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Showing papers in "International Social Science Journal in 2003"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Baviskar et al. as discussed by the authors investigated the role of the police in the killing of an 18-year-old Indian visitor to Delhi, who had come to watch the Republic Day parade in the capital.
Abstract: Delhi, on the morning of January 30, 1995, was waking up to another winter day. In the well-todo colony of Ashok Vihar, early risers were setting off on morning walks, some accompanied by their pet dogs. As one of these residents walked into the neighbourhood ‘‘park’’, the only open area in the locality, he saw a young man, poorly clad, walking away with an empty bottle in hand. Incensed, he caught the man, called his neighbours and the police. A group of enraged house-owners and two police constables descended on the youth and, within minutes, beat him to death. The young man was 18-year-old Dilip, a visitor to Delhi, who had come to watch the Republic Day parade in the capital. He was staying with his uncle in a jhuggi (shanty house) along the railway tracks bordering Ashok Vihar. His uncle worked as a labourer in an industrial estate nearby which, like all other planned industrial zones in Delhi, had no provision for workers’ housing. The jhuggi cluster with more than 10,000 households shared three public toilets, each one with eight latrines, effectively one toilet per 2083 persons. For most residents, then, any large open space, under cover of dark, became a place to defecate. Their use of the ‘‘park’’ brought them up against the more affluent residents of the area who paid to have a wall constructed between the dirty, unsightly jhuggis and their own homes. The wall was soon breached, as much to allow the traffic of domestic workers who lived in the jhuggis but worked to clean the homes and cars of the rich, wash their clothes, and mind their children, as to offer access to the delinquent defecators. Dilip’s death was thus the culmination of a longstanding battle over a contested space that, to one set of residents, embodied their sense of gracious urban living, a place of trees and grass devoted to leisure and recreation, and that to another set of residents, was the only available space that could be used as a toilet. If he had known this history of simmering conflict, Dilip would probably have been more wary and would have run away when challenged, and perhaps he would still be alive. This incident made a profound impression on me. During my research in central India, the site of struggles over displacement due to dams and forestry projects as well as the more gradual but no less compelling processes of impoverishment due to insecure land tenure, I had witnessed only too often state violence that tried to crush the aspirations of poor people striving Amita Baviskar is a sociologist at the University of Delhi, India. Her research addresses the cultural politics of environment and development. Her publications include the book In the Belly of the River: Tribal Conflicts over Development in the NarmadaValley, OxfordUniversity Press, 1995. Journal: ISSJ Disk used ED: SVK: Pgn by: solly Article : 05501009 Pages: 10 Despatch Date: 7/1/2003

348 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors argued that the magnitude of the combined material and non-material impoverishment risks and losses experienced by those displaced far exceeds the redeeming powers of narrow compensation-centered solutions offered by conventional economics and argued that additional investment resources for resettlement with welfare improvement can be secured in several ways, often through equitable sharing of the project-generated benefits with those displaced.
Abstract: Many development projects intended to alleviate poverty end up increasing poverty by displacing large numbers of people without reestablishing them viably, despite the use of compensation payments for assets lost. This paper appreciates the contribution of economic science to matters of compensation. However, it also subjects the theory of compensation to critical scrutiny and deconstructs the current practices of compensation to highlight their fallacies, distortions, and unsatisfactory outcomes. In particular, the paper critiques: (a) the economic theory that predicates the socio-economic recovery of those displaced only on the principle of compensation for asset losses; (b) the resettlement policies that tolerate an internal mismatch between policy objectives and policy means; and (c) the methodology that planners often employ in appraising projects with resettlement, which is inadequate to the task. The author argues that the magnitude of the combined material and non-material impoverishment risks and losses experienced by those displaced far exceeds the redeeming powers of narrow compensation-centered solutions offered by conventional economics. He identifies a structural incongruity in policies which define their goals as improving or restoring resettlers’ livelihoods, and rely only on compensation as the virtually sole means for achieving either of these goals. The paper outlines several basic limitations and flaws in compensation that reinforce the main poverty risks inherent in forced displacements, as demonstrated in the author’s analytical model of impoverishment risks and reconstruction (IRR) in resettlement. To complement compensation for damages and make the policy goals in resettlement achievable, targeted investment financing channeled to those displaced is necessary as part of the regular development projects’ investments. The author argues in favor of a shift from the “economics of compensation” towards an “economics of resettlement with development”, that will pursue the final goal of affected peoples’ sustainable reestablishment rather than be focused narrowly only on compensation delivery, regardless of final overall recovery. Additional investment resources for resettlement with welfare improvement can be secured in several ways, outlined in the paper, often through equitable sharing of the project-generated benefits with those displaced.

206 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that displacements are intrinsic to mega-project development and that both are socio-natural phenomena, and that the ideologiestthat inform project development andhelpto account for the persistence of displacement are the work of epistemic communities, elite groups of actors from stateagencies, internationallending and donor institu-tions, and the private sector.
Abstract: Dams, roads, ports, urban developments, pipe-lines and petrochemical plants, mines, and vastindustrial plantations both reflect and instanti-ate the larger social projects of colonialism,development, and globalisation. An emphasison mega-projects helps us to see the relationshipbetween these abstract processes and the bio-geophysical and social transformation of parti-cular landscapes. Mega-projects are spatially situ-ated and inherently displa-cing.ExtendingSchumpeter’s(1947) use of the term, weargue that mega-projectsentail ‘‘creative destruc-tion’’ in a material sense:they transform landscapesrapidly and radically, dis-placing mountaintops, riv-ers, flora and fauna, as wellas humans and their com-munities.We argue that displa-cement is intrinsic to mega-project development andthat both are socio-naturalphenomena. The ideologiesthat inform project devel-opmentandhelptoaccountfor the persistence of dis-placement are the work ofepistemic communities,elite groups of actors fromstateagencies,internationallending and donor institu-tions, and the private sector. Members of thesecommunities consider mega-project displace-ment as an externality to be either ignored oraddressed through remediation, much to theconsternation of transnational advocacy coali-tions.To understand how mega-project dis-placements are produced and why theypersist, we first define mega-projects and thedisplacements that they engender. We thendescribe a range of primaryandsecondarysocio-naturaldisplacements. Third, weargue that the ideologiesand cultural biases of epis-temic communities shapeproject processes in waysthat foster displacement.We close by consideringfor whom mega-projectsare creative and for whomthey are destructive.

196 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the provision of basic infrastructure such as roads, health services, schools, or credit is a spatial activity, and that some areas gain access to these services, and others do not.
Abstract: Development in all its forms is inherently a spatial activity. From the most grandiose megaproject employing armies of development experts, to the smallest scale community-based resource management plan, all development projects involve reorganising the meaning and control of space. Even the provision of basic infrastructure such as roads, health services, schools, or credit is a spatial activity – some areas gain access to these services, and others do not...

156 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors place the events in London within the context of social science theory and in particular the concepts of critical pragmatism and the use of case study material, as proposed by Flyvbjerg and Forester.
Abstract: Congestion charging in Central London provides a case of radical policy intervention to address congestion and traffic reduction. This paper places the events in London within the context of social science theory and in particular the concepts of critical pragmatism and the use of case study material, as proposed by Flyvbjerg and Forester. The details of congestion charging in London are outlined together with an analysis of the process of implementation. The issues of consultation, representation, and response to concerns are discussed, and the different views of two key stakeholders are presented. The case study is interpreted in terms of equity and distribution, acceptability, boundary effects, and environmental impacts. Implications for social science theory are then returned to and it is suggested that the notions of value rationality and power need to be extended to encompass fairness and commitment.

102 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The current forced internal displacement in Colombia can be understood as the greatest aggression on Afro-descendants in Colombia in the last 150 years; it is not an isolated event but an ensemble of systematic, open and deliberate actions and as such it is inscribed in, and functional to, both the war and development as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: One thing we know for certain is that those who instrumentalise the dominant notion of development to their advantage care very little about whom or what they run over. The current forced internal displacement in Colombia can be understood as the greatest aggression on Afro-descendants in Colombia in the last 150 years; it is not an isolated event, but an ensemble of systematic, open and deliberate actions and as such it is inscribed in, and functional to, both the war and development. y Initially ‘displaced’ from Africa, and after having reconstructed part of their culture and created new meanings and sense of belonging, the current wave of displacement is reminiscent of the times of slavery; the pain of family fragmentation, the impossibility of holding on to any goods and to the territory, the pain and abuse suffered by women, the participation of the men in an alien war, and the erosion of local authorities and autonomy all come back to the collective memory with this experience. (Rosero 2001)

101 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a limited number of indicators and monitoring frameworks applied in the transport sector are explored, discussing if and how they contribute to making the concepts of sustainability operational for the governance of mobility.
Abstract: Strategies for sustainable mobility and transport have, in recent years, been launched in many countries and also on the international level: so far, limited success has been recorded. However, the questions arise how the sustainability of transport systems and policies can in fact be measured, and how these measurements can be used in transport planning. This article focuses on indicators and monitoring frameworks applied in the transport sector. It explores a limited number of indicator systems presently in use, discussing if and how they contribute to making the concepts of sustainability operational for the governance of mobility. The six systems discussed include one general environmental indicator system, one transport policy performance measurement framework, and four indicator systems, which in particular focus on the interaction between transport and the environment. Four of the systems are national (Denmark, Canada and two from the US), and two are international (the European Environment Agency (EEA) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)). The paper concludes that these and other indicator systems appear to provide relatively limited guidance towards achieving sustainable mobility. There are four major issues which need considering if the aims of sustainability are to be incorporated more adequately: how to manage environmental comprehensiveness; how to bring causal factors into the systems; how to incorporate sustainability and policy targets, and how to link indicator systems and policy making.

98 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the complexity of local-global encounters during the 1990s, involving indigenous resource-owning villagers, transnational logging and mining companies, and foreign conservationist initiatives by non-governmental organisations (NGOs).
Abstract: This paper examines what the author terms “compressed globalisation” in the South Pacific region, with a focus on the Solomon Islands. Building on long-term ethnographic fieldwork in the biodiversity “hot-spot” of Marovo Lagoon, the author addresses the complexity of a variety of local–global encounters during the 1990s, involving indigenous resource-owning villagers, transnational logging and mining companies, and foreign conservationist initiatives by non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Emphasis is given to the contested status of rainforests around the Marovo Lagoon. While Asian logging companies desire quick exploitation of large timber reserves, Western NGOs (and similar governmental agencies) desire the conservation of the forests in the name of global biodiversity. The villagers who own the forests through state-backed customary law follow unpredictable paths between the diverging types of foreign (and global) desire, emphasising their own autonomy over conditions for contemporary village life. These postcolonial encounters are characterised by mutual uncertainty and unawareness about the moral and political agendas of the “other party”. However, lack of shared understanding far from inhibits actual collaboration, whether it be short-term logging deals or NGO-initiated “community-based conservation projects”. In these projects, defined through indigenous concepts, diverging desires appear to converge, however unsteadily.

74 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the conceptual framework, methods and preliminary results of the interdisciplinary research project "StadtLeben", which focuses on the interrelation between social structures (lifestyles, milieus), space-time structures, housing and choice of housing location, and daily mobility.
Abstract: Today, spatial research and planning is confronted with complex frame conditions that have substantially changed in the past decades. Thus, a comprehensive social change is initiated, giving new room for individual development, but on the other hand making new decisions necessary (cue: individualisation). At the same time, settlement structures and time-regimes – essential conditions for spatial mobility – have developed dynamically (cues: decentralisation, flexibilisation). Hitherto however, research and planning show serious methodological problems in the consideration of the stated changes. The explanation patterns of existing approaches for spatial mobility are mainly based upon spatial and individual restrictions. Neither the increasing degrees of freedom nor the subjective rationales behind mobility decisions are adequately considered. The paper presents the conceptual framework, methods and preliminary results of the interdisciplinary research project “StadtLeben”. The central research question focuses on the interrelation between social structures (lifestyles, milieus), space-time-structures, housing and choice of housing location, and daily mobility. The proposed research approach shall help to develop target group-oriented and efficient planning and design strategies, which are tested in a workshop in an exemplary study area in Cologne. Together with planning practitioners, action-oriented knowledge as well as suggestions for planning methods (participation, processes, competence) shall be derived.

69 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
Ravi Kanbur1
TL;DR: The authors argue that specific compensation mechanisms and generalised safety nets will reduce tensions between protecting the vulnerable and supporting projects that produce aggregate net benefits, including benefits for the vulnerable themselves, by using distributionally sensitive weights to evaluate the gains and losses of a project.
Abstract: How does development economics address the issue of gains and losses from the displacement that inevitably accompanies many development processes? This paper argues that economists have struggled mightily between the core criterion of a “Pareto improvement”, which vests individuals with infinite rights in their current standard of living, and its deeply conservative implications—both that it would prevent redistribution away from the rich, and that it would stop most projects from ever taking place. Where they have got to conceptually is a compromise, through using distributionally sensitive weights to evaluate the gains and losses of a project. In practice, however, systematic use of such weights in project appraisal or cost-benefit analysis is rare. Apart from advocating such use, which is true to the spirit of the conceptual position reached in economics, the paper argues that specific compensation mechanisms and generalised safety nets will reduce tensions between protecting the vulnerable and supporting projects that produce aggregate net benefits—including benefits for the vulnerable themselves.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors argue that refugee status rarely leads to acquisition of nationality or denizenship, and rights and sources of livelihoods basic to warding off poverty are accessible only to nationals, and that not belonging to a spatially bounded community or geo-political entity is the single most important factor preventing formulation and implementation of long-term development programmes that enable refugees to recoup the losses they incur in connection with displacement and to construct sustainable livelihoods in countries of asylum.
Abstract: This paper examines the structural and institutional factors that preclude the ‘‘risk prevention’’ and rehabilitation strategies of the best-known victims of displacement, refugees. Though restrictive refugee policies are increasingly becoming common worldwide (Frelick 2001, GoodwinGill 1999), drawing on the experiences of refugees in many developing countries, I argue that refugee status rarely leads to acquisition of nationality or denizenship, and rights and sources of livelihoods basic to warding off poverty are accessible only to nationals. Not belonging to a spatially bounded community or geo-political entity is the single most important factor preventing formulation and implementation of long-term development programmes that enable refugees to recoup the losses they incur in connection with displacement and to construct sustainable livelihoods in countries of asylum. Refugees are people who flee their homes against their will because they fear for their lives. When refugees flee, they incur immense losses in life-sustaining resources, including social support networks, neighbours, friends, relatives, cultivable and grazing lands, livestock, jobs, houses, and access to common property resources such as forest produce, surface water, wild fruits, roots, and wildlife. In most rural societies, there is a strong sense of close interdependence between individuals, or their descent group, and the land with which that group is traditionally associated. In some of these communities land is neither divisible nor alienable – it is held in perpetuity. In such societies, land is the centre-piece of cultural systems, and its meaning incorporates people, traditions, customs, values, beliefs, institutions, soil, vegetation, water, and animals. Land and/ or house possession in one’s place of origin is seen not only as a wealth-creating and livelihood-sustaining resource, but also as the basis of status and identity. In such societies, belonging to a particular place is necessary for being rooted and therefore for acquiring land.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a new vision of sustainable transportation is required, one that incorporates intermodalism for both passengers and freight, which can be achieved only with appropriate policy and decision-making systems that incorporate genuine public participation.
Abstract: Contemporary transportation systems and policies are discussed in terms of their relationship to sustainable development. The current situation is generally characterised by policies that favour motorisation and violate fundamental elements of sustainability. Accordingly, a new vision of sustainable transportation is required, one that incorporates intermodalism for both passengers and freight. Creating a sustainable intermodal system necessitates overcoming many obstacles and can be achieved only with appropriate policy and decision‐making systems that incorporate genuine public participation. However, existing decision‐making processes and public involvement mechanisms are inadequate. New approaches need to be developed and implemented if the new transportation paradigm is to be realised.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a systematic performance table of urban public transport systems in these cities is created with the aim of investigating the impact of four classes of critical success factors on the performance of these systems.
Abstract: Regulatory reform in EU transport policy has prompted urban public transport authorities to operate increasingly under a competitive market regime. The EU policy favours in particular a system of limited competition through the granting of concessions to public transport operators. This paper reviews the emerging organisational framework and seeks to identify the success conditions for local public transport systems in a sample of 22 European cities. On the basis of extensive field research, a systematic performance table of urban public transport systems in these cities is created with the aim of investigating the impact of four classes of critical success factors on the performance of these systems. In the empirical part both a qualitative interpretative analysis and a recently developed tool from artificial intelligence, viz. rough set analysis, is deployed in order to derive policy relevant conclusions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The notion of knowledge politics is introduced in this article as a new field of political activity in modern societies, and it has been used to anticipate the effects of new knowledge on social relations, and attempts to control its impact.
Abstract: This paper is conceived as part of a line of inquiry into the reasons for controlling novel scientific knowledge, and the ways of doing so, by major social institutions within and across modern societies. The sociology of knowledge always had an interest in the social role of knowledge (power based on knowledge), its transformation and its carriers (experts, intellectuals, cognitive elites). However, the primary knowledge-guiding interest of the sociology of knowledge traditionally has been on questions concerned with the production and not the consumption of knowledge. The emerging focus of sociology of knowledge inquiry should be with issues that may be designated as “knowledge politics”. I will first describe and delineate the notion of knowledge politics as a new field of political activity. When it comes to the utilisation of new capacities for action (that is, knowledge) knowledge politics does not have to be restrictive a priori; my focus, however, will be on efforts to anticipate the effects of new knowledge on social relations, and attempts to control its impact. Second, I will delineate some of the main reasons why knowledge politics gains prominence as a field of political activity in modern societies. I will stress, in particular, changing relations between science and society. In a third section of the paper, the distinction between knowledge and science policies will be introduced. Before concluding the discussion with a brief outlook, I will sketch some pertinent episodes that illustrate knowledge politics in action.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors look at the reality of the situation in practice and examine the extent to which transport and land-use planning policies are integrated in local authorities in England.
Abstract: The need to integrate transport and land-use planning policies has been widely recognised in many countries for a number of years. England is no exception – government planning guidance has emphasised the need for integration of land-use planning and transport policy for some time. This paper looks at the reality of the situation in practice and examines the extent to which transport and land-use planning policies are integrated in local authorities in England. The paper outlines the policy context for integrated transport and land-use planning policies in England and discusses some of the professional and organisational barriers to policy integration. It synthesises recent literature on the subject and also the views of local government officers involved in transport and land-use planning policy. The paper reports that in practice transport and land-use planning policy making is not always well integrated at the local level.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors show how there have been three main blocs of actors since 1990: the epistemic community striving to safeguard cultural and biological diversity, the globalised nature reserves sector and the transnational advocacy networks.
Abstract: Transnational environmental NGOs (ENGOs) have played a leading role in furthering the cause of local knowledge of biodiversity, and indeed of most environmental issues, in national and international arenas. But it is impossible to present this as a unified drive, because the generic term “NGO” is now virtually meaningless. Focusing on the international roles and the internal workings of ENGOs, this article sets out to show how there have been three main blocs of actors since 1990: the epistemic community striving to safeguard cultural and biological diversity, the globalised nature reserves sector and the transnational advocacy networks. The fact that the local knowledge issue has entered international arenas through debate on the global environmental crisis is the key to understanding such knowledge. Furthermore, that understanding of “local” knowledge hinges on insight into the thinking behind the actions and the political stance of each of those three blocs of actors. Examining the interconnection between the international and the national – in this case, Mexican – contexts reveals how local knowledge has become an important issue-area, with significant political implications.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The article describes the historical development of data services for the social sciences, not just to recall what happened, but to point out the strategic choices that have shaped the current situation.
Abstract: The article describes the historical development of data services for the social sciences, not just to recall what happened, but to point out the strategic choices that have shaped the current situation. With respect to future developments, knowledge of these choices is important. Specifically, one should be aware that data archives – the core institutions in this development – were understood to be part of data services, and these in turn as building blocks in an infrastructure for empirical social sciences. Enlarging such an infrastructure was not and is not undertaken with the ambition to supply all the information that the social sciences need. It is necessary to identify, country by country, what gaps need to be closed in data provision, and in general in the infrastructure for the empirical social sciences. Furthermore, it is necessary to establish in parallel access to information and training in the techniques necessary to make effective and rigorous use of it. As access expands and technology evolves, there is room for concern that user expertise, particularly in statistical methods, is tending to lag behind.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A 5-year bioprospecting project that came to be known as the Maya ICBG was initiated among the Maya communities of the Highlands of Chiapas, Mexico.
Abstract: In 1998, a 5-year bioprospecting project that came to be known as the Maya ICBG was initiated among the Maya communities of the Highlands of Chiapas, Mexico. The project was funded by agencies of the US government – the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Agriculture. Project personnel were drawn from a major US university, a federal Mexican research institution, a small British pharmaceutical company, and numerous Maya collaborators. The major aims of the research included drug discovery and pharmaceutical development, medical ethnobiology and floristic inventory, and conservation, sustained harvest, and economic growth. In spite of strong support from local Maya communities and Mexican federal agencies, the project was terminated in its second year due to the actions of local, national, and international non-governmental organisations, which characterised the project as biopiracy. Major themes in the acrimonious debate that developed concerned the definition of prior informed consent (PIC), local communities' rights to grant PIC, and who should judge whether PIC had been obtained. In this paper, we describe the events leading to the termination of the Maya ICBG and question the motives and methods of certain NGOs in usurping the rights of local communities to act on their own behalf concerning the sustainable use of their own biological resources.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a sustainable city provides mobility for all by creating accessibility of destinations, preferably by slow modes or public transport, where the use of the private car is limited, congestion does not exist, and measures are taken if noise pollution occurs.
Abstract: Historically, towns and cities have developed at easily accessible transport nodes to the sea, rivers, or roads. Unfortunately, the macro accessibility of cities that has followed in general was not extended to the micro level. In this paper, transport sustainability is assessed in terms of the following definition: a sustainable city provides mobility for all by creating accessibility of destinations, preferably by slow modes or public transport. The use of the private car is limited, congestion does not exist, and measures are taken if noise pollution occurs. From this perspective, accessibility within cities is often a problem, notably because of the separation between transportation and settlement planning. South Africa reflects this general pattern, which has resulted in unsustainable urban areas, but with the aggravating circumstance of the legacy of apartheid, which the paper explores in detail using the example of Cape Town. In order to give suggestions for the improvement of South African cities, urban spatial theories are described and examples of cities that developed based at least partly on those theories are given. However, European experiences have shown that settlement planning, even based on successful theories such as the “corridor” or the “compact city” approach, is not enough. There is a need for integrated settlement and transport planning. South Africa should investigate which additional integrated settlement and transport-planning policies should be put in place to improve the cities and to make them more equitable and sustainable.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the Amazonian context in which cassava is cultivated, and look at the institutional and organizational environments in which the communities concerned live before taking up the question of emerging political configurations involved in preserving local knowledge.
Abstract: The loss of biodiversity, one of the environmental problems with an acknowledged planet-wide impact, has been addressed by a convention which highlights the need to take into account the “knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities” in a context of sustainable development. This rehabilitation of the traditional practices and knowledge of communities undermined by several decades of development raises a number of problems as to its relevance, forms, and procedures. The multidisciplinary research we have carried out in Brazilian Amazonia on the management of the varietal diversity of cassava by various local groups provides a good illustration of this. After presenting the Amazonian context in which cassava is cultivated, we look at the institutional and organizational environments in which the communities concerned live before taking up the question of emerging political configurations involved in preserving local knowledge. Non-governmental organisations play a significant role politically, as intermediaries between the local level and the state's political and administrative institutions. The dynamics observed testify to a far-reaching change in the way “indigenous communities” relate to the society around them.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is noted that sustainable travel systems can be encouraged by increasing urban densities and ensuring that street networks are designed to favour the more environmentally sound modes, and there needs to be an emphasis on the measurement of the performance of street networks.
Abstract: This paper is about the relationship between urban areas and transport, particularly the design and evaluation of sustainable local transport networks. It is presented in the context of the changes in thinking associated with new ideas for traffic engineering in the urban environment, to accommodate the complex mix of activities arising on highway networks, which are now taken into account by decision-makers; ways by which urban planning can help to bring about greater use of sustainable transport modes; the growing influence of architects and urban designers on street pattern and road layout in modern British housing schemes. After reviewing the history of urban form and the theories that have guided various trends in design, the paper comments on developments and identifies the shortcomings of lower densities and inflexible networks, particularly with regard to reinforcing the reliance on a single, unsustainable transport mode. More recent trends in the design of urban areas in Britain are noted: more continuous street patterns; a less rigid application of the simple road hierarchy; a more equal treatment of the different transport modes. As design ideas develop the need to appraise transport networks arises in parallel. The final section identifies a range of techniques for analysing networks. The paper concludes by noting that sustainable travel systems can be encouraged by increasing urban densities and ensuring that street networks are designed to favour the more environmentally sound modes. To achieve this, there needs to be an emphasis on the measurement of the performance of street networks. Quantitative appraisal techniques will become an essential part of urban planning in the future.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyzed the transport noise protection policies of four European countries and compared with people's subjective perceptions and objective exposure, and found that transport noise is one of the most significant environmental problems since about 18-20% of the population in those countries, as in the EU as a whole, suffer seriously from transport noise.
Abstract: The paper starts with a brief overview of the impacts and perception of noise in the past in Europe. It has been well known for about 30 years that transport noise over critical levels causes serious annoyance. Moreover, recent epidemiological research indicates that it might also be responsible for a significant number of potentially fatal heart attacks. In the light of this knowledge, the transport noise protection policies of four European countries are analysed and compared with people's subjective perceptions and objective exposure. Results show that transport noise is one of the most significant environmental problems since about 18–20% of the population in those countries, as in the EU as a whole, suffer seriously from transport noise. Noise protection has in the past focused to a large extent on limiting emissions at the noise source. However, no binding noise standards at the immission point have been set. In the last decade this has changed in Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands, where noise legislation has been differentiated into non-binding standards for existing transport infrastructure and binding legislation for planned infrastructure. Looking at the policies that are available to comply with the standards, it is obvious that there is no “silver bullet” to solve the transport noise problem. Instead, the experience of those countries demonstrates that the fight against noise to ensure sustainable mobility can only be won by a comprehensive mix of policies, which require significant investments and, even more important, will take a long time.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present research findings on the themes of the environment, cities, and social relationships between men and women, which is predicated on the view that a crosswise look at these three topics brings a useful new perspective to bear on each of these issues as such.
Abstract: This article, based on the work of a network of seven teams from countries of the South and countries in transition, presents research findings on the themes of the environment, cities, and social relationships between men and women. The research is predicated on the view that a crosswise look at these three topics brings a useful new perspective to bear on each of these issues as such. It starts from the twofold observation that women and men are not involved in the same way in the urban environment, and that innovative approaches often emanate from women's movements concerned to change the environmental situation in cities as well as women's place and role in the decision-making process. However, research on urban issues, apart from recent research on employment and the labour market, has turned a blind eye to distinctions between men's and women's needs. The urban environment and gender relations bring into play several variables: the environment, the urban dimension, and gender. While the intermeshing of these approaches undoubtedly constitutes a large part of the originality of the work, it does not make the task any the less complex, for its impact is evident neither in methodological nor in conceptual terms. The personal motivation necessarily built into any research-action presupposes that the analysis is founded on specific experiences and not upon strictly theoretical principles, though the need for conceptual concordance between the different research teams should not be overlooked. We shall here focus on the governance of which women may be the agents or actors in cities, a focus that brings into play the different approaches to empowerment and gender relations in the context of social change, the analysis of grass-roots organisations and of men's and women's identities and roles, and the changing balance of power between men and women, whether in the domestic or the public arena.