Showing papers in "Journal of Abnormal Psychology in 1991"
TL;DR: In this article, a tripartite structure consisting of general distress, physiological hyperarousal (specific anxiety), and anhedonia (specific depression), and a diagnosis of mixed anxiety-depression was proposed.
Abstract: We review psychometric and other evidence relevant to mixed anxiety-depression. Properties of anxiety and depression measures, including the convergent and discriminant validity of self- and clinical ratings, and interrater reliability, are examined in patient and normal samples. Results suggest that anxiety and depression can be reliably and validly assessed; moreover, although these disorders share a substantial component of general affective distress, they can be differentiated on the basis of factors specific to each syndrome. We also review evidence for these specific factors, examining the influence of context and scale content on ratings, factor analytic studies, and the role of low positive affect in depression. With these data, we argue for a tripartite structure consisting of general distress, physiological hyperarousal (specific anxiety), and anhedonia (specific depression), and we propose a diagnosis of mixed anxiety-depression.
3,465 citations
TL;DR: The authors proposed that the ways people respond to their own symptoms of depression influence the duration of these symptoms and found that people who engage in ruminative responses to depression, focusing on their symptoms and the possible causes and consequences of their symptoms, will show longer depressions than people who take action to distract themselves from their symptoms.
Abstract: I propose that the ways people respond to their own symptoms of depression influence the duration of these symptoms. People who engage in ruminative responses to depression, focusing on their symptoms and the possible causes and consequences of their symptoms, will show longer depressions than people who take action to distract themselves from their symptoms. Ruminative responses prolong depression because they allow the depressed mood to negatively bias thinking and interfere with instrumental behavior and problem-solving. Laboratory and field studies directly testing this theory have supported its predictions. I discuss how response styles can explain the greater likelihood of depression in women than men. Then I intergrate this response styles theory with studies of coping with discrete events. The response styles theory is compared to other theories of the duration of depression. Finally, I suggest what may help a depressed person to stop engaging in ruminative responses and how response styles for depression may develop.
3,099 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that unipolar women were exposed to more stress than the normal women, had significantly more interpersonal event stress than all others, and tended to have more dependent events than the others.
Abstract: The effect of stressful events on depression has been amply demonstrated, but the opposite relation is also important. I examined event occurrence over 1 year in 14 women with unipolar depression who were compared with demographically matched groups of women with bipolar disorder (n = 11), chronic medical illness (n = 13), or no illness or disorder (n = 22). Interview assessments of life events, severity, and independence of occurrence confirmed the hypothesis that unipolar women were exposed to more stress than the normal women, had significantly more interpersonal event stress than all others, and tended to have more dependent events than the others. The implication is that unipolar women by their symptoms, behaviors, characteristics, and social context generate stressful conditions, primarily interpersonal, that have the potential for contributing to the cycle of symptoms and stress that create chronic or intermittent depression.
1,171 citations
TL;DR: There were few Gender X Family History interactions; the effects of family history of alcoholism were similar for men and women and when gender effects were found, they showed greater family history effects for women.
Abstract: A sample of 253 children of alcoholics (COAs) and 237 children of nonalcoholics (non-COAs) were compared on alcohol and drug use, psychopathology, cognitive ability, and personality. COAs reported more alcohol and drug problems, stronger alcohol expectancies, higher levels of behavioral undercontrol and neuroticism, and more psychiatric distress in relation to non-COAs. They also evidenced lower academic achievement and less verbal ability than non-COAs. COAs were given Diagnostic Interview Schedule alcohol diagnoses more frequently than non-COAs. The relation between paternal alcoholism and offspring alcohol involvement was mediated by behavioral undercontrol and alcohol expectancies. Although gender differences were found, there were few Gender X Family History interactions; the effects of family history of alcoholism were similar for men and women. When gender effects were found, they showed greater family history effects for women.
876 citations
TL;DR: Depressed subjects had less left-sided activation (i.e., more alpha activity) than did normal control subjects, interpreted as indicating a deficit in approach mechanisms in depressed subjects.
Abstract: Baseline resting electroencephalogram activity was recorded with 3 different reference montages from 15 clinically depressed and 13 control subjects. Power in all frequency bands was extracted by fast Fourier transformation. There was a significant Group X Hemisphere interaction in the mid-frontal region, for the alpha band power only. Depressed subjects had less left-sided activation (i.e., more alpha activity) than did normal control subjects. This pattern of diminished left-sided frontal activation is interpreted as indicating a deficit in approach mechanisms in depressed subjects.
829 citations
TL;DR: This work describes an alternative to the approach taken in the rev. 3rd ed.
Abstract: The Axis II Work Group of the Task Force on DSM—IV has expressed concern that antisocial personality disorder (APD) criteria are too long and cumbersome and that they focus on antisocial behaviors rather than personality traits central to traditional conceptions of psychopathy and to international criteria. We describe an alternative to the approach taken in the rev. 3rd ed. of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM—III—R ; American Psychiatric Association, 1987 ), namely, the revised Psychopathy Checklist. We also discuss the multisite APD field trials designed to evaluate and compare four criteria sets: the DSM—III—R criteria, a shortened list of these criteria, the criteria for dyssocial personality disorder from the 10th ed. of the International Classification of Diseases ( World Health Organization, 1990 ), and a 10-item criteria set for psychopathic personality disorder derived from the revised Psychopathy Checklist.
818 citations
TL;DR: It was found that the depressed patients had higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism than did either the psychiatric or normal control subjects, and the anxious patients reported higher level of socially prescribed perfectionism.
Abstract: We tested the hypothesis that self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism are related differentially to unipolar depression. The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale was administered along with measures of depression and anxiety to 22 depressed patients, 22 matched normal control subjects, and 13 anxiety patients. It was found that the depressed patients had higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism than did either the psychiatric or normal control subjects. In addition, depressed patients and anxious patients reported higher levels of socially prescribed perfectionism than did the normal control subjects. The results suggest that various dimensions of perfectionism may play an important role in clinical depression.
527 citations
TL;DR: Results showed that parental alcoholism was a moderate to strong risk factor, with stronger risk associated with recent (rather than remitted) parental alcoholism, and the specificity of risk varied with the outcome measure.
Abstract: This study assessed the magnitude and specificity of parental alcoholism as a risk factor for internalizing symptomatology, externalizing symptomatology, and alcohol and drug use in adolescence. We evaluated parents' and children's reports of symptomatology and children's reports of alcohol and drug use in a community sample of 454 adolescents. The results showed that parental alcoholism was a moderate to strong risk factor, with stronger risk associated with recent (rather than remitted) parental alcoholism. Multivariate analyses showed that the specificity of risk varied with the outcome measure. In predicting externalizing symptomatology, the risk associated with parental alcoholism was mediated by co-occurring parental psychopathology and environmental stress. However, in predicting alcohol use, the father's alcoholism was a specific risk factor above and beyond the more generalized effects of stress and family disruption.
490 citations
TL;DR: Mothers of girls with disordered eating thought their daughters should lose more weight than mothers of girls who were not eating disordered and thought that their daughters were less attractive than the girls judged themselves.
Abstract: We examined features of 77 mothers' attitudes and behavior that relate to disordered eating among their adolescent daughters. Mothers whose daughters reported a level of disordered eating comparable with clinical samples of bulimic patients were compared with mothers whose daughters reported a low level of eating disturbances. As hypothesized, mothers of daughters with disordered eating were more dissatisfied with the general functioning of the family system. Also, mothers whose daughters were eating disordered were themselves more eating disordered and differed in their dieting history compared with mothers of the girls who were not eating disordered. Furthermore, mothers of girls with disordered eating thought their daughters should lose more weight than mothers of girls who were not eating disordered. They also thought that their daughters were less attractive than the girls judged themselves.
486 citations
TL;DR: It is concluded that further work on dissociative processes will provide an important link between clinical and experimental approaches to human cognition, emotion, and personality.
Abstract: We present proposed changes to the dissociative disorders section of the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and review the concept of pathological and nonpathological dissociation, including empirical findings on the relations between trauma and dissociative phenomenology and between dissociation and hypnosis. The most important proposals include the creation of two new diagnostic entities, brief reactive dissociative disorder and transient dissociative disturbance, and the readoption of the criterion of amnesia for a multiple personality disorder diagnosis. We conclude that further work on dissociative processes will provide an important link between clinical and experimental approaches to human cognition, emotion, and personality.
486 citations
TL;DR: The biased interpretation of ambiguity found in currently anxious subjects reflected their anxious mood state, and the difference in interpretative processes between currently anxious and control subjects was not due to response bias and that the interpretative bias was a reasonably general one.
Abstract: In the 1st of 2 experiments, currently clinically anxious, recovered clinically anxious, and normal control subjects were presented with a mixture of unambiguous and ambiguous sentences; both threatening and nonthreatening interpretations were possible for the latter. A subsequent recognition-memory test indicated that the currently anxious subjects were more likely than normal control and recovered anxious subjects to interpret the ambiguous sentences in a threatening fashion rather than in a nonthreatening fashion. This suggests that the biased interpretation of ambiguity found in currently anxious subjects reflected their anxious mood state. A 2nd experiment established that the difference in interpretative processes between currently anxious and control subjects was not due to response bias and that the interpretative bias was a reasonably general one.
TL;DR: The significant V x LS interactions support the vulnerability-stress model of postpartum depression.
Abstract: Demographic, psychiatric, social, cognitive, and life stress variables were used to determine the etiology of depression in childbearing (CB; n = 182) and nonchildbearing (NCB; n = 179) women. Hormonal variables in postpartum depression were also evaluated. In the CB group predictors of depression diagnosis were previous depression, depression during pregnancy, and a Vulnerability (V) x Life Stress (LS) interaction; predictors of depressive symptomatology were previous depression, depressive symptoms during pregnancy, life events, and V x LS. Only estradiol was associated with postpartum depression diagnosis. In the NCB group V X LS was the only predictor of depression diagnosis; depressive symptoms during pregnancy and life events were predictors of depressive symptomatology. Previous findings about depression vulnerability were replicated. The significant V x LS interactions support the vulnerability-stress model of postpartum depression.
TL;DR: The findings suggest that early-onset depression is associated with a greater degree of comorbidity and may represent a more serious form of the disorder.
Abstract: The current and lifetime comorbidity of depressive (i.e., major depressive disorder and dysthymia) with other common mental disorders was examined in community samples of older adolescents (n = 1,710) and adults (n = 2,060). Current and lifetime histories of depression in the adolescents were highly comorbid with several other mental disorders. The adults had a lower but statistically significant degree of comorbidity, primarily with substance use disorder. Depression in both groups was more likely to occur after the other disorder rather than to precede it. Comorbidity did not affect the duration or severity of depression. Comorbidity in the adolescents was associated with greater frequency of suicidal behavior and treatment seeking. The findings suggest that earlyonset depression is associated with a greater degree of comorbidity and may represent a more serious form of the disorder. In this article, which is the second in a series on the comorbidity of unipolar depression, we examine the degree to which unipolar depression (i.e., major depression and dysthymia) is comorbid with other psychiatric disorders in adult and adolescent community samples. To the extent that depression is comorbid with specific disorders, the temporal order of the two disorders (i.e., does depression more often precede the disorder or vice versa?) and the impact of the presence of the second disorder on the phenomenology of depression (e.g., age at onset of first depression and duration and severity of depressive episodes) are described.
TL;DR: The authors investigated selective processing of threat information in persons with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by using a modified Stroop procedure and found that those with PTSD exhibited a longer response latency for color naming of rape-related words than for other target-word types.
Abstract: We investigated selective processing of threat information in persons with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by using a modified Stroop procedure. Subjects were 15 rape victims with PTSD, 13 rape victims without the disorder, and 16 nontraumatized control subjects. They were asked to name the color of four types of words: specific threat (rape-related) words, general threat (related to physical harm and death) words, neutral words, and nonwords. Rape victims with PTSD evidenced a longer response latency for color naming of rape-related words than for other target-word types. Response latencies of non-PTSD victims and nonvictim control subjects did not differ across word types. Possible mechanisms underlying the selective processing of threat material are considered, and clinical implications are discussed.
TL;DR: Onset of depression in the postpartum was predicted by the levels during pregnancy of depressive symptomatology and perceived maternal and paternal care during childhood and recovery from depression during pregnancy was not predicted by a number of psychosocial variables examined.
Abstract: We examined the role of a number of psychosocial variables in the onset of postpartum depression and in recovery from depression that occurs during pregnancy. Women (N = 730) were recruited during pregnancy and were followed through 1 month postpartum. They were assessed on demographic variables and on measures of depressive symptomatology and diagnostic status, perceived stress, marital satisfaction, perceptions of their own parents, dysfunctional cognitions, and coping style. Onset of depression in the postpartum was predicted by the levels during pregnancy of depressive symptomatology and perceived maternal and paternal care during childhood. In contrast, recovery in the postpartum from depression during pregnancy was not predicted by the variables examined in this study. These results are discussed with reference to previous investigations that have examined depression that occurs outside the context of childbirth.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors show that adaptive personality characteristics and positive family support operate prospectively over 4 years in predicting reduced depression, even when prior depression is controlled, and they suggest the potential for a general, adaptively oriented framework applicable to adjustment under both high and low stressors.
Abstract: By extending earlier stress-resistance research with a 1-year time lag, findings with 254 adults show that adaptive personality characteristics and positive family support operate prospectively over 4 years in predicting reduced depression, even when prior depression is controlled. By strengthening knowledge about the determinants and mediational role of coping, the results demonstrate in a 2-group LISREL analysis that the pattern of predictive relations differs under high and low stressors. Under high stressors, personal and social resources relate to future psychological health indirectly, through more adaptive coping strategies. Under low stressors, these resources relate directly to psychological health. The results support the idea that such resources play a causal role in maintaining psychological health, and they suggest the potential for a general, adaptively oriented framework applicable to adjustment under both high and low stressors.
TL;DR: Four issues of key interest with regard to posttraumatic stress disorder in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) are discussed.
Abstract: Four issues of key interest with regard to posttraumatic stress disorder in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) are discussed. These include: (a) how to define the stressor criterion, especially, whether or not the victim's response ought to be included and whether low-magnitude traumas qualify etiologically; (b) the cohesiveness of the syndrome and the validity of items across stressor groups; (c) the position of posttraumatic stress disorder within DSM-IV; and (d) comorbidity with other illnesses.
TL;DR: Startle responses were larger in all aversive affective states than during pleasant imagery, and followup testing indicated that other affective individual differences (depression and anger) may also be related to increased potentiation of startle in negative affect.
Abstract: Potentiation of startle has been demonstrated in experimentally produced aversive emotional states, and clinical reports suggest that potentiated startle may be associated with fear or anxiety. To test the generalizability of startle potentiation across a variety of emotional states as well as its sensitivity to individual differences in fearfulness, the acoustic startle response of 17 high- and 15 low-fear adult subjects was assessed during fear, anger, joy, sadness, pleasant relaxation, and neutral imagery. Startle responses were larger in all aversive affective states than during pleasant imagery. This effect was enhanced among high fear subjects, although followup testing indicated that other affective individual differences (depression and anger) may also be related to increased potentiation of startle in negative affect. Startle latency was reduced during high- rather than low-arousal imagery but was unaffected by emotional valence.
TL;DR: Depressed women different from nondepressed women on several socioeconomic status indicators and the occurrence of obstetric complications, even in this low-risk sample, have implications for the assessment of depression in postpartum women.
Abstract: The prevalence and correlates of postpartum depression were examined in a large (N = 1,033) sample of married, primiparous, middle-class mothers of full-term, healthy infants; 9.3% met modified Research Diagnostic Criteria for depression. However, 39% of the nondepressed women also reported at least 1 somatic symptom. Depressed women whose symptoms were current obtained elevated scores on the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale, as did some women who did not meet depression criteria. Depressed women different from nondepressed women on several socioeconomic status indicators and the occurrence of obstetric complications, even in this low-risk sample. These data have implications for the assessment of depression in postpartum women.
TL;DR: Correlational analyses indicate that many characteristics tested in these measures run together in families, and these traits, taken together, may have joint usefulness for identifying persons with a predisposition to schizophrenia.
Abstract: Schizophrenic probands (n = 17), their first-degree relatives (n = 61), and medically and psychiatrically screened normal control subjects (n = 18) were studied with structured interviews for DSM-III Axis I disorders and schizotypal personality disorder, questionnaire measures of schizotypy, measures of smooth-pursuit eye movement dysfunction, and attention dysfunction. Schizophrenic subjects scored abnormally on essentially all measures. Relatives differed significantly from control subjects on most measures. Correlational analyses indicate that many characteristics tested in these measures run together in families. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that a single vulnerability dimension or typology, presumably in part genetically transmitted, may account for phenotypically distinct abnormalities. These traits, taken together, may have joint usefulness for identifying persons with a predisposition to schizophrenia.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored the relation of child depression to competency feedback in five domains: academic, social, physical attractiveness, conduct, and sports, and found that being nominated as relatively incompetent in multiple domains correspond with higher levels of self-reported depression.
Abstract: The relation of child depression to competency feedback was explored in five domains: academic, social, physical attractiveness, conduct, and sports. Self-reports of depression and peer nominations of competency were obtained from 1,422 elementary school children. Findings supported 4 hypotheses from a competency-based model of child depression. Peer nominations of competency in various domains were negatively related to depression. Being nominated as relatively incompetent in multiple domains corresponded with higher levels of self-reported depression. Being nominated as competent in one or more domains corresponded with lower levels of depression. Individual differences in incompetency were more strongly related to depression than were those in competency, especially for girls. Early intervention in child depression is discussed. Longitudinal and experimental designs are recommended for testing further the competency-based model.
TL;DR: The results suggest that the pessimistic subjective probabilities shown by chronic worriers can be understood using general theories of judgment, specifically, by the use of the availability heuristic.
Abstract: This experiment examines one component of worry, elevated subjective probabilities of negative events, and attempts to elucidate the cognitive processes on which this is based. The results suggest that the pessimistic subjective probabilities shown by chronic worriers can be understood using general theories of judgment, specifically, by the use of the availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). However, it is the availability of a particular pattern of cognitions--an increased accessibility of explanations for why a negative event would occur, combined with a reduced accessibility of explanations for why it would not--that is important. The results are integrated within a description of the worry process, and possible clinical applications through the use of reason-generation techniques are discussed.
TL;DR: It is concluded that postpartum depression may increase risk for later maternal depression and in turn increases risk for child behavior problems, and intervening with women who have experienced a postpartUM depression may reduce likelihood of future depressions and child behavior issues.
Abstract: The consequences of maternal postpartum depression for mothers and children were investigated in a 4 1/2-year follow-up study, which included 70 of 99 women who had participated in an earlier study of postpartum depression. Information about maternal adjustment and depression during the follow-up period and child adjustment at age 4 1/2 years was obtained. Women who had experienced a postpartum depression were predicted to be at increased risk for subsequent depression and poor adjustment of their child. Postpartum depression was directly related to subsequent depression but not child problems. Later depression was related to child problems at 4 1/2 years. We concluded that postpartum depression may increase risk for later maternal depression and in turn increases risk for child behavior problems. Intervening with women who have experienced a postpartum depression may reduce likelihood of future depressions and child behavior problems.
TL;DR: This article found that relatives of patients with schizophrenia made attributions predominantly to factors external, universal, and uncontrollable from their own perspective, and to factors internal, universal and controllable from the patient's perspective.
Abstract: Indexes of expressed emotion (EE) in 58 relatives of patients with schizophrenia were related to those relatives' spontaneously expressed causal beliefs about the illness and about related symptoms and behaviors. Relatives made attributions predominantly to factors external, universal, and uncontrollable from their own perspective, and to factors internal, universal, and uncontrollable from the patient's perspective. Low-EE relatives were similar in their attributions to emotionally overinvolved relatives. Compared with these two groups, critical and/or hostile relatives made more attributions to factors personal to and controllable by the patient. Subsequent analyses suggested that hostile relatives were further characterized by making more attributions to factors internal to the patient and by making attributions with fewer causal elements.
TL;DR: The elements that constitute a scientific taxonomy are outlined and presented with reference to the structure of psychopathologic categorization and diagnosis, as are a number of criteria for evaluating the taxonomy's utility and efficacy.
Abstract: The elements that constitute a scientific taxonomy are outlined and presented with reference to the structure of psychopathologic categorization and diagnosis. The terminology, logic, and conceptual issues associated with clinical classification are discussed. Alternatives for the selection of substantive clinical attributes, the overall structural format into which categories are organized, and construction procedures used in developing a psychopathologic taxonomy are elaborated, as are a number of criteria for evaluating the taxonomy's utility and efficacy.
TL;DR: P predictive precedence of expectancy constructs, operationally defined as cognitive motivations, and drug use was investigated, revealing the presence of expectancy generalization processes consistent with Rotter's (1954) expectancy theory, as well as the unique status of cognitive motivations for alcohol as an independent predictor of problem drug use.
Abstract: The predictive precedence of expectancy constructs, operationally defined as cognitive motivations, and drug use was investigated over a 9-year period from adolescence to adulthood. Alternative predictions from three different classes of theories of expectancy-behavior relations, including expectancy theory, a Skinnerian approach, and a reciprocal determinism perspective, were evaluated. The results are most consistent with the notion based in expectancy theory that cognitive motivations are nonspurious and possibly functionally autonomous influences on the use and abuse of drugs. More limited support is found for the view that drug use leads to cognitive motivations, as postulated in other theoretical perspectives. Other findings reveal the presence of expectancy generalization processes consistent with Rotter's (1954) expectancy theory, as well as the unique status of cognitive motivations for alcohol as an independent predictor of problem drug use.
TL;DR: In this paper, evidence for a diagnostic distinction of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) is reviewed, and alternative conceptualizations and definitions for the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders are considered.
Abstract: Evidence for a diagnostic distinction of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) is reviewed, and alternative conceptualizations and definitions for the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders are considered. Studies suggest that CD and ODD are strongly and developmentally related but clearly different. Factor analyses indicate that distinct covarying groups of ODD and CD symptoms can be identified, but certain symptoms relate to both (particularly mild aggression and lying). Age of onset for ODD is earlier than for most CD symptoms. Nearly all youths with CD have a history of ODD, but not all ODD cases progress to CD. The disorders demonstrate the same forms of parental psychopathology and family adversity but to a greater degree for CD than for ODD. Alternative conceptualizations for the disorders are presented for further study before the introduction of the DSM-IV.
TL;DR: Although schizotypic subjects evidenced greater levels of anxiety and depression, sustained-attention performance was not significantly associated with these mental state factors and utility of the psychometric high-risk strategy in psychopathology research is discussed.
Abstract: We examined sustained attention in 32 schizotypic and 43 normal control subjects from a large, randomly ascertained nonclinical university population. Schizotypy status was determined with the Perceptual Aberration Scale. Sustained attention was measured with the Continuous Performance Test-Identical Pairs. Schizotypic subjects displayed significantly poorer sustained-attention performance than did control subjects, as measured by d and overall hit rate. Although schizotypic subjects evidenced greater levels of anxiety and depression, sustained-attention performance was not significantly associated with these mental state factors. Our results provide evidence for a subtle sustained-attention deficit among schizotypes and are interpreted in light of previous attention research with actual schizophrenic patients as well as children at risk for schizophrenia. Utility of the psychometric high-risk strategy in psychopathology research is discussed.
TL;DR: The results showed that mothers' reports of parenting behaviors that reflect restrictiveness and rejection were related to the development of self-criticism, particularly when received from the same-sex parent.
Abstract: We used a prospective longitudinal design to examine the relation between parenting experiences at age 5 and level of self-criticism at age 12 and the stability of self-criticism from age 12 to age 31 in 156 subjects The results showed that mothers' reports of parenting behaviors that reflect restrictiveness and rejection were related to the development of self-criticism, particularly when received from the same-sex parent Partial correlational analyses revealed that the parenting-self-criticism relations remained significant when the mother's report of the child's early temperament was statistically controlled The results also showed that for women, self-criticism was very stable from early adolescence to young adulthood By contrast, there was no relation between self-criticism at ages 12 and 31 for men; however, there was a strong relation for men between age 12 self-criticism and inhibited aggressive impulses at age 31
TL;DR: It is proposed that exaggerated weight fluctuations are not a natural concomitant of higher body weight but possibly the consequence of a cycle of dieting and overeating, which seems to preclude actual weight loss.
Abstract: Restrained and unrestrained subjects (n = 24) were weighed daily for a 6-week period and again 6 months later in order to determine whether dietary restraint or relative body weight is the better predictor of weight variability. Restraint was a significantly better predictor of naturally occurring weight fluctuations than was relative body weight. Furthermore, the 2 factors of the Restraint Scale, Concern for Dieting and Weight Fluctuations, were both significant predictors of weight variability. We propose that exaggerated weight fluctuations are not a natural concomitant of higher body weight but possibly the consequence of a cycle of dieting and overeating, which seems to preclude actual weight loss.