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Showing papers in "International Journal of Human Resource Management in 2005"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the issue of knowledge sharing, one of the key mechanisms by which knowledge transfer can take place within organizations, and identify the people managements.
Abstract: This paper focuses on the issue of knowledge sharing, one of the key mechanisms by which knowledge transfer can take place within organizations. The aim of the paper is to identify the people manag...

978 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors classify the literature theoretically into four generic perspectives: universalistic, contingent, configurational and contextual approaches, and present an integrative exploratory model representing their actual understanding of the complex phenomenon of strategic human resource management.
Abstract: From its origins at the end of the 1970s, strategic human resource management has developed quickly. After its uncertain first steps, the number of models and explanations proposed grew exponentially, especially after some theoretical revisions presented in the 1990s. The present explosion of literature requires a systematic revision of the state of the art in this field of research. This is the objective of this paper, which classifies the literature theoretically into four generic perspectives. The principal conclusion derived from this analysis is that, despite the differences among the universalistic, contingent, configurational and contextual approaches, it is possible to make their contributions compatible balancing their limitations. Finally, to illustrate this, we present an integrative exploratory model representing our actual understanding of the complex phenomenon of strategic human resource management.

297 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the assumptions that underlie this emphasis on the importance of national culture differences in international management and re-analyse findings from previous research, such as Hofstede's, to test these assumptions.
Abstract: It is generally understood that human resource practices and strategies differ according to contextual factors such as size, industry and so forth. However, the globalization of business means that country differences in the environment for organizations have received increasing attention. Although countries can differ in many important ways (e.g. institutional and regulatory environments, labour-force characteristics such as education), a dominant focus of the international management literature is on national differences in culture, especially cultural values (Hofstede, 1980). We examine the assumptions that underlie this emphasis on the importance of national culture differences in international management and re-analyse findings from previous research, such as Hofstede's, to test these assumptions. We find, contrary to the interpretations of the original authors, that these assumptions receive only weak support when country effects are evaluated using variance explained estimates, rather than relying ...

293 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Zeynep Aycan1
TL;DR: In this article, a systematic review of literature on cultural as well as institutional/structural contingencies influencing HRM practices in six key areas: human resource planning and career management; job analysis and design; recruitment and selection; performance appraisal; compensation and reward management; and training and development.
Abstract: In the face of globalization, organizations are concerned with how to design and implement HRM practices to fit the global as well as the local context. Based on a thorough literature review, the paper presents a systematic review of literature on cultural as well as institutional/structural contingencies influencing HRM practices in six key areas: human resource planning and career management; job analysis and design; recruitment and selection; performance appraisal; compensation and reward management; and training and development. The framework presented in this paper will, it is hoped, guide future cross-cultural research as well as the practices of multinational corporations.

290 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluated the trust mechanism and the way HRM practices mediate its impact on improving organizational performance and found that HR managers are more likely to offer training and shape the internal promotion system when trust is high.
Abstract: Numerous researchers have begun to examine organizational trust and its influence on the workforce. However, little empirical research has focused on the conditions that engender organizational trust – those that make managers more willing to accept the vulnerability inherent in certain managerial actions that are part of human resource management. This study evaluates the trust mechanism and the way HRM practices mediate its impact on improving organizational performance. One hundred and four HR managers from the leading companies in the Israeli industrial, service and trade sectors, based on sales and operating revenue, completed questionnaires. Overall, we found that HR managers are more likely to offer training and shape the internal promotion system when trust is high. In addition, we found that firms exhibited higher organizational performance when trust is high. The paper also presents some of the model's implications.

285 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors investigated the relationship between personality traits of expatriates and their adjustment to international assignments and found statistically significant relationships between expatriate adjustment and three personality traits in theoretically reasonable directions: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness to experience.
Abstract: This study investigates the relationship between personality traits of expatriates and their adjustment to international assignments. We focused in particular on the Big Five personality traits: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness to experience. We sampled eighty-three US expatriates in Taiwan and found statistically significant relationships between expatriate adjustment and three personality traits in theoretically reasonable directions. Specifically, our results showed that a US expatriate's general living adjustment in Taiwan is positively related to his or her degree of extroversion and openness to experience. We found that extroversion and agreeableness are both positively related to interaction adjustment (i.e. relationships with local people). Furthermore, a US expatriate's work adjustment is positively related to his or her openness to experience. Unlike prior research on expatriate adjustment, we have examined multiple traits rooted in personality theory, and...

269 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the importance of diversity management in applicants' job choice decisions was investigated, and a survey of 113 MBA job seekers concluded that women and ethnic minorities found diversity management to be important when accepting offers of employment.
Abstract: This study investigates the importance of diversity management in applicants' job choice decisions. According to the person–organization fit theory, individuals make assessments of fit between their personal values and the values of the organizations, and they make job choice decisions based on these assessments. A survey of 113 MBA job seekers concluded that women and ethnic minorities found diversity management to be important when accepting offers of employment. In addition, high achievers and new immigrants rated organizations with diversity management as more attractive as potential employers. The findings suggest a need to place a higher emphasis on diversity management in women and minority applicant attraction.

265 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used data from the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey (WERS) to assess the extent to which a range of factors both internal and external to the workplace predict the extent in which HRM practices have been adopted in SMEs.
Abstract: Although the productivity and survival of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) may be enhanced if they adopt human resource management (HRM) practices, there is a far greater degree of informality in employment practices in SMEs than in larger workplaces. The aim of this paper is to assess the extent to which a range of factors both internal and external to the workplace predict the extent to which HRM practices have been adopted in SMEs. Using data from the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey, the analysis reveals that differences in workforce skill-mix, unionization and the customer base are important influences, with the first of these influences being particularly strong. As such, we suggest SMEs may lack the capability to develop HRM practices, but they are more likely to adopt such practices if they employ highly skilled employees and are networked to other organizations

256 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Michie, J.N. as mentioned in this paper, and Sheehan, M.B. (2005). "Business strategy, human resources, labour market flexibility and competitive advantage", International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(3), 445-464.
Abstract: N.B. Professor Michie was based at Birmingham Business School when this article was first published. The full-text of this article is not available in ORA at this time. Citation: Michie, J. & Sheehan, M. (2005). 'Business strategy, human resources, labour market flexibility and competitive advantage', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(3), 445-464. [Available at http://www.informaworld.com/openurl?genre=article&issn=0958%2d5192&volume=16&issue=3&spage=445].

253 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper examined the effects of several work role stressors (i.e., role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload and work-family conflict) on emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction and intentions to leave.
Abstract: Work and occupational stress have long been concerns for employees and human resource managers as they cause many negative outcomes. Most of the previous studies on work stress were conducted in Western countries, while limited research has addressed this important topic in the Asian context. In this study, we examine the effects of several work role stressors (i.e. role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload and work-family conflict) on emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction and intentions to leave. Additionally, we test the mediating effects of emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction between the relationship of role stressors and intentions to leave. Data were collected from a sample of 887 professional clergy in Hong Kong. The results of regression analysis show that role stressors have a significant impact on both emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction, which in turn affect respondents' intentions to leave their organization.

217 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The effective management of work/life balance (WLB) is an issue increasingly recognized as of strategic importance to organizations and of significance to employees as mentioned in this paper, and the need to attract and retain valued employees in a highly competitive labour market is a strong motivating factor for increased organizational awareness and action with regard to implementation and management of WLB strategies.
Abstract: The effective management of work/life balance (WLB) is an issue increasingly recognized as of strategic importance to organizations and of significance to employees. We argue that an organization's need to attract and retain valued employees in a highly competitive labour market is a strong motivating factor for increased organizational awareness and action with regard to implementation and management of WLB strategies. In this paper, we report the findings of three surveys conducted annually from 1997 to 2000 with organizations in Australia. We explore the range and usage of WLB strategies in Australian organizations and identify the barriers to those strategies. It is evident that, while some achievements have been made over the years, there remain substantial challenges for the uptake and management of WLB strategies.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, three important conceptual weaknesses have restricted research progress in this field: the inadequate conceptualization of national effects, which results in culture being used as an unsatisfactory 'catch-all' for national differences, the lack of attention to the influence of internal organizational politics, and the absence of focus on the internal division of labour within MNCs.
Abstract: In this paper we address a key issue that dominates international HRM research, namely the global–local question. The question concerns how multinationals can or should balance the pressures to develop globally standardized policies with the pressures to be responsive to the peculiarities of the local context. In our view, three important conceptual weaknesses have restricted research progress in this field: the inadequate conceptualization of national effects, which results in culture being used as an unsatisfactory ‘catch-all’ for national differences; the lack of attention to the influence of internal organizational politics; and the absence of focus on the internal division of labour within MNCs. We discuss the ways in which these weaknesses can be addressed and the implications of these alternative concepts.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the international HRM field is changing significantly and rapidly and that there is a need for better understanding of these developments, and identify five distinct organizational drivers of HRM: efficiency orientation, global service provision, information exchange, core business processes and localization of decision-making.
Abstract: This paper addresses the debates about the nature of strategic HRM in international companies. It builds on a substantial research programme using questionnaires and detailed case studies to argue that the international HRM field is changing significantly and rapidly and that there is a need for better understanding of these developments. Five distinct, but linked, organizational drivers of international HRM are identified and discussed: efficiency orientation, global service provision, information exchange, core business processes and localization of decision-making. These factors are creating a new set of pressures on HRM specialists. Three distinct, but linked, enablers of high-performance international HRM are being developed by multinational enterprises: HR affordability, central HR philosophy and HR excellence and knowledge transfer. A series of different strategic recipes combining these drivers and enablers are identified. These recipes in turn are delivered through a series of important HR proces...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a case study of a cross-border merger between two Nordic banks shows that the common corporate language decision may have disintegrating effects, particularly at organizational levels below top management.
Abstract: The primary purpose of introducing a common corporate language in cross-border mergers is to integrate two previously separate organizations and facilitate communication However, the present case study of a cross-border merger between two Nordic banks shows that the common corporate language decision may have disintegrating effects, particularly at organizational levels below top management We identify such effects on performance appraisal, language training and management development, career paths, promotion and key personnel Our findings show that top management needs to work through the consequences of the language decision upon those who are expected to make such a decision work

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the relationship between training policies and business performance and found that training policy (based on the human capital theory and the resource-based theory) has a significant impact on firm performance.
Abstract: This paper examines the relationship between training policies and business performance. Our research seeks to enlarge the empirical bibliography about the impact training has on firms and tries to challenge the criticism previous works with similar characteristics received. With this purpose in mind, we have used a theoretical model based on the hypothesis of a ‘cascade-type relationship’ between four types of organizational performance. The results obtained from a sample of Spanish firms show that training policy (based on the human capital theory and the resource-based theory) has a significant impact on firm performance.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, an explicit consideration of the criterion space for expatriate success is presented, where expat performance is conceptualized in terms of task completion, relationship building and overall performance.
Abstract: The paper presents an explicit consideration of the criterion space for expatriate success. Expatriate performance is conceptualized in terms of task completion, relationship building and overall performance. These three dimensions are determined by various features of effort regulation: the amount and pattern of personal resources the expatriate spends on behaviours that constitute his or her position. Drawing upon work motivation and withdrawal literatures, we assess effort in terms of withdrawal cognitions, passive task neglect, active task avoidance, time to proficiency and leader-team exchanges. Effort regulation, in turn, is proposed to be a function of three forms of adjustment (cultural, interaction and work) – which have been the default criterion in past expatriate research. Our model is tested using multi-source data from expatriates, their spouses and their work colleagues. Support for the proposed mapping of successive linkages between adjustment, effort (including the often-studied assignmen...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the relative impact on resistance to change of two key factors commonly identified in the literature as key potential antecedents of resistance, namely individuals' perceptions of the cost/benefits of change and their extent of participation in the change process.
Abstract: Although widely regarded as central to the successful implementation of change in organisations, middle managers have been relatively neglected in the literature on resistance to change (RTC). Focusing on middle management, we investigated the relative impact on RTC of two key factors commonly identified in the literature as key potential antecedents of resistance, namely individuals' perceptions of the cost/benefits of change and their extent of participation in the change process, respectively. To this end, we first identified a number of alternative hypotheses about the impact of the two antecedents of interest on RTC. We then tested these hypotheses using structured survey data from a sample of over 300 middle managers in the Italian national electricity company (ENEL) which, in the second half of the 1990s, underwent a major programme of change in preparation for its eventual privatization. In line with dominant arguments in the literature, the results of the analysis provided clear support to the id...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored the three-way interaction of procedural and interactional justice with the psychological contract to predict knowledge worker committnent, and found that when employees simultaneously perceived high levels of procedural, interactional and interpersonal justice, this moderated the relationship between psychological contract breach and knowledge worker commitment.
Abstract: The quality of the employment relationship is argued to be central to knowledge workers' committment, which in turn supports knowledge creation. Given the high levels of discretion enjoyed by knowledge workers, managers' decisions over work distribution, content and resources become more critical for commitment and knowledge creation. However, little research has explored how justice perceptions shape the quality of the employment relationship and the consequences for committment. Using a sample of 429 R&D workers from across six science and technology-based firms this paper explores the three-way interaction of procedural and interactional justice with the psychological contract to predict knowledge worker committnent. We found that when employees simultaneously perceived high levels of procedural and interactional justice this moderated the relationship between psychological contract breach and knowledge worker commitment. Furthermore, where there was contract breach, positive perceptions of procedural justice moderated the relationship with commitment. However, in the context of contract fulfilment, low perceived levels of interactional justice predicted lower comparative levels of committment, regardless of the level of procedural justice. The results suggest that the perceived quality of the relationship between knowledge workers and their manager can make a positive difference in the context of breach of the psychological contract and this in turn can help maintain levels of commitment important for knowledge creation.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors extend strategic human resource management (SHRM) thinking to theory and research on high reliability organizations (HROs) using a behavioural approach, and identify a set of eight reliability-oriented employee behaviours (ROEBs) likely to foster organizational reliability and suggest that they are especially valuable to reliability-seeking organizations that operate under 'trying conditions'.
Abstract: In this article, we extend strategic human resource management (SHRM) thinking to theory and research on high reliability organizations (HROs) using a behavioural approach. After considering the viability of reliability as an organizational performance indicator, we identify a set of eight reliability-oriented employee behaviours (ROEBs) likely to foster organizational reliability and suggest that they are especially valuable to reliability-seeking organizations that operate under ‘trying conditions’. We then develop a reliability-enhancing human resource strategy (REHRS) likely to facilitate the manifestation of these ROEBs. We conclude that the behavioural approach offers SHRM scholars an opportunity to explain how people contribute to specific organizational goals in specific contexts and, in turn, to identify human resource strategies that extend the general high performance human resource strategy (HPHRS) in new and important ways.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a set of papers written by a cadre of scholars from various spots around the world who recently gathered at Cornell University to share thoughts and perspectives for moving the field forward on the inevitable path of globalization.
Abstract: Although strategic human resource management began to emerge as a domain of study around 1980, many of the field's major theoretical and empirical strides have occurred during the last decade or so. By and large these have emanated from communities of scholars operating within specific countries or, in some cases, regions of the world. The next generation of contributions, however, is beginning to emerge on a global basis. This special issue fosters the broader development of our field by bringing together a set of papers written by a cadre of scholars from various spots around the world who recently gathered at Cornell University to share thoughts and perspectives. While viewpoints vary, overall the collection offers a wealth of specific insights and suggestions for moving the field forward on the inevitable path of globalization.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify and explore two fits between knowledge management and HR strategy or what they call KM-HR configurations: personalization-retention and codification-recruitment.
Abstract: The resource-based view and the knowledge-based view are important developments in strategic management theory, and ‘knowledge management’ has exploded in the popular management literature. There is, however, little empirical literature that explores the connections between firms' attempts at knowledge management and their HR strategies. In this paper, we focus particularly on links between knowledge management and staffing practices. High-technology manufacturing was selected as the site of our research, as high-technology firms rely on highly skilled employees to innovate and develop new products and are therefore an ideal environment for exploring the strategies employed for both managing knowledge, and recruiting and retaining employees. Drawing particularly on the work of Hansen et al. (1999), this paper identifies and explores two fits between knowledge management and HR strategy or what we call KM-HR configurations: ‘personalization-retention’ and ‘codification-recruitment’. We argue that there is ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a cross-cultural comparison of reward preferences in four countries was conducted to evaluate the applicability of Hofstede's model and reveal that although his framework provides both theoretical and practical contributions to the reward arena, the proposition that human values are conditioned solely by national culture ignores the potential influence of other contextual factors.
Abstract: Hofstede's model has been extensively used and applied in international management. This study begins with a critique of Hofstede's thesis. The applicability of his framework is then tested using a cross-cultural comparison of reward preferences in four countries. The findings reveal that although his framework provides both theoretical and practical contributions to the reward arena, the proposition that human values are conditioned solely by national culture ignores the potential influence of a variety of other contextual factors.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors apply this logic to analyse the uncertainties associated with human assets and discuss how firms manage these uncertainties through HR 'options' which are capabilities generated by some HR practices and their combinations.
Abstract: While many authors have proposed a firm's human resources as an asset that can provide value and competitive advantage, the SHRM field has tended to ignore the fact that assets have associated uncertainties and risks. The real options view provides a theoretical framework for how firms manage uncertainties associated with investments in real assets. We apply this logic to analyse the uncertainties associated with human assets and discuss how firms manage these uncertainties through HR ‘options’ which are capabilities generated by some HR practices and their combinations. We discuss these practices and develop an options model for managing different types of uncertainties.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Using family systems theory as a conceptual framework, a preliminary model that explains spouse willingness to relocate internationally and manager willingness to assume a global assignment was proposed and tested in this paper, where the authors found that spouse attitudes often influence the attitudes of expatriates.
Abstract: Using family systems theory as a conceptual framework, this research study proposes and tests a preliminary model that explains spouse willingness to relocate internationally and manager willingness to assume a global assignment. Previous research from the global assignments, international job relocation and dual-career couples' literatures has found that spouse attitudes often influence the attitudes of expatriates. However, few research studies have been conducted to determine the factors that influence spouse attitudes toward both short- and long-term global relocation opportunities. The present study attempts to build understanding in this under-researched area of international human resource management. By understanding more about this important phenomenon, top decision-makers and international human resource professionals can better identify and select those candidates who have family situations that will predispose them to accept global assignments. Data from questionnaires completed by 427 global ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compare economic rationality with normative rationality in the selection, adaptation and retention process of best practices in HRM, and construct the life cycle of a best practice, the way in which companies differ in their speeed of selecting and adopting best practices and the consequences this has for whether or not being able to achieve a competitive advantage.
Abstract: In this paper the focus is on how organizations select, adapt and retain best practices in HRM. Based on recent developments in two streams of thyeoretical thinking, i.e., new institutionalism and strategic management (especialy co-evolution and absorptive capacity), this paper contrasts economic rationality with normative rationality in the selection, adaptation and retention process. In this way we are able to construct the life cycle of a HRM best practice, the way in which companies differ in their speeed of selection and adoption of best practices, and the consequences this has for whether or not being able to achieve a competitive advantage. After presenting and describing our framework for the adoption and life cycle of best practices in the field of HRM, a range of hypotheses is presented to be tested for in follow-up research.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a mixed methods approach is proposed to add the "fabric" required, illustrating the depth and flexibility needed to explore the strategic global human resource management (SGHRM) system.
Abstract: Global competition is rapidly becoming the norm in which nearly all business organizations must compete in one fashion or another. The complexity and value of strategic global human resource management (SGHRM) will continue to compound in significance as globalization becomes the predominate form of business. Both practitioners and researchers maintain the grapple with understanding the global phenomena and the resulting impact on the entire human resource management system. Previously, researchers' maintained research programmes utilizing Western-style theories and methods, which were predominantly quantitative, to explore phenomena that may now be inappropriate. These methods and theories frequently do not capture the ‘fabric’ of global phenomena that include complex interactions of culture, institutions, societal norms and government regulations, among a few concerns. The mixed methods approach is proposed to add the ‘fabric’ required, illustrating the depth and flexibility needed to explore the SGHRM ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined three factors leading to a firm's adoption of strategic human resource management (SHRM): market orientation, HRM importance and HRM competency using a sample of firms from China.
Abstract: This study examined three factors leading to a firm's adoption of strategic human resource management (SHRM): market orientation, HRM importance and HRM competency. Using a sample of firms from China, empirical results showed that the three factors are significantly related to a firm's adoption of SHRM. Given the transitional nature of the Chinese economy, the moderating effects of ownership types and firm size were also investigated. However, the moderating effects were not as strong as predicted. Managerial implications and directions for future research of SHRM in an emerging economy context are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the empirical analysis of strategic HR roles and organizational learning capability and further analyse line and HR firm performance, finding that correlation coefficients were mostly significant and positive for the variables and sub-variables of HR roles.
Abstract: This study focuses on the empirical analysis of strategic HR roles and organizational learning capability. Line and HR firm performance is further analysed. The sample size consisted of 640 managers in India. Standardized questionnaires were used as tools for the managers' perception of the two variables and their link to data collection. Statistical results indicate that correlation coefficients were mostly significant and positive for the variables and sub-variables of strategic HR roles and organizational learning capability. Discriminant functional analysis reflected that line and HR managers differed significantly in their perception of both variables. Stepwise regression analysis indicated that both the variables of strategic HR roles and organizational learning capability predict firm performance.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared the manner in which Australian private, public and non-government sector organizations selected their expatriates and found that, in private sector organizations, selection is carried out largely on the basis of technical competence, with minimal attention being paid to the interpersonal skills and domestic situations of potential expatriants.
Abstract: The management of expatriation has grown in importance as the numbers of multinational companies has grown significantly since the 1970s. However, public and non-government sector organizations have long traditions of managing expatriates. This paper presents the results of research that compared the manner in which Australian private, public and non-government sector organizations selected their expatriates. The results confirm the numerous reports in the international human resource management (IHRM) literature that, in private sector organizations, selection is carried out largely on the basis of technical competence, with minimal attention being paid to the interpersonal skills and domestic situations of potential expatriates. The limited role of HR managers in this process is also identified. The selection practices of public sector organizations reflect the merit selection policies of this sector. The non-government sector organizations' selection practices differ markedly from those of the organiza...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed a conceptual SHRM model for European transition economies (ETEs), which introduces a new specification of the HR context, emphasizing HR facilitators, and an additional moderating construct the HR power, to have more explanatory power for studying the HR-company performance link.
Abstract: The general SHRM models explain the link between HR and company performance; however, due to several specific internal and external factors, they have to be modified in order to be applied to companies in European transition economies (ETEs). By analysing the current state of HRM and the HR context in Slovenia, we develop a conceptual SHRM model for ETEs. The model introduces a new specification of the HR context, emphasizing HR facilitators, and an additional moderating construct the HR power, to have more explanatory power for studying the HR–company performance link in ETEs. The paper also addresses the importance of issues relating to the empirical validation of the model in ETEs and suggests ways to further develop SHRM in these countries.