a free Q-sort, and aquestionnaire for differentiating forms of worksatisfaction for 46 nurses provide support for the model.Various methods proved useful in accessing particularaspects of the underlying cognitive and evaluativeprocesses in the formation of different forms of work satisfaction. Implications for personnelmanagement and studies in organizational behavior(performance, intervention strategies) arediscussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, an emotional framing of the dynamics of control is presented, where the authors present emotion as a condition and consequence ofinteracting socioeconomic roles and power structures such as those associated with occupations, gender, and capitalism.
Abstract: Processes of control remain central tomanagerial and critical theories of organization, buttheir inherently emotional form has been largelyneglected. The experience and expression of emotions aremore than simply objects and outcomes of control,they also shape its context, processes, andconsequences. Drawing upon observations of interpersonalencounters between environmental regulatory inspectorsand industrial managers in the U.K., an emotionalframing of the dynamics of control is developed. Thispresents emotion as a condition and consequence ofinteracting socioeconomic roles and power structures such as those associated with occupations,gender, and capitalism. It also provides a way ofanalyzing control that is sensitive to its emotionalcharacteristics and may be applied to other, moreconventional control contexts.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore how involvement in sport and physical activity may be one strategy to manage the stigma of a disabled body and find that participants with physical disabilities believe this context helps them exceed expectations associated with their disability through demonstration of physical skill, a fit healthy body, a muscular body, and a liberated body.
Abstract: Individuals with physical disabilities are often stigmatized because their bodies are assumed to vary from norms of physical competence and bodily appearance. Possession of a discrediting attribute may impair social interactions and result in the devaluation of an individual. The purpose of this paper is to explore how involvement in sport and physical activity may be one strategy to manage the stigma of a disabled body. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with 24 male college students with physical disabilities. Findings indicate that respondents believe this context helps them exceed expectations associated with their disability through demonstration of physical skill, a fit healthy body, a muscular body, and a liberated body. Sport and physical activity may be effective in compensating for a spoiled identity as participation in this setting is unexpected and emphasizes an alternative representation of a disabled body.
TL;DR: The establishment, extension and development of formal mentoring schemes in workplaces have been accompanied by an extensive analysis of the preconditions for successful implementation as mentioned in this paper, which tend to be normative and prescriptive.
Abstract: The establishment, extension and development of formal mentoring schemes in workplaces have been accompanied by an extensive analysis of the preconditions for successful implementation. These have tended to explore the "mechanics" of formal mentoring schemes; namely policy development, scheme design, mentor competence, and mentor training. These studies tend to be normative and prescriptive. Substantive theoretical analysis of formal mentoring has been either absent, implicit, limited, or underdeveloped.
TL;DR: Furnham as mentioned in this paper examined the meaning of work in two different cultures, one "Western" Christian (Australian) and the other non-Western Buddhist (Sri Lankan).
Abstract: Although psychology's contribution to a study of the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) made a slow start we now have an impressive array of studies which have examined this construct, even cross-culturally, and find that not only is this construct seemingly alive and well, but also that it is espoused more strongly by non-Protestant and non-Western countries. Furnham (1990b) examined a composite of seven scales designed to measure the PWE, and found that several factors could be identified. A study was undertaken to compare the meaning of work in two different cultures, one "Western" Christian (Australian) and the other non-Western Buddhist (Sri Lankan). The results suggest that both cultures have similar perceptions about the meaning of work, but Sri Lankans seem to be more strongly committed to hard work. Although work related beliefs seem to be similar, Sri Lankans do not endorse the belief that hard work leads to success as enthusiastically as Australians do.
TL;DR: In this paper, an examination of 165 top management successions in U.S. firms during 1989-91 reveals that externals successions are more likely in small firms, in firms with poor economic performance, and in firms which offer the successor several top positions (forexample, Chairman and CEO).
Abstract: An examination of 165 top management successionsin U.S. firms during 1989-91 reveals that externalsuccessions are more likely in small firms, in firmswith poor economic performance, and in firms which offer the successor several top positions (forexample, Chairman and CEO). This last findingillustrates that successor's interests and demands (suchas organizational power) are also important indetermining the final match between manager and firm. Wealso find that, on average, the postsuccessionperformance of external successors is superior to thatof internal successors. This could indicate that theBoard of Directors faces an agency problem, leadingit to appoint too often from inside.
TL;DR: In this article, a cross-sectional and multistage longitudinal survey of 700 employees was conducted in eight medical centers at seven distinct labor market locations at different locations in the US.
Abstract: The underlying labor market and organizational source of alternative job opportunities is re-examined here and applied to investigate employee turnover behavior. We contend that by refining this concept in terms of perceived and objective opportunities and market reference points, a clearer appreciation of this concept and more powerful model of turnover will emerge. To this end, a cross-sectional and multistage longitudinal survey of 700 employees was conducted in eight medical centers at seven distinct labor market locations. Measures of perceived and objective opportunities in internal and external markets were introduced into logistic regressions which clearly showed that objective opportunities are a far better set of explanations of actual turnover behavior than either perceived internal or external market opportunities. This relationship is further explored and its complexity woven into a labor market-oriented turnover model.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors demonstrate that reliance on surrogate variables may lead to some misinterpretation when the relationship between the surrogate and the actual variable is low, and that the relationship may be even worse when the surrogate variable and a third variable is modest as well.
Abstract: Organizational research often relies on surrogate variables. By "surrogate" we do not refer to family of construct, factor, or latent variables. Rather, we address the situation where one variable is literally the substitute for another variable that is generally unavailable. Consider, for example, the use of "intent to turnover" or "intent to transfer" variables commonly used when actual turnover or transfer data are unavailable. We demonstrate that reliance on such surrogate variables may lead to some misinterpretation. This tendency may be particularly apparent when the relationship between the surrogate and the actual variable is low. This may be further exacerbated when the relationship between the surrogate variable and a third variable is modest as well.
TL;DR: This article argued that the traditional paradigm is hampered by a focus on the physical co-presence of others rather than an analysis of the social meanings inherent in (non)intervention.
Abstract: Bystander apathy is a long established phenomenon in social psychology which has yet to be translated into practical strategies for increasing bystander intervention. This paper argues that the traditional paradigm is hampered by a focus on the physical co-presence of others rather than an analysis of the social meanings inherent in (non)intervention. The testimony provided by 38 bystanders at the trial of two 10-year-old boys for the murder of 2-and-a-half-year-old James Bulger is analyzed. It is argued that their failure to intervene can be attributed to the fact that they assumed-or were told-that the three boys were brothers. The way in which this category of "the family" served to prohibit or deflect intervention is analyzed. This approach is contrasted with a traditional bystander apathy account of the bystanders' actions in the Bulger case. It is argued that bystander (non)intervention phenomenon should be analyzed in terms of the construction of social categories in local contexts.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed and examined a framework of downsizing processes at the organizational level, identifying two general approaches thatorganizations use when undergoing downsizing and redesign, as well as patterns of activities and changes that associate them.
Abstract: This paper develops and examines a framework ofdownsizing processes at the organizational level. Itbuilds on previous frameworks and literature byintroducing new variables found to be important in a field study and by bringing empirical evidenceto bear on conceptual underpinnings related toorganizational downsizing and change. The frameworkdeveloped identifies two general approaches thatorganizations use when undergoing downsizing and redesign, aswell as patterns of activities and changes thataccompany them. Downsizing driving redesign involvesincremental and low-level change, and is associated with less communication and systematic analysis,narrow participation in change efforts, and lowermagnitude change in other organizational attributes.Redesign driving downsizing involves more fundamentalorganizational change, and is associated with high-levelchanges that involve restructuring, more communication,broad participation in change efforts, advancesystematic analysis, and the use of interorganizationalrelationships to further downsizing efforts.