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Showing papers in "International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology in 1977"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Groth et al. as discussed by the authors employed a quasi-experimental study design with a non-probability sample of referrals to a forensic mental health facility in Massachusetts during the years 1970 through 1975.
Abstract: VioLit summary: OBJECTIVE: The aim of this paper by Groth was to present an investigation of the juvenile sexual offender and his victim. METHODOLOGY: The author employed a quasi-experimental study design with a non-probability sample of referrals to a forensic mental health facility in Massachusetts during the years 1970 through 1975. During this time, 26 offenders, convicted of rape or child assault, between the ages of 15 and 17 were referred to the Center for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Sexually Dangerous Persons for evaluation. Also evaluated at the Center were 37 adults with a history of rape or child assault. The overall sample of 63 was divided into three groups based upon the age of the victim relative to the offender - those whose victims were the same age, those whose victims were significantly older and those whose were significantly younger. Older was defined as an adult victim at least ten years older than the offender, whilst younger was considered as a pre-adolescent victim who was at least five years younger than the subject. Offenders who assaulted same age or older people were considered rapists; those whose victims were younger were labelled as child molesters. Clinical interviews and examination of case material led to the collection of descriptive data about each offender and his victim. Analysis involved examination of frequencies. FINDINGS/DISCUSSION: The typical adolescent sexual offender was found to be a white boy of almost 16 years of age, with average intelligence. The attack was generally performed alone, with the victim primarily being a white girl who was a year younger. The author found that the likelihood of the two parties knowing each other was the same as if they were strangers, although the attack was twice as likely to occur indoors than out, and usually in the victim's home. A weapon was present in one-third of the offenses, with drugs or alcohol not playing a major role in the incident. The offender was not a first-time assailant in three-quarters of the cases - 47 of the subjects had a known history of sexual assault. Rapists were older and scored higher on IQ tests than child molesters, with more interracial assaults of strangers and more frequent use of weapons. Child molesters were younger and had more male victims, usually with whom they were acquainted, with less frequent attempts at sexual penetration and little use of alcohol or drugs in relation to the offense. Assaults on older victims were more often interracial, and were more likely to have been committed by black offenders in the victim's home, with more violence and greater use of weapons and alcohol or drugs. Peer-age incidents were more likely to involve gang rape of males who were known to the offender, and were more likely to occur outside. Victim choice and method of assault remained consistent for the subjects over time, with many incidents being unknown to authorities. Adolescent offenders were similar to adult offenders in the sexual expression of anger and power that was involved in the offenses. Adolescent rapists and aggressive child molesters were also similar to adults in psychosocial characteristics, being loners without interpersonal or social skills, who were underachievers and who felt empty and frustrated. The non-aggressive child molester, however, was generally more passive and used psychological and social pressure to induce a child into sexual activity. The author saw sexual assault as a developmental defect in a boy who could not otherwise achieve his image of the masculine male, and who turned to sexual assault as a means of gaining self-identity. AUTHOR'S RECOMMENDATIONS: The author suggested that sexual offenses be seen as symptoms of emotional problems, with offenders requiring psychological assessment and security treatment facilities. EVALUATION: The author presents an informative examination of the profile of sexual assault offenders. However, the small sample and the lack of discussion about the measures used to assess such variables as psychological state preclude much generalizability. A more thorough discussion about the implications of the findings would have been helpful, as would have a more detailed examination of the similarities and differences between adolescent and adult offenders - issues concerning what makes juvenile offenders a special problem. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado) KW - Massachusetts KW - Child Sexual Abuse Offender KW - Juvenile Offender KW - Juvenile Male KW - Male Offender KW - Male Violence KW - Late Adolescence KW - Offender Characteristics KW - Rape Offender KW - Sexual Assault Offender KW - Child Molester KW - Child Abuse Offender KW - Juvenile Violence KW - Offender Typology KW - Violence Against Women Language: en

148 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, African American Offender African American Juvenile African American Female Female Offender Juvenile Offender (Juvenile) Juvenile Female Juvenile Gang Member Role Pennsylvania African American Violence Juvenile Violence Female Violence Gender Comparison Gender Differences Gang Causes Urban Youth 11-99
Abstract: No abstract available. African American Offender African American Juvenile African American Female Female Offender Juvenile Offender Juvenile Female Juvenile Gang Gang Member Role Pennsylvania African American Violence Juvenile Violence Female Violence Gender Comparison Gender Differences Gang Causes Urban Youth 11-99

51 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Cameronl has defined shoplifting as &dquo;theft of merchandise from display by a person posing as a legitimate customer of the store&dqo; and added that the pathological nature of shoplifting is weak, since the crime is committed by all types of people from all strata of society as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Cameronl has defined shoplifting as &dquo;theft of merchandise from display by a person posing as a legitimate customer of the store&dquo;. Judge Jean Sohier2 has described it as an &dquo;ordinary crime&dquo; and adds that &dquo;the pathological nature of shoplifting is weak, since the offense is committed by all types of people from all strata of society. This basic fact-the ordinariness of shoplifting-has not been explored as it should.&dquo;

30 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The notion that women are more leniently treated than men in criminal proceedings is unfounded at least in Great Britain, according to as mentioned in this paper, who made the following points: (a) Girls are more likely to be institutionalized than boys for non-criminal reasons (for their &dquo;protection&dqo;).
Abstract: women are more leniently treated than men in criminal proceedings is unfounded at least in Great Britain. He makes the following points: (a) Girls are more likely to be institutionalized than boys for noncriminal reasons (for their &dquo;protection&dquo;). (b) In a Sheffield study, 26.5 per cent of boys and 9.5 per cent of girl offenders were apprehended by the police. BUT most girl offenders had committed far less offenses (one to three) than the boys; of those boys who had committed one to three offenses, 13 per cent

21 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a more radical formulation of this theory is proposed, which emphasizes not only that the juvenile delinquent acts &dquo;... because he has already rationalized (the delinquent act)&dqo;, but also that the rationalization is his motive.
Abstract: It is a truism that modem criminology has largely abandoned the search for &dquo;causes&dquo; of crime. It appears from perusal of the literature, however, that even during the period when &dquo;causes&dquo; have been the central theme of research not a single study concerned itself with causality as perceived by the criminals themselves. This omission is probably accounted for by the common assumption that the criminal has no insight into his delinquent behaviour, because it is merely a symptom of underlying maladjustment, the &dquo;causes&dquo; of which can range from genetic, biological, or psychological to medical, social, or cultural. The validity of this assumption, that criminal acts are the product of unconscious motivation, is accepted ipso facto by criminologists who see &dquo;causes&dquo; of crime in predisposing factors, but not by those who see them in precipitating factors. Common sense and common observation (e.g. crime in professions, politics; white collar, corporate, business, etc., crime) support the view of the latter, as there appear to exist sets of circumstances for most individuals which can precipitate them into crime independently of their predisposition, and there is usually an awareness of the factors which have been subjectively the precipitating ones. At least one theory (Sykes & Matza, 1957) stresses the criminogenic role of such subjective factors as they are reflected in the &dquo;explanations&dquo; which juveniles give of their delinquency, independently of the validity of such explanation-in agreement with the basic propositions of phenomenology. The theory postulates that these &dquo;explanations&dquo; are a priori rationalizations which make deviance possible by &dquo;neutralising&dquo; guilt which could inhibit the perpetration of delinquent acts. A more radical formulation of this theory emphasizes not only that the juvenile delinquent acts &dquo;... because he has already rationalized (the delinquent act)&dquo;, but also &dquo;... that the rationalization is his motive&dquo; (Hartung, 1969, p. 456). Also at the applied level the importance has been stressed of the juveniles subjectively perceived motives for their delinquent acts, for the designing of remedial and preventive programmes (Zastrow, 1973). Such programmes can have an orienta-

13 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In the psychodynamic point of view, there is a paradoxical question: Is there rape? Not in the legal, well defined, sense, but from a psychodynamic view.
Abstract: Let me start with a seemingly paradoxical question: Is there rape? Not in the legal, well defined, sense, but from a psychodynamic point of view. Again, let a woman speak first. Helene Deutsch in her famous work on the Psychology of Women2 stated: &dquo;Woman’s entire psychologic preparation for the sexual and reproductive functions is connected with masochistic ideas. In these ideas, coitus is closely related with the act of defloration, and defloration with rape and painful penetration of the body... Actually a certain amount of masochism as psychologic preparation for adjustment to sexual functions is necessary in women.&dquo; Helene Deutsch also maintained that rape fantasies in women are frequent and more or less disguised longings which in turn lead to accusations of rape of innocent men by hysterical women.3 Thus rape emerged as the psychodynamically normal state of affairs between men and women and it was the victim whose motives

12 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focused on prisoners aged 50 and above and differentiated between chronological, psychological and social age, since they do not always coincide, and the common denominator of all these characteristics is loss.
Abstract: as being at the mercy of younger, more aggressive and difficult prisoners who tend to frighten, ridicule or even harm them. The aged prisoners became depressed, anxious and consequently dependent on the wardens and prison staff for protection. They are deprived of friends, employment and decent accommodation. Other authors also believed that older prisoners should be placed in special institutions because they fail to adapt to prison conditions. Since our impressions, based on daily contact with aged prisoners, differ from those of Amir and Bergman, we decided to examine the situation in depth. Statistics indicate that during the years 1951-1965, there were about 5,000 offenders over 60 years old,’ some of whom were sentenced to prison terms. Although many authors consider 60 years as the onset of old age, we were interested in prisoners aged 50 and above. We differentiated between chronological, psychological and social age, since they do not always coincide. For example, offenders consider the 40 year old criminal &dquo;a goner&dquo; and treat him as such. Old-age does not happen all at once; in Aring’s words,2 one &dquo;grows&dquo; old, with the emphasis on growing. This process is a combination of biological, psychological and social factors and an interdisciplinary approach is imperative in investigating the phenomena. We accept the characteristics of old age according to Kral3 that: 1. All the mental processes slow down. 2. Time required for adjusting to a new situation is increased. 3. Ability to withstand pressure is decreased. The common denominator of all these characteristics is loss.

7 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There have been other studies which have thrown light upon important areas related to this subject as mentioned in this paper, such as the relationship between the consumption of alcohol and the delinquent act, but none of these studies have quantitatively taken into account the detection calibre of the methods used to obtain the figures.
Abstract: no study which has quantitatively taken into account the detection calibre of the methods used to obtain the figures. Since the introduction of the breathaliser test the public have no doubt become sensitised to drink and in that particular instance, driving.2 In 1961 Gerchow working in Germany with his particular sample was able to say that between 30 and 40 per cent of offenders had consumed alcohol prior to committing the criminal act.3 Further in 1966 Cooper and Maule studying ex-prisoners found in their experience that 56 per cent of their sample had what is called &dquo;a drink problem&dquo;.4 Of these, over three-quarters were able to demonstrate clearly, albeit in retrospect, a relationship between the consumption of alcohol and the delinquent act. There have been other studies which have thrown light upon important areas related to this subject. Perhaps the specialisation shown does not help in trying to seek out the true problem of alcohol and its true relationship to crime. Some of the latter studies include ex-prisoners in a hostel in Manchester at Richard’s House,5 McClintock’s study of alcohol and violent offenders,6 and the interesting research by Hershon, Cook and Foldes in their article &dquo;What Shall we do with a Drunkenness Offender?&dquo;7 More recently the Helping Hand Society workers Morris and Murphy8 have completed

6 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Halleck as discussed by the authors proposed a criminal typology based on the American Psychiatry and the Diagnostic and Classification of Mental Diseases (DSM-III) to classify individuals into criminal types.
Abstract: CLASSIFICATIONS are useful in ordering, labeling, and pre~~ sumably understanding people-their problems and the predictability of treatment. The trouble is, we do not understand people well enough to predict. Also, our classifications or diagnoses either don’t make sense (sociopathy is a psychiatric wastebasket, according to some professionals) or the boundaries are so flexible that differences of importance are hard to establish. The reorganization and &dquo;bringing-up-to-date&dquo; of DSM II to DSM III is but one indication of this problem. If we would add another ingredient to the already complex mosaic, that of criminal types, the task is at times defeating. In spite of these problems, classifications and topologies continue to emerge from both eminent individuals and prominent groups. The reader of this Journal is well aware of the typical topologies. Entire books have been written on this subject: For instance, Roebuck’s Criminal Typology (1967); Eysenck’s Crime and Personality (1964), to mention but two among hundreds. The interested reader can obtain Halleck’s article, &dquo;American Psychiatry and the

5 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that social status groupings serve to delimit a man's perceptions, and each man's perception is based on a limited exposure to social reality.
Abstract: What is sociology? What are the goals of sociology? Should sociologists be actively involved in the solution of social problems? The founders of sociology, Henri de Sairnt-Simon and August Comte, viewed sociology as a means of solving the problems brought about by the French Revolution. Robert Park and Ernest Burgess, the American founders of sociology, and their American contemporaries (e.g. Sorokin, Merton, Parsons) also viewed the discipline of sociology in a framework of social problems and solutions. The value of sociology was (and still is) measured by the extent to which it will solve man’s problems. More recently, sociology has come to emphasize the value-free, ethically neutral, apolitical position. The present study departs from the value-free position in that the approach taken focuses on the study and solution of social problems. We assume that man’s behavior is related to his perceptions, and each man’s perceptions are based on a limited exposure to social reality. In that social status groupings serve to delimit a man’s

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, COTTI has asserted that in acts of homicide which involve a.7 love-hate conflict, the person committing the act alters his state of consciousness in order for him to carry out this deed.
Abstract: ~COTTI has asserted that in acts of homicide which involve a .7 love-hate conflict, the person committing the act alters his state of consciousness in order for him to carry out this deed. Those familiar with the treatment of persons convicted of such offences would give high credence to such a viewpoint, as the accounts of their actions by the offenders themselves frequently range from descriptions including considerable depersonalisation, to those which indicate total amnesia concerning the events involved in

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Results in the past decade have been sufficiently encouraging as to suggest that outpatient psychotherapeutic management may offer a reasonably good success rate.
Abstract: Fortunately, thanks to the work of Jellinek (1960), the disease concept of alcoholism has gained considerable ground in recent years and as a result the idea of treating the alcoholic along medical or medico-social lines has acquired acceptance in many quarters. Unquestionably the treatment of alcoholism along medical or psychological lines is often a most arduous process calling for stamina and perseverance on the part of patient and therapist alike. However, results in the past decade have been sufficiently encouraging (Edwards and Guthrie, 1967; Ritson, 1968; Forrest, 1973) as to suggest that outpatient psychotherapeutic management may offer a reasonably good success rate. It also remains true that a small

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of the police and the prosecutor in the administration of justice has been investigated and the correspondence between the discretionary judgements governing their behaviors has been studied in criminal justice research.
Abstract: CRIMINAL justice research has given considerable attention to the roles of the police and the prosecutor in the administration of justice. Particular attention has been given to the correspondence between the discretionary judgements governing their behaviors (Skolnik 1966, Newman 000, Goldstein 1960, Gray 1967, Reiss 1972). While some research has been focussed upon the court and the general problems faced by it in the daily administration of justice (Blumberg 1967, 1971, Downie 1972, Cicourel 1968) little attention has been given to the actual judicial decision-making

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Probation and After-Care Service has become a major agency for rehabilitation and control of offenders in the community, and is central to the Government's developing penal policy as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: DURING the last two decades the Probation and After-Care Service ion England and Wales has undergone remarkable developments. In the fifties it was little more than an adjunct to the courts, mainly providing supervision for persons placed on probation with only a small element of after-care, predominantly for young offenders discharged from Borstal. It has now become a major agency for the rehabilitation and control of offenders in the community, and is central to the Government’s developing penal policy.i The assumption by the Probation and After-Care Service during the mid-sixties of responsibility for all forms of after-care from Prison Department establishments-both statutory and voluntary-has already been recorded by the author in the APTO Monograph No. 4/ as has its acceptance at about the same time of responsibility for staffing the welfare departments of the prisons and the provision of social workers in detention centres, remand centres, girls’ borstals and latterly in some boys’ borstals. These important developments brought the Probation and AfterCare Service into the centre of the penal field. Probation itself is being used for increasingly serious offenders, and,there is a growing demand by the courts for social inquiry reports on a wide range of offenders to assist in the determination of sentence. Probation officers are no longer dealing merely with youthful and minor offenders, but with the whole spectrum of crime at all stages -before, during and following sentence. The annual total of social inquiry reports prepared for the criminal courts increased from 116,800 in 1960 to 218,000 in 1974. The number of persons subject ~to probation and supervision orders

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There has been a slight decrease in the proportion of female crime in Poland over the last few years, and the majority of these offences were crimes against property.
Abstract: IN the last few years there has been a slight decrease in the proportion of female crime in Poland: it was 12.9 per cent in 1968, 10.6 per cent in 1970, 10.5 per cent in 1971 and 11.4 per cent in 1972.1 The majority of these offences were crimes against property: in 1970, 22.3 per cent were against public property;’ 23.2 per cent against private property; 8.1 per cent against state and social institutions and 5.9 per cent homicide and grievous bodily harm. Other types of offences amount to less than 5 per cent.’ 3


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Over the 28 years since the beginning of the treatment center certain philosophies and procedures have developed which are believed to contribute to the effective delivery of services and some of the ideas and methods which are found to be particularly useful are presented.
Abstract: a low cost-to-benefit ratio. Over the 28 years since the beginning of our treatment center certain philosophies and procedures have developed which we believe contribute to the effective delivery of services. In the following sections of this paper we present some of the ideas and methods which we have found to be particularly useful. This is done in the hope that others who are developing their own delivery systems for alcoholism treatment may be spared some of the lengthy trial-and-

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, Tennov showed that women in particular suffer from the neo-Freudian concepts which lay the blame on the mother in all family problems-she is either over-possessive, overdominant or unloving and uninterested.
Abstract: Dr. Tennov has amassed a great number of depressing facts about the practice of psychotherapy and its abuses. She quotes from many of the standard books on the subject, showing how much is based on &dquo;conning the patient&dquo;, &dquo;motivating him for treatment&dquo;, much of which makes him and is designed to make him feel worse rather than better, the emphasis being on the patient’s faults and shortcomings. It is a gloomy picture of a very negative form of therapy, in which women in particular suffer from the neo-Freudian concepts which lay the blame on the mother in all family problems-she is either over-possessive, overdominant or unloving and uninterested. Though many of these concepts have born very harshly on women, I feel Dr. Tennov would have made her point much better if the book had not been written from such an aggressively woman’s point of view. Male patients must also be &dquo;conned&dquo; and depressed by the type of therapy she describes, and her assumption that every patient is female is not only stylistically highly irritating, but actually untrue and prejudiced. It is odd in such a book that she does not mention seduction of female patients by male therapists, which has come into such prominence in the US in the last year or two. Though it seems obvious that much of Dr. Tennov’s expose is fair and just, and that psychotherapy has largely developed into a racket, I would have liked a less entirely negative attitude. She does imply that women treating women have aohieved better results, but only explains this in terms of the Woman’s Movement. It would have been worthwhile to go into more details of treatment. You can make the downtrodden woman

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper investigated and compared the criminal histories of mentally retarded and normal offenders in all of the adult correctional institutions in the state of Iowa during the years 1963-1969 to ascertain if criminal characteristics differed significantly between the two groups.
Abstract: If we hope to deal effectively with the problems of our correction system, definitive information about the resident population must be secured. The purpose of the present research was to investigate and compare the &dquo;criminal histories&dquo; of mentally retarded and normal offenders incarcerated in all of the adult correctional institutions in the state of Iowa during the years 1963-1969; to ascertain if criminal characteristics differed significantly between the two groups. There is evidence that the incidence of mental retardation has been disproportionately high among persons convicted of criminal acts (Brown and Courtless, 1965; Ellis and Brancale, 1965; Robinson and Robinson, 1965). Furthermore, there are indications that mentally retarded offenders are not amenable to traditional correctional rehabilitation programs (Benoit, 1968; Chandler, Shafter and Coe, 1959). Unfortunately very little is known about the nature and comparative characteristics of retarded offenders relative to normal offenders.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For long, the Western world has imagined India as the land of maharajas, snake charmers and rope tricksters as mentioned in this paper, and today, the snake charmer is an extinct species and the rope trick discarded as a perceptual fallacy.
Abstract: FOR long, the Western world has imagined India as the land of maharajas, snake charmers and rope tricksters. Today, the maharajas have become an extinct species and the rope trick discarded as a perceptual fallacy. Only the snake charmer remains. He is, however, on the brink of taking to crime for the sake of his living. In the fast changing land that is India, it is quite relevant today to ponder over questions relating to crime and punishment. Ethical reflection in the field of criminology and penology in this country has passed through a succession of historical vicissitudes. The Hindus (along with Buddhists and Jains) wove the basic ethical fabric. Proselityzing Mohammedan empire-builders and European colonizers printed successive influences over this basic fabric. The resurgence of the secular nationalistic sentiment under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi in recent times provided a modem frame to traditional ethos. It would be of interest to review this evolution


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The Probation Service has rightly caught the public imagination for it has the promise and potential of a break-through in sentencing as discussed by the authors. But this can only be fulfilled if the Probation service continues to administer schemes with imagination, care and enthusiasm and if it resists the encroachment of institutionalization.
Abstract: COMMUNITY Service has rightly caught the public imagination for it has the promise and potential of a break-through in sentencing. This can only be fulfilled if the Probation Service continues ¡to administer schemes with imagination, care and enthusiasm and if it resists the encroachment of institutionalization. Speaking in the debate on the Criminal Justice Bill in 1972, the Home Secretary, The Rt. Hon. R. Maudling, said &dquo;It is a very impor,tant measure indeed, for two main reasons. The first is that it is a constructive effort to deal with the problem of crime and punishment ... The second is that it contains a number of suggestions of an imaginative character; it breaks a good deal of new ground and is often experimental. These experiments and new ideas can be immensely rewarding&dquo;. The Bill &dquo; ... embarks on a new range of non-custodial penalties designed to find methods of

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that analytic therapy concentrates on backward inward looking insight, neglects forward looking planning, setting of goals and hopes, and little notice is taken of volition and habit-formation, of making efforts and persevering, and of ethical and social values.
Abstract: are helped as would recover spontaneously, but this is probably not so. Indeed I have, as so many other psychiatrists, seen many patients who have not benefited from years of intensive therapy, but have deteriorated in its course. This is, in my opinion, mainly due to the fact that the basic orientation of the therapist is wrong and a negative one, and that both he and the patient are abnormalised by the analytic process. Psychodynamics stress, and by so doing enhance, irrationality and pathology. They are actually antirational by pointedly ignoring or minimising clear thinking and factual knowledge, or deprecatingly regarding it as &dquo;merely&dquo; a defence against unconscious material. Analytic therapy concentrates on backward inward looking insight, neglects forward looking planning, setting of goals and hopes. Little notice is taken of volition and habit-formation, of making efforts and persevering, and of ethical and social values.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated how the official delinquency pattern is shaped and who is referred to the juvenile authorities and may subsequently be labelled as a delinquent, and what are the apparent reasons, offences or complaints that lead to the referral.
Abstract: we thought might allow a better understanding of how the official delinquency pattern is shaped. The questions were the following: (a) Who is referred to the juvenile authorities and may subsequently be labelled as a delinquent? (b) What are the apparent reasons, offences or complaints, that lead to the referral? (c) Who takes the initiative for the referral? and (d) How does the court respond to the referral?

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The commentary of Denton and Farmer is correct insofar as it implies our data do not reflect current shock probation practices as discussed by the authors, and their article should be viewed as an analysis of judicial discretion with respect to shock probation at a given point in time.
Abstract: The commentary of Mr. Denton and Mr. Farmer is correct insofar as it implies our data do not reflect current shock probation practices. Certainly our article should be viewed as an analysis of judicial discretion with respect to shock probation at a given point in time. Published social science data are seldom co-terminus with ongoing activities due to the constantly shifting nature of social events.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: System specifics as discussed by the authors is a new form of general systems theory that was developed for use in psychotherapy and counselling, and has proved effective in the treatment of juvenile delinquents, adult offenders and in the general psychotherapy of private practice.
Abstract: SYSTEM specifics is a new form of general systems theory that we have developed for use in psychotherapy and counselling. It has proved effective in the treatment of juvenile delinquents, adult offenders and in the general psychotherapy of private practice. System specifics was designed to allow for greater control and regulation of the system forming process underlying human behavior so that dysfunctional system precursors, particularly those leading to criminal behavior, could be quickly and effectively turned off and then modified, and functional behavior developed.