Showing papers in "IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management in 1989"

Construction risk assessment by linguistics

Abstract: The authors introduce the concept of construction project analysis by fuzzy set theory and provide a methodology for risk assessment by linguistics. It is shown that the use of fuzzy sets will allow an analyst to communicate degrees of risk of individual project elements to people in readily understood language terms. Once these individual risk elements are communicated, fuzzy set theory would then permit an evaluation of the overall risk of a construction project. An illustrative example is presented. >

Significance of project management structure on development success

Abstract: The significance of project management structure on the success of 546 development projects was investigated. Multivariate procedures revealed that success varies according to the project structure used, even when other determinants are accounted for. Projects relying on the functional organization or a functional matrix were less successful than those which used a balanced matrix, project matrix, or project team. The project matrix outperformed the balanced matrix in meeting schedule, and outperformed the project team in controlling cost. Implications for managing development projects are briefly discussed. >

Research in nearly failure-free, high-reliability organizations: having the bubble

Abstract: The authors note that high-reliability organizations such as nuclear power plants, air traffic control units, and aircraft carriers pose special challenges to organizational researchers. These organizations, where the consequences of failure can be catastrophic, are made relatively inaccessible to organizational research by their technical complexity and sensitivity to scrutiny. Methods for conductive research in these organizations are explicated along with the consequences of failing to bring organizational knowledge to high-reliability work units. The authors define some major characteristics of high-reliability systems and discuss how they affect research on such organizations. They address issues of entre, problem formulation, data collection, data interpretation, researcher relationships with the organizations, and product presentation. >

Determinants of new industrial product performance: a strategic re-examination of the empirical literature

Abstract: Research on the determinants of industrial innovation performance using a three-dimensional framework is examined. Those dimensions are: generality over innovations, decision focus, and managerial controllability. The major determinants identified are: strategic and organizational factors, including general management's support, business-project fit, and RD RD and market and environmental factors, including degree of competition and market growth. An empirical study of 112 industrial products confirms that dynamic interaction exists between these determinants and the launch time of the product. >

On the uses of expert judgment on complex technical problems

Abstract: The authors place in perspective the role and uses of expert judgment in examining complex technical and engineering problems. Specifically, they indicate how expert judgements are usually used in analyzing technical problems, how to improve the use of expert judgments, and how to interpret judgments in analysis. The value of quantifying expert judgments to complement the expert's qualitative thinking and reasoning is stressed. The relationships between procedures to quantify judgments and the general principles of engineering are discussed. >

When knowledge is the critical resource, knowledge management is the critical task

Abstract: The author argues that the increasing centrality of technology and other forms of knowledge to competitiveness induces long-run changes in both operations managementl and engineering management. Those emergent trends in practice are paralleled by changes in academia, in both teaching and research. The author further argues that in several domains of management practice, the 'public good' nature of knowledge undermines the effectiveness of both market and planning models of organization, reinforcing the role of cooperation as a third mode of coordination. It is concluded that researching the essential issues posed by such a change requires a paradigm shift from management science and operations research formulations to more qualitative, less analytical, and more inductive approaches. >

The linear multi-objective R&D project selection problem

Abstract: A multi-objective model of the project-selection problem is described. The model departs from an earlier goal-programming formulation of the problem, which suggested Delphic methods for selection of priorities and aspiration levels. It is shown that the multiobjective formulation yields multiple nondominated solutions for the same problem solved by goal programming, whereas the goal-programming formulation revealed only one solution, and that the goal-programming solution is sensitive to choice of aspiration levels. The multiobjective model is recommended as a more general approach to the research and development project-selection problem, since it will develop a set of all nondominated solution. Subjective methods (such as the Delphic technique) can then be called for at a later point in the analysis to choose among alternative nondominated solutions. >

CAD/CAM: managerial challenges and research issues

Abstract: Results are reported of an exploratory investigation into the managerial problems of integrating computer-aided design (broadly construed to include engineering design and drafting), and computer-aided manufacturing (encompassing machine control, materials handling, manufacturing scheduling, planning and administration, testing and quality assurance). The focus is on engineering, design, fabrication, assembly, and test of printed circuit boards used in the electronics industry and on design and fabrication of hydraulic tubing in the aircraft industry. Nine US electronics businesses and four US aircraft companies were visited with the aim of synthesizing the elements of 'best practice'. Managerial problems and research issues are identified at each of five key levels of organizational learning: skills, procedures, structure, strategy, and culture. >

Framing the problem and making decisions: the facts are not enough

Abstract: Results of an experiment in which a sample of experienced engineers, scientists, and managers-people who would be expected to be objective decision-makers and who report themselves to be rational decision makers-are influenced by very subtle informational cues are presented. These subtle cues did not alter the object facts in research and development financial allocation decisions, but they did apparently alter the decision-maker's reference point. The cues also altered the degree of risk perceived in the decision scenario. As a result, the decision-makers exposed to different frames made different decisions and reported perceiving different levels of risk in the decision episode. >

A comparison of Japanese and US high-technology transfer practices

Abstract: Some empirical results and observations are presented which describe the principal ways in which a sample of industrial researchers in Japan and in the US utilize certain technologies resulting from university research. The findings are from a survey conducted in Japan and the US between October 1986 and December 1987. These results indicate that personal communications and technical collaboration are the key factors in the rapid diffusion of research results in both countries, and that in Japan, government agencies and professional societies take a much more active role in organizing and energizing the civilian technology-transfer process than do counterpart organizations in the US. >

A systems model of technological innovation

Abstract: A systems framework is developed for synthesizing the major themes of previous research of technological innovation. The focus is on two specific types of input to innovation systems: decision inputs and implementation inputs. Each of these input categories is examined in detail, and interactions among their components are investigated. Broader relationships between the decision and implementation inputs are explored, first as a function of the organization's innovation goals, and then over time as the innovation process unfolds through the organization. Some key management-related stimuli and obstacles which can occur at various points in the innovation system are also examined. >

Computer-aided design: limitations in automating design and drafting

Abstract: The impact of CAD (computer-aided design) on employment and skill is examined. First, the relationship between the adoption of mechanical CAD systems and employment of drafters in the aerospace and automobile industries is assessed. Contrary to many employment projections, drafting employment in these industries increased with increases in the adoption of CAD systems. Second, the effects of design automation and skill transformation capacities of electronic CAD systems on printed circuit board designers are evaluated. Third, the limits to automation of design are explored, suggesting that there are trade-offs between automation of the design process and innovation in product design. The logical limits of software, flaws in programming, and the dynamic nature of product markets are evaluated as factors limiting automation. >

A two-phase methodology for technology selection and system design

Abstract: A two-phase methodology to guide research and development managers in the evaluation and selection of competing technologies is presented. Deterministic multi-attribute utility theory is used in the first phase to rank the technological alternatives and to eliminate inferior candidates. The procedure is illustrated with an application drawn from a study centering on the evaluation of electric and hybrid passenger vehicles. Thirty-nine individuals were interviewed to assess their risk preferences and determine their attitudes toward the vehicle design. In the second phase, it is assumed that a particular technology has been chosen for further development. The decision-maker must then allocate a fixed amount of resources to different projects, some of which may be undertaken in parallel, to maximize a given measure of performance. The problem is formulated as a probabilistic network and solved heuristically using Monte Carlo simulation. Results are presented for the most preferred vehicle identified in phase one for two representative decision-makers and three budget options. In each case, the heuristic finds a solution that corresponds to the optimal allocation of funds. >

Computer-aided design: a case of strategy in implementing a new technology

Abstract: In this case study the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) in an engineering company was analyzed. The process of change as well as repercussions of the new technology on work organization and communication patterns within the company were studied. The designers has received the new technology favorably and were even impatient about the pace of change. As the development of the system was limited to a small group close to the design management, the introduction had less than desirable effects on the work situation of the designers and on the cooperation with other functions that was envisaged in the planned CAD/CAM step. The study confirms that CAD, as such, will have little effect on a bureaucratic organization unless such a change is included as an explicit objective. For a full utilization of any new technology a joint forum for outlining a strategy is needed. >

Intergroup conflict and conflict management in the R&D divisions of four aerospace companies

Abstract: The author examined the intergroup conflict between R&D managers and non-managers in four aerospace companies, as well as the relationship between each of the five conflict-handling modes: competition, accommodation, sharing, collaboration, and avoidance, with the following variables: conflict frequency, job satisfaction, and job performance. The research findings indicate that intergroup conflicts were in the areas of goals, reward, control, authority, and insufficient assistance from technical support staff. Furthermore, intergroup conflict and conflict management were found to have both positive and negative consequences. Competition and avoidance were found to have exacerbated the frequency of conflict, and they had a negative impact on performance. Collaboration was found to have ameliorated the frequency of conflict, and it had a rather high positive impact on performance. Both sharing and accommodation were found to be inconsistently related to conflict frequency, and they had an inconsistent impact on performance. For three organizations, job satisfaction was negatively related to conflict frequency and avoidance while it was negatively related to accommodation based on one sample of subjects from one organization only. Competition, sharing, and collaboration were not found to be significantly related to job satisfaction. >

Managing change with CAD and CAD/CAM

Abstract: A model is developed for the analysis of factors influencing organizational and technological changes associated with CAD and CAD/CAM (computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacture). Different pressures for adoption and the sociopolitical environment of the organization and related to managerial strategies and their impact on skills, tasks, training, and changes in work organization. Opportunities are illustrated through the experiences of seven British engineering companies implementing the technologies. Six of the companies are in manufacturing and one is an engineering services organization. Four of the companies are of small to medium size (under 500 employees) and the other three are large, multisite organizations. Key elements of the technological change are identified, and the position of the seven companies in relation to these elements is summarized and discussed. >

Computer-aided design, work organization, and the integrated factory

Abstract: A common job design model of the integrated factory is outlined, and the extent to which international experiences in computer-aided design (CAD) use conform to the model is assessed. With particular focus on experiences in Australia, it is argued that the variety of types and uses of CAD undermine any simple unlinear theory of necessary or appropriate work organization for CAD. It is concluded, however, that work on the design of so-called human-centered manufacturing systems provides an important opportunity for reassessing the most desirable direction for the future of CAD development and use. >

Design work in change: social conditions and results of CAD use in mechanical engineering

Abstract: The findings presented on the use of CAD (computer-aided design) in West Germany's mechanical engineering industry show that CAD is used in various ways by different firms and thus effects working conditions in diverse ways. The various production structures used by the single-piece, half-standardized, and standardized series producers are considered to be the most important factors for explaining this circumstance. In addition, however, the influence of various interest groups in the firms concerning the introduction process also has to be stressed. In view of their research findings, the authors argue against using the over-simplifications and rash generalizations regarding the reduction of personnel, Taylorism, and deskilling that dominated the discussion during the early days of CAD. They regard the changes taking place at the level of the microstructures of designing to be basically the general consequences of the use of CAD. These changes have until the present had little influence on the division of labor and the development of skills. The authors suggest that the latter depend on the various concepts of CAD utilization. The following trends were discovered in this respect: within the field of design, skilled jobs retain their skill level; some already deskilled jobs disappear; and new jobs are being created for CAD experts in the fields of CAD development and support. >

Role conflict in design supervision

Abstract: It is noted that managers planning to implement a CAD (computer-aided design) system concentrate most of their effort into technical analysis. Although some investigation is made into user participation and training, little attention is apparently paid to examining wider organization impacts. In particular, the role of the first-line supervisor in design can be fundamentally eroded when relationships change because of new technology. The authors report on the findings of some preliminary case studies of organizations with CAD systems, looking particularly at the supervisor role and its relationship with the CAD manager role. A revised organizational structure is proposed, in which the role of the lead designer takes over much of the traditional supervisor role, thereby overcoming many of the problems seen in existing organizations. >

Engineering contributions to the evolution of management practice

Abstract: The author argues that the future opportunities for engineers lie in enhanced appreciation of the contributions of the other functions-marketing and finance-in a multidisciplinary approach to the needs of present and future businesses. He indicates that engineers should be aware of their record of contributing to organizational and sociological advances, through their ability to think conceptually and in terms of systems. He concludes that they should seek a career pattern that will develop an appreciation of all the aspects of an enterprise, so that they understand the idiom of their colleagues in the order disciplines and are preparing themselves for wider responsibilities in top management. >

Implementing computer-aided design: the transition of nonusers

Abstract: Prior research on the social impacts of computer-aided design (CAD) has treated nonusers, those still using manual methods, as control groups to which users are compared. The assumption is that nonusers' worklives are essentially unchanged by the implementation of CAD. It is argued that nonusers can also be affected by their organization's transition to CAD. It is hypothesized that CAD has primarily job-enhancing effects for the work lives of designers selected to use CAD and primarily negative effects for the work lives of nonusers, who might fear their manual skills would soon be obsolete. Data were collected in two large manufacturing firms through a survey of 74 CAD users and 30 nonusers and through a smaller number of interviews at each site. The results indicate that, compared with CAD users, nonusers were significantly older and spent more time on support and maintenance of old designs and relatively little time on conceptual design work and new design projects. >

A user-centered approach to define high-level requirements for next-generation CAD systems for mechanical engineering

Abstract: The authors describe work undertaken within the Alvey Research Programme in the United Kingdom. They outline some of the user problems that have been discovered with CAD (computer-aided design) systems. These are then discussed in relation to the design process and, on the basis of studies of users, a less-structured, more opportunistic version of the mechanical engineering design process is described. The implications of this for the design of the CAD systems of the future, the intelligent systems are stated as global requirements, and a conceptual model based on a blackboard architecture is outlined which incorporates the requirements and allows articulation of their consequences. Finally, some as yet unanswered research questions are given. >

Economic impact and technical change

Abstract: The technology decomposition theory is proposed for technologies that exhibit rapid technical change. This theory is intended to support technology forecasting by means of definition of the technical change in technology constituents. Technology decomposition shows that rapid technical change is mainly accomplished by improvements in the manufacturing process. The improvements are the result of the design of new production equipment. Measurements of technical change are used to derive a technology constituent value. It is proposed that the derived constituent value is the maximum achievable. This leads to implications for the management of technology in general and, specifically, for the management of product engineering, if the product depends on one or more rapidly changing technologies. >

The utility of performance measures: production manager's perceptions

Abstract: The utility of a set of 42 measures of subunit performance to 155 production managers is reported. The measures were derived from interviews conducted with practicing managers. The measures were rank ordered, based on their mean scores, and specific patterns arose from the mean orderings. The relative usefulness of these measures and the underlying types of information required for their construction can provide guidance to those engineers or production managers endeavoring to develop or improve an evaluation strategy for manufacturing subunits. >

Some factors correlated with fluctuations in research and development spending

Abstract: The author investigated the reasons why RD the high rate of change in energy prices in the 1970s; and the availability of the R&D tax credit in the 1980s. A fourth correlated factor was found between a leading real interest rate and nonfederal R&D spending. After removing these effects, only a small underlying increase was found annually in nonfederal R&D spending when expressed as a percentage of the GNP. >

Semiconductor technology flow through formal transfer mechanisms

Abstract: An attempt was made to identify how much semiconductor technology flows internationally through formal technology transfer mechanisms, which mechanisms are used, and in which direction the technology moves. The formal mechanisms investigated for transferring technology include: interfirm licensing, cross licensing and second source agreements, firm mergers and acquisitions, and direct investment in firm-owned foreign facilities. It is concluded that, in general, large American companies have allowed their technology advantage to be diffused both to smaller US competitors and to foreign competitors, primarily those in Japan, Europe, and Korea. >

Impact of quality circles on productivity and quality: research limitations of a field experiment

Abstract: A natural field experiment was used in an attempt to measure the impact of a quality circle intervention on productivity and quality in a multiplant food manufacturing firm. The study used a multiple time-series design for the analysis of performance indices spanning 23 months. Uncontrollable factors at the site demonstrated the pitfalls of evaluating a managerial intervention and its impact on the performance of the organization. The results were inconclusive but do illustrate the hazards in field research. >

Product development: assessing the consistency of engineering design policies

Abstract: The authors report on some implementation research that uses judgment capturing (JC) as a tool to reveal where conflicting views and policy ambiguities exist in the organization. This tool describes how differentiation can arise and foster inconsistent views which may be either healthy or dysfunctional. Having revealed these inconsistencies and voids in overall direction for a design project. JC then provides information for a group integrative exercise that leads toward better understanding of engineering design's role for a more unified product development effort. >

On the social acceptability of inherently safe technologies

Abstract: Some techniques have encountered public opposition which has delayed their implementation or even blocked it completely. Inherently safer technologies are a good idea and can certainly improve safety, but research on public perceptions of hazardous technologies suggest that safety is only loosely coupled to social acceptability. It is concluded that the notion of inherent safety does not necessarily make technologies more acceptable. It is proposed that the inherent safety concept should be extended to embrace procedural and institutional innovations that involve lay and expert groups in decision-making and improved communications between technical experts and lay people. >

Evaluation of innovative projects-an integrative approach

Abstract: The relationship between the product specifications and its economic value for the manufacturer and the customer is analyzed. The aspects of the product dealt with are cost performance and its implications for pricing policy. An economic model for the manufacturer is combined with a cost/benefit analysis for the prospective customer to yield an integrative model that permits coupling of the demand and supply functions under the common denominator of performance level. It allows the manufacturer to weigh the performance attributes of the product by means of the customer evaluation and attenuates the tendency to overspecify the product. A numerical example based on data gathered on a citrus-fruit sorting robot is given. In this example the profitability frontier, where both parties make profits, is defined and calculated. >