Showing papers in "International Studies Quarterly in 1973"

The Regional Subsystem: A Conceptual Explication and a Propositional Inventory

Abstract: Michael Banks (1969: 351-352) has delineated five themes in the application of the various systems perspectives to regional studies: (1) the macro approach to the identification of regions using aggregate data; (2) the neofunctional approach; (3) the social communication approach; (4) the comparison of existing integration theories witlh other tlheories of international processes; and (5) the application of broad categories of systems theory to regional studies. While Banks briefly discussed the final theme, hereafter labeled the regional subsystem approach, very little of his review explicitly touched upon the problems encountered by this particular analytical mode.' This research note will selectively discuss some of these problems. The specific and modest objectives are twofold: (a) The definitions of the basic analytical unit, offered by 22 published (1958-1971) analysts, will be compared and "dissected." A

Cognitive Process and Foreign Policy Decision-Making

Abstract: As the analysis of foreign policy decision-making has become a more theoretical enterprise, the production of historically oriented case studies has been supplemented by a growing number of investigations employing psychological or socialpsychological perspectives. Early studies of foreign policy decision-making with a psychological orientation emphasized the influence of various psychological traits on those involved in foreign policy decisions (e.g., Levinson, 1957), but, more recently, the emphasis has been on perception, cognition, and information-processing. The cognitive process approaches, by contrast, have attempted, in varying degrees, to map out the belief structures of decision makers and explore the implications of these structures for the way international events are understood and policy alternatives are considered. Studies under this rubric have focused upon the perceptions of particular foreign policy decision makers (Holsti, 1962), on the perceptions and choices of groups of persons simulating the roles of foreign policy decision makers (Driver, 1962; Hermann, 1969; Hermann and Hermann, 1967; Shapiro, forthcoming), and on the decision process of national decision groups focused upon particular policy problems (Steinbruner, forthcoming).

A Test of Cross-National Event Reliability: Global Versus Regional Data Sources

Abstract: It is known in cross-national research that as one shifts from globally to regionally oriented data sources, the number and distribution of events change. Unanswered, however, is the question whether political conclusions are dependent upon the nature of the sources from which the data have been derived.' The apparent issues are these. (1) How serious is the disparity between the data drawn from the two kinds of sources? (2) Which data source is the more reliable? As cross-national research faces adolescence, a resolution of these issues appears imperative. Over the last decade or so the proliferation of data banks has been impressive: Sorokin (1937); Wright (1942); Richardson (1960); Banks and Textor (1963); Russett (1966); Feierabend and Feierabend (1965); Nesvold (1969); Singer and Small (1 972); Gurr (1 968); Leiden et al. (1 970); Cady (1 970); Taylor and Hudson (1972) are a few of the contributors. Analysts have

Regional Organizations in the United Nations: Is There Externalization?

Abstract: After 25 years of cohabitation on the same planet, we still know very little about the conjugal patterns of the United Nations and the large number of regional organizations which have come into existence since 1945. One part of the literature is concerned with ascertaining whether the aims and activities of the UN are being debased and deflected by the activities of the regional organizations.1 While few authors are still worried about the UN's being shut out of the global pattern of international cooperation, many are fearful that

Decision-Making in an International Crisis

Abstract: At our meeting at the State Department, there were sharp disagreements again. The strain and the hours without sleep were beginning to take their toll. However, even many years later, those human weaknesses-impatience, fits of anger-are understandable. Each one of us was being asked to make a recommendation which, if wrong and if accepted, could mean the destruction of the human race. That kind of pressure does strange things to a human being, even to brilliant, self-confident, mature, experienced men. For some it brings out characteristics and strengths that perhaps even they never knew they had, and for others, the pressure is too overwhelming.

Identifying and Measuring Changes in the Frequency of Event Data

Abstract: Event data has emerged as a major focus of attention in both international and comparative politics. McClelland (1964, 1961) pioneered its use. The early work of Rummel (1964, 1963) on conflict within and between states led to other data collection and research (Tanter, 1966; Bwy, 1968; Wilkenfeld, 1968; Gurr, 1968). Feierabend, Feierabend, and Nesvold have collected information on violent and nonviolent events within states., Taylor and Hudson (1971) include daily event data for seventeen categories of events within states as well as international interventions. The World Event/Interaction Survey provides a rich source of information on foreign policy activities of states (McClelland and Hoggard, 1969). Azar (1970) has directed a project providing an alternative approach to international events. A number of collections reflecting more narrow geographic or substantive areas have been undertaken.

The Technological Ethic and the Spirit of International Relations

Abstract: Most analyses of the relationships between technology and international relations have concentrated on the impact of new technological inputs-nuclear weapons, missiles, fertilizers, IUDs, mass communications media, and the like-upon the international system or upon national decision-making (see particularly Ogburn, 1949; Haskins, 1964; Skolnikoff, 1967). The argument here will be that, while such analyses are necessary and useful, they are incomplete and often misleading in that they do not sufficiently deal with the ethical aspects and dimensions of technology. It is in this sense that this essay, as indicated by the title, is analogous to that of Max Weber's (1958) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber argued that capitalism could be properly understood only if one went beyond the prevailing material (and often monocausal) interpretations of capitalism to examine and delineate the underlying cultural and attitudinal changes which he argued were a necessary part of any explanation of the rise of capitalism. His conclusion was that the attitudinal changes

Empirical Tests of Attribute, Social Field, and Status Field Theories on International Relations Data

Abstract: This paper begins with the assumption that theoretical elaboration and empirical testing must go hand in hand if progress is to be made in the science of international relations. The purpose is to report on the results of testing attribute, social field, and status-field theories, utilizing international relations conflict and cooperation data generated in the early 1 960s.' Rummel has been primarily responsible for the development of the equations which stand behind attribute, social field, and status-field theories. His elaborations can be found in the various DON Research Reports and elsewhere. A concise mathematical treatment of attribute versus social field theory is given in Rummel (1 969a), and the equations of status-field theory may be found in Rummel (1971). A recent application of attribute theory may be found in Vincent (1972a), which

Who Fathered Containment?: A Discussion

Abstract: In his article "Who Fathered Containment" (Powers, 1971), Professor Powers suggests that "Truman in 1945 was not adequately prepared to define [foreign policy] conditionis to his subordinates"; and that it was they, not he, who "formulated the then existing policies" (Powers, 1971: 529). He then goes on to discuss the importance of the cable from Moscow by George Kennan of February 1946, which provided the rationale for containment, and of Clark Clifford's memorandum to the President of the following September. As I understand it, Professor Powers wishes to demonstrate that there were really two containment doctrines, one fathered by Kennan, which was subtle, moderate, hopeful, and eschewed any excessive reliance upon military power for its implementation. The other containment doctrine was fathered by Clifford; it was confrontationist, harsh, pessimistic about avoiding war, and marked by an excessive reliance upon military power to achieve its objectives. But was this the actual case? Were Kennan and Clifford as far apart as Powers actually thinks? And were they the only, or even the principal, source of advice upon whom Truman relied for policy guidance? There was another group of advisers with whom the President had day-to-day contact and whose importance has been virtually ignored. Thes'e were the Ambassadors and State Department and Foreign Service officers whose

The American Student in Taiwan

Abstract: For several years the authors have studied the experiences of international students in the United States with a special interest in the social adaptation of Asians (see Klein et al., 1971 a, 1971 b; Miller et al., 1971; Yeh et al., forthcoming). Our findings, replicated over several years within two national groups, indicate that Asian students in the United States associate almost exclusively with their fellow nationals; their relationships with host country nationals rarely go beyond superficial pleasantries. Interviews reveal that this distance is caused by culturally determined differences in interactional styles and values and reinforced by the supportive pressure of the subculture. Once established, distance is maintained by critical attitudes toward Americans that are developed and sustained within the Asian subculture. A student's life is

The Problem of Innovation and the Nixon-Kissinger Foreign Policy

Abstract: The political trauma of the war in Vietnam and the long, painful recessional from it have posed analytical questions as fascinating for the scholar as the issues are challenging to the policy maker. The student of foreign affairs finds in the history of our engagement a unique opportunity to consider the circumstances and requirements for policy innovation. For if, as the old adage claims, "necessity is the mother of invention," American policy making for the past four years should have been percolating with imaginative innovation. The central questions of this inquiry are these. (1) Has the adversity experienced been so compelling as to engender a fresh vision of today's international system and a new definition of U.S. security interests in it? (2) Judging, as we do, that termination of our involvement in the war depends on a reformulation of the conceptual bases of policy, how do we assess what changes represent a qualitative break from the past, i.e., are innovative as opposed to adaptive? (3) When adaptation is evident, hIow do we explain the failure to innovate? This essay endeavors to answer these questions through a

Equality and Discrimination in Education: A Comparative and International Analysis

Abstract: The Charter of the United Nations requires members to promote human rights "without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion" (Van Dyke, 1970; Cranston, 1973; Schwelb, 1964; Raphael, 1967; Brownlie, 1971). The requirement has much in common with the equal protection clause of the constitution of the United States, but American scholars (in truth, -scholars in general) have given it far less attention. This suggests the present purpose: to inquire into the meaning that it is sensible to give to the "without distinction" requirement. The inquiry will be limited to the field of education, and in this field the focus will be on governmental practices and attitudes outside the United States and on official positions taken at the international level. The term "without distinction" is mildly troublesome, for it seems to be directed against any differentiation at all. Ample basis exists, however, for the assertion that it is directed only against those distinctions that are discriminatory (Van Dyke, 1973). The fact is reflected in the convention of 1960 sponsored by UNESCO, for it is called a Convention Against

American Students in India

Abstract: "A good thing"-this has been the accepted rationale for educational exchange in the last quarter-century, in which the historical phenomenon of "the wandering scholar" has become a multi-institutional fact of life. Legislation, funding, and programming-from the early Fulbright program and other educational and cultural programs sanctioned by governments, to university-sponsored academic studies abroad-have been legitimized by this rarely examined assumption. Foreign students in the United States still outnumber American students overseas, but the proportion is shifting, reflecting trends toward programs in developing countries and for undergraduate students. The world has indeed become the American campus; "adventure unlimited" is accorded generous academic credit. It is time to be professionally objective about these programs, for many are at least questionable. This discussion focuses on the specific question of sending American undergraduate students to India. No program is typical, and no generalizations should be glibly made from any particular situation, but in some aspects the Callison-inBangalore program demonstrates common problems. These problems have been a current refrain in most discussions held by India program directors, and have directly led to India government regulations on foreign academic programs that will

Patterns of Political Interaction: Reciprocity and Coercion

Abstract: Within the social science literature two differing approaches for describing and explaining the nature of social relationships are presented. The first approach is based upon the concept that the actors' goals define the nature of the setting and hence have a profound effect upon the type of relationship which evolves. Proponents of this approach argue, for example, that when two or more individuals or groups share similar, compatible goals, there will be a propensity for cooperation; but when their goals are incompatible, their relationship is likely to be characterized by conflict.' The second approach which is frequently presented in the social psychology literature varies in emphasis. Scholars of this approach hypothesize that the nature of a relationship is primari-

Mature Creditorship and the U.S. Position in the World Economy

Abstract: A number of changes occurring in the U.S. balance of payments in recent years suggests that this country is undergoing a transformation in its capital position with respect to the world economy. The difficulties experienced by many American firms selling products abroad, the current account deficit which has characterized the balance of payments in a number of recent years, and, finally, balance of trade deficits in 1971 and 1972 (the first deficits since 1893) may be early indications that the United States is moving toward the position of a mature creditor. The purposes of this note are (1) to explore the thesis that the United States has shifted, or is shifting, from an immature to a mature creditor nation; and (2) to consider some of the implications of a new indebtedness status for the U.S. economy.