Showing papers in "Indian journal of history of science in 2019"

U N Brahmachari: Scientific Achievements and Nomination for the Nobel Prize and the Fellowship of the Royal Society of London

Abstract: Bengal produced a number of high rank scientists, but ignored their history. One such unsung hero is Upendra Nath Brahmachari (1873–1946). Brahmachari discovered pentavalent antimonials, Urea Stibamine for the treatment of kala-azar in 1922 long before the discovery of penicillin. In the history of chemotherapy his contribution stands as major landmark. The drug effectively countered the epidemic of kala-azar during the late twentieth century in the vast track of the Gangetic plain and the Brahmaputra valley. The discovery testifies the monument of labor, knowledge and amply rewarded the clinical success it had attained. He was nominated for the Fellowship of the Royal Society of London, as well as Nobel Prize. The present communication1 gives a short review about his life and scientific work.

Agricultural Science in India and Struggle against Famine, Hunger and Malnutrition

Abstract: India has a history of famines and hunger. However, starting with the British initiatives in the beginning of the 20th century, followed by US AID assistance and help after its independence in 1947, and later with its own massive developments in agricultural research under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), education and extension, India has now achieved self-sufficiency in food grains. Government of India has also developed a well-organized public distribution system (PDS) for distribution of food grains especially for below poverty line people (BPL). There has been no famine in India after it gained independence in 1947. In addition to food grains, agricultural science and technology has also helped India in taking strides in the production of fruits and vegetables, milk and fisheries and meat. India thus presents as an excellent example of application of agricultural sciences toward a country’s development to other developing nations of the world and work in this direction in collaboration with USAID is in progress.

On the Persian Translation of Bhāskara’s Līlāvatī by Abu’l Faiẓ Faiẓī at the Court of Akbar

Abstract: At the court of Akbar, several Sanskrit texts were rendered into Persian; these included the epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa, collections of fables and legends like the Pañcatantra, the Siṃhāsana-dvātriṃśikā and the Kathāsaritsāgara, and the historical work Rājataraṅgiṇī. Besides these, a Sanskrit mathematical text, the Līlāvatī of Bhāskarācārya was also translated into Persian by Akbar’s Poet Laureate Faiẓī. While the Persian translations of the Mahābhārata and others have been critically examined in modern times, the Persian version of the Līlāvatī did not receive any scholarly attention, except in two minor cases. In 1816, John Taylor, in the preface to his translation of the Līlāvatī from the Sanskrit, opined that Faiẓī’s Persian version omits certain sections of the Līlāvatī. In 1952, H. J. J. Winter and Arshad Mirza discussed a small fragment of the Persian version and translated 10 verses from it into English. Therefore, in this paper, an attempt is made for the first time to compare the Persian version with the Sanskrit original and to critically analyse the structure and style of the Persian version.

Forensic Science and Scientific Measures for Criminal Identification in British India

Abstract: Like every civilized society, India also had a crime and criminal justice system since ancient times. Specifically after the 1857 rebellion, the British reformed the whole penal law and introduced forensic science for scientific certainty in the criminal justice system. The present paper attempts to understand the historical roots of forensic science in India with emphasis to explore the circumstances which prompted the British to initiate forensic science in India, perception of crime developed by the colonial rulers and finally the historical consequences of the development of forensic institutions in different parts of colonial India. Finally the study reveals that introduction of forensic science for crime investigation and institutionalization of crime came as a new colonial discourse.

The Untapped Wealth of Manuscripts on Indian Astronomy and Mathematics

Abstract: Unlike in the case of other classical sciences of India, the vast corpus of manuscripts in Indian astronomy and mathematics has been extensively surveyed and documented during the last fifty years, mainly due to the painstaking efforts of D. Pingree and K. V. Sarma. We shall make use of their documentation to make: (i) an estimate the extent of available source-works in Indian astronomy and mathematics; and (ii) an assessment of what has been accomplished by the modern scholarship of last two centuries by way of editing and translating these source-works. We find that of the estimated 9,000 source-works of Indian Astronomy and Mathematics (which are preserved in around 30,000 manuscripts), only about 150 texts were edited, and just 30 texts translated during 1800-1947. During 1948-2019, there has been significant progress and another about 300 texts have been edited and 66 texts translated, many of them with detailed explanatory notes. Thus, only about 450 (or 5% of the estimated 9000 source-texts available) have been edited and published so far; even among the published works, only 96 texts have been seriously studied via translations and explanations with a view to bring out their technical (mathematical-astronomical) content. There is an urgent need to reorient our national priorities and give due importance to the preservation, digitization, listing and cataloguing, editing & publishing, and promoting systematic studies of the large corpus of source-works of the great tradition of science and technology in India. Training young scholars for undertaking all these tasks should indeed form an integral part of the courses and research conducted in our institutions of higher learning.

The Relationship between Science and Technology and Evolution in Methods of Knowledge Production

Abstract: The concept of knowledge for the sake of knowledge was practiced by many philosophers considering knowledge as civilising and to have intrinsic values. A utilitarian case for knowledge was made during 13th century; however, science and engineering continued to follow parallel trajectories. Pursuit of technology intensified with the availability of energy from coal on a large scale during the 18th century, and during the 19th century, some scientists started pursuing engineering (increasingly called technology) with an eye for the use of science in practice. Some were members of both communities and worked as scientists-engineers or engineer-scientists. Gradually technology became a mirror-image of science with its norms, practices and journals, and science & technology are now fully intertwined. After the second world war, a linear model stating that basic science leads to technological development was proposed. It was challenged by the reverse linear model emphasising that new scientific possibilities are created by technology. During recent decades, several models analysing relationship between science and technology have been proposed and these are non-hierarchical. Increased understanding of the relationship between science and technology, acceleration in knowledge production, and a squeeze on funding of research by Governments has changed methods of knowledge production. This paper analyses the relationship, presents a modified version of an existing representation of the relationship, and explains the characteristics of current methods of knowledge production.

An Investigation into Ancient Greco-Indian Medical Exchanges: Sostratus vs Suśruta

Abstract: Greco-Indian contacts which go back to the sixth century BCE became intensified after Alexander’s Asian conquest. There are similarities between the description of surgical procedures in famous Greek and Indian works. Whether ancient Greek and Indian medicine and especially surgery were interdependent in their development is a long-standing problem. First/second century CE Roman authors viz. Celsus, Soranus and Galen allude to a surgeon named Sostratus. Sostratus’ period is close to that of Suśruta, so is his surgical expertise as alluded to by ancient authors. The names ‘Sostratus’ and ‘Suśruta’ are phonetically similar. Therefore, several possibilities come up. Either they were different persons and developed their comparable methods independent of each other, or Sostratus’s innovations were incorporated by the Indians under Suśruta’s name, or vice versa. In any case it is an interesting topic that needs further research.

Historical Note: Characterization of Pigments and Binders in Mural Painting Fragments from Bezeklik, China

Abstract: This paper reports the result of identification of pigments and binders used in wall painting fragments in Bezeklik Grottoes (5th–14th ce), now housed in the Central Asian collection of National Museum, New Delhi. The tiny pigment samples (100-200 μm in size) extracted from some of the artworks have been analyzed to gain information on the art materials and painting techniques. Analysis by Micro-Raman spectroscopy, complemented with Scanning Electron Microscopy –Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM–EDX) and Wavelength Dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WD–XRF) allowed identification of lamp black, azurite, atacamite, gypsum, red lead and haematite as pigments and gypsum as a ground layer. The unsaturated and saturated fatty acids and terpineol extracted from the micro sample were identified as organic binders by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrophotometer (GC-MS) analysis. The multi-analytical studies have allowed material characterization in terms of the elemental composition of pigments.

Epigastric-Heteropagus Twins Recorded in Madras Presidency in 1789

Abstract: Twinning is rare in humans, and conjoined twins are rarer. One type of conjoined twins is ‘parasitic twins’, also referred to as ‘heteropagus twins’. This kind of birth anomaly presents asymmetrically joined twins, one of which will usually be intensely deformed and depend parasitically on the other, the near-normal one. We present here the report ‘An account of a monster of the human species’ written from Fort St. George, Madras and published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 1789. This report consists of two letters: one from Baron Reichel to Sir Joseph Banks and the other from James Anderson to Baron Reichel. The Reichel and Anderson letters impress as the earliest formal record of heteropagus twins in India. The morphogenesis of heteropagus twinning is still unclear. The origin of heteropagus twins is explained as monozygotic by some obstetricians and as dizygotic by others. Until the mid-20th century, medical parlance referred to these humans as monsters and their deformities as monstrosities, which was unfortunate.

Glycolic Ferment: The Work of Victor Barral and Raphael Lépine

Abstract: Etienne Victor Barral (1860–1938), a French physician and chemist, and Raphaël Lépine (1840– 1919), a French physiologist, discovered after extensive research that the assimilation of sugar in the blood was carried by a glycolytic ferment, produced mainly by the pancreas, without accumulation. Their work and consequences led other researchers to isolate the glycolytic agent known as insulin afterwards.

A Painless Surgery Joseph Johnstone Performed on a Mesmerized Patient in Madras in 1847

Abstract: Before the demonstration of the usefulness of nitrous oxide, ether (sulphuric ether), and chloroform as potent anaesthetics, surgical procedures were carried out in conscious patients, who were administered either liquor or narcotics, further to being physically restrained. Because this practice was far from desirable, the claim of Mesmer in Vienna, made in 1779, for providing pain relief based on his theory of ‘animal magnetism’ (mesmerism) appealed to some medical practitioners in Europe. Mesmerism was the forerunner of hypnosis and was practised in continental Europe and England for pain management, including less frequently, in surgical procedures prior to the recognition of the above chemicals as potent anaesthetics. British doctors practising medicine in India tried mesmerism previously trialled in Europe. Joseph Johnstone was a British doctor practising in Madras in the 19th century, who took a cue from surgical experiences reported by James Esdaile in Calcutta, excised a large, soft tumour from the back of a woman successfully, using ‘mesmerism’. His report is of historical interest.

Jagdish Chandra Bose and Plant Neurobiology: Part I

Abstract: Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, a renowned physicist of Kolkata (Calcutta), in the early years of the twentieth century, progressively turned his attention to plant physiology. Utilizing some self-devised equipment he described the existence of nervous system in all varieties of plants. Recent years have seen a renewed interest in this field. Acknowledging Sir Bose’s pioneering work, a new discipline of physiology—Plant Neurobiology has been revived. The paper provides a historical account of this work.

Historical Notes- Dr. Radhikaram Dhekial Phookan: A Chemist from Assam

Abstract: Radhikaram Dhekial Phookan (RDP) was the first PhD in Chemistry from Assam and probably in India. RDP’s nine year hiatus at the Institute of Chemistry in the University of Heidelberg, Germany, and his publications are recorded for the first time. The faculty that taught RDP at Heidelberg, along with his mentors Robert Bunsen and Victor Meyer, presented a rare window of opportunity for a non-European to be a part of this pre-eminent centre of modern chemistry. RDP made full use of this opportunity by securing his PhD and subsequently working towards his habilitation. His work available as three publications in peer reviewed journals have been summarised in this paper. Unlike his contemporaries Acharya Sir Prafulla Chandra Ray and Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, RPD’s early demise, robbed him of the chance to play a seminal role, just when Indians were able to claim some of the limelight in natural sciences. This documentation has also cleared misconceptions related to his doctorate and its validity.

Determination of Kalalagna in the Lagnaprakarana

Abstract: The concept of the kālalagna is an important and innovative contribution of the Kerala school of astronomy, and is employed for a variety of astronomical computations in texts such as the Tantrasaṅgraha, the Candracchāyāgaṇita, the Karaṇapaddhati, and the Gaṇita-yukti-bhāṣā. This concept appears to have been first introduced by Mādhava (c. 14th century), the pioneer of the Kerala school, in his Lagnaprakaraṇa. In this text, Mādhava makes innovative use of the kālalagna to determine the exact value of the udayalagna, or the ascendant, for the first time in the annals of Indian astronomy. This paper discusses the various techniques of determining the kālalagna described in the Lagnaprakaraṇa.

Guaman Poma's Yupana and Inca Astronomy

Abstract: An explanation is provided for the Inca counting board described by Guaman Poma in 1615. Although the board could have been used in more than one way, we show that based on certain reasonable assumptions regarding non-uniform representation of numbers its most likely use was counting in multiples of 6, 24, and 72. The independent numbers represented on its five rows are 92, 31, 29, 79, and 56 that appear to be astronomically connected to sub-periods within the year and planet periods in a manner similar to Mayan astronomy. Based on these and other considerations we propose that the board fulfilled an astronomical counting function.

Taxila Mirrors Preserved in India and Technology Transfer

Abstract: The mirrors excavated from Taxila are preserved in the collections of Museums of India and Pakistan. They are significant for information on the technological history of mirrors of the Indian subcontinent. The paper recapitulates the history of the site and excavations conducted in the past at Taxila. It also focuses on the metallurgical composition, manufacturing technique and other features like technology transfer.

Structure of Indus Script

Abstract: The script of the Indus valley civilization has defied decipherment. Several attempts have been made in the past to decipher the script but there is no consensus about its content. The lack of definite knowledge about its structure makes it difficult to objectively evaluate any claim of decipherment. We have tried to fill this lacuna by analyzing the structure of the script using various computational techniques including machine learning and data mining. The focus of our study is to identify patterns in the Indus writing and explore its underlying logic without making any assumptions about its content. The methods identified in the study can also be used to analyse the structure of other undeciphered scripts. In the present paper we summarize our studies of the Indus script.

Sukumar Chandra Sirkar and the Department of Optics at the IACS

Abstract: Sukumar Chandra Sirkar an unsung hero of ‘Calcutta School of Physics’ began his research career under C. V. Raman in the middle of 1920s. Sirkar witnessed the discovery of the Raman effect in 1928 and was the first person to study the intensity of Raman lines in Raman spectra. For more than half a century he was associated with the University of Calcutta and the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS). Later, some of his students occupied higher positions in various institutions. Sirkar differed with his teacher C. V. Raman while interpreting the diffuse Laue spots observed in crystals. He was a Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy and associated with many other scientific institutions, such as Indian Science News Association and the journal Science and Culture. The paper attempts to highlight Sirkar’s role in development of Department of Optics at the IACS.

Sidereal Ecliptic Coordinate System of Sūryasiddhānta

Abstract: Indian astronomical texts give the coordinates of the yogatārās or junction stars of nakṣatras. These coordinates have been interpreted as polar coordinates, which depend on the position of the north celestial pole. Polar coordinates of a star should change with time due to precession. However, different astronomical texts written over many centuries give same coordinates for most yogatārās. This has resulted in Indian astronomers being called incompetent, who did not observe the positions of the stars with accuracy. In this paper it is proposed that Indian astronomers were using sidereal ecliptic coordinates, which does not change with time to a significant extent. Even though sidereal ecliptic coordinates do not change, order of nakṣatras was periodically changed to take into account the movement of vernal equinox due to precession. Ecliptic longitudes were updated by simple addition corresponding to the shift in origin of the nakṣatra system. It is proposed that a mix up of longitudes from different systems has resulted in a list that obfuscates the true understanding of Indian astronomy. To gain a better understanding of coordinates given in Sūryasiddhānta, precise boundaries of nakṣatras have been determined based on the yogatārās of Rohiṇī and Kṛttikā nakṣatras. Using the coordinates of the boundaries, the identifications of yogatārās of nakṣatras have been reassessed. Among the 28 yogatārās, alternative identifications of six yogatārās have been suggested.

Project Report: Practice of Folk Medicine by Rajbanshis of Sub-Himalayan Bengal: A Study in Historical Perspective

Abstract: ‘Folk medicine’, an essential feature of human civilization, is still in existence all across the world both in pristine and institutionalized form. In the global context, the medicinal practices of the indigenous communities of Sub-Himalayan Bengal [Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar districts of West Bengal] are no exception. Here, the indigenous caste and tribal communities have developed their own curative and preventive medicinal practices with their experience and interactions with flora and fauna of their habitation. Among them, the wide knowledge on folk medicine, preventive food habits, folk culture and health keeping behaviour of the Rajbanshis deserve special attention. Being the members of the largest indigenous community of Sub-Himalayan Bengal, the Rajbanshis were the main sufferers of different diseases common in this region. In the pre-colonial and early colonial days, common and poor Rajbanshis of this region were solely dependent on their own village medicine. However, with the introduction of modern medical practices especially after the development of indirect British rule in the Cooch Behar State (1773 ce) and direct British rule in Jalpaiguri (in 1869 ce); the traditional healing practices of this region began to be discouraged. Inspite of it, the Rajbanshis of remote villages of Sub-Himalayan Bengal, have maintained their traditional knowledge on medicinal plants, herbs, and food practice. They have developed their (i) own mechanism in making herbal medicine and drugs with available natural elements, (ii) foodstuff for consumption

Project Report: Environmental and Ecological Change: Gleanings from Copperplate Inscriptions of Early Bengal

Abstract: Historically defined, the geographical orbit of Bengal (comprising present Indian state of West Bengal and the independent Republic of Bangladesh) witnessed the consolidation of human settlements of the historical phase from almost the middle of the first millennium BCE. It is from the third century BCE level that proper archaeological and epigraphic evidence from some parts of the region show the growth and expansion of large scale urban settlements.