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Showing papers in "Journal of Advertising Research in 2006"



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors give an update on the different methods used for measuring emotions in advertising and discuss their validity and applicability, and draw conclusions on the relation between emotions and traditional measures of advertising effectiveness.
Abstract: In the latest decades, emotions have become an important research topic in all behavioral sciences, and not the least in advertising. Yet, advertising literature on how to measure emotions is not straightforward. The major aim of this article is to give an update on the different methods used for measuring emotions in advertising and to discuss their validity and applicability. We further draw conclusions on the relation between emotions and traditional measures of advertising effectiveness. We finally formulate recommendations on the use of the different methods and make suggestions for future research.

314 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a detailed interpretation of a single newsgroup posting is presented to demonstrate the level of cultural nuance required for quality netnographic interpretation and the potential of the method for generating technocultural insights to guide advertising copywriters.
Abstract: Copywriters ground advertising insight in their understanding of the consumer. In contemporary consumer culture, much meaningful consumption takes places in a communal, collective, and tribal environment. Advertisers and copywriters in particular would benefit from a culturally-grounded understanding of the language, meanings, rituals, and practices of the consumer tribes with which advertising seeks to communicate. This article suggests that the rigorous application of netnography—the online practice of anthropology—could be helpful to advertisers and copywriters as they seek this enhanced understanding. Netnography is faster, simpler, timelier, and much less expensive than traditional ethnography. Because it is unelicited, it is more naturalistic and unobtrusive than focus groups, surveys, or interviews. However, it still largely text-based, anonymous, poses ethical issues, is often overwhelming, can invite superficial and decontextualized interpretation, and requires considerable researcher acuity. In a detailed interpretation of a single newsgroup posting, I seek to demonstrate the level of cultural nuance required for quality netnographic interpretation and the potential of the method for generating technocultural insights to guide advertising copywriters.

254 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine whether higher engagement initiated by contextual relevance increases advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, attitude toward the message (AM), and attitude towards the advertisement (AAD).
Abstract: Engagement plays a contingent role in the effectiveness of advertising processing that corresponds to the message effects created during the process. Such message effects are advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, attitude toward the message (AM), and attitude toward the advertisement (AAD). This study9s objective is to examine whether higher engagement initiated by contextual relevance increases advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, AM, and AAD. The results have revealed that higher engagement increases advertising recall, message involvement, message believability, AM, and AAD. Moreover, message involvement mediates the engagement effect on message believability, whereas AM mediates message believability on AAD. Implications based on the findings demonstrate the importance of engagement as a driver of message involvement and a metric for advertising effectiveness.

238 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the importance of emotion in the consumer-brand relationship is established, and a new working model of the ways in which emotional and rational processes work and interact together in creating brand relationships is proposed.
Abstract: Our main purpose is to address these questions: how do emotions interact with and influence so-called “rational” processes; which are more important in brand communication and advertising? We first establish the importance of emotion in the consumer-brand relationship and then review how to measure emotion based on the thinking included in “Lovemarks” theory, i.e., that brands these days need not just to be respected but must also build a strong, loving relationship with consumers. Three key advances are then made: (1) We demonstrate the benefits of an approach for measuring emotion that combines qualitative insights with quantitative statistical confidence. (2) We show that the actual contribution of emotional factors to brand decision making is significantly greater than functional factors and ranges from 63–85 percent, depending on the product category. (3) We also propose a new working model of the ways in which emotional and rational processes work and interact together in creating brand relationships. The case studies used draw from research on magazine titles, breakfast cereals, and cars, but we believe have a wider application for innovation and creativity in marketing and communication generally.

208 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article found that the elements of corporate reputation that seem to matter most to consumers in practice are perceptions of fairness toward consumers, and perceptions of corporate success and leadership, rather than public responsibility.
Abstract: Do consumers really care about corporate reputation when it comes to purchasing decisions? This study tests that hypothesis by comparing consumers9 perceptions of companies to the consumer equity of brands owned by those companies, using international studies of brand equity and corporate reputation. The results show that poor corporate reputation makes building strong brands difficult, but a good reputation is no guarantee of success. The elements of corporate reputation that seem to matter most to consumers in practice are perceptions of fairness toward consumers, and perceptions of corporate success and leadership, rather than public responsibility. Consumers want good business practice but when it comes to brand strength and purchasing, more personally relevant factors take precedence. So pushing a corporate social responsibility agenda to consumers may not reap the strongest rewards. But “ethical” brands that bring no penalty in cost or quality are likely to be more successful.

181 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, an on-site study at a sponsored event was conducted to examine the relationship among event attendees, sponsorship, community involvement, and the title sponsor9s brand with respect to purchase intentions.
Abstract: With an on-site study at a sponsored event, we construct and test competing models to examine the relationship among event attendees, sponsorship, community involvement, and the title sponsor9s brand with respect to purchase intentions. We show that an attendee9s enthusiasm and activeness in the area of the sponsored event and knowledge of the sponsor9s products positively influence the attendee9s desire that a sponsor be involved with the community. Then, we show that attendees who are more community-minded have a more positive opinion of the sponsor as a result of their event experience; a better opinion of the sponsor contributes to increased intentions to purchase the sponsor9s products. Results from this framework indicate that event marketing, in conjunction with consumers who are enthusiastic, active, and knowledgeable about the sponsor and event, serves as a valuable lever to engage the consumer.

160 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors show that emotional advertising is not penalized by recall, and that emotional content in well-executed commercials can actually boost recall, when used in combination with other measures, is a valid measure of advertising effectiveness and, as the analysis here illustrates, does not miss the emotion in advertising that builds brands.
Abstract: Recall, one of the key metrics in advertising testing, has been criticized over the years as favoring rational advertising over emotional advertising. An analysis and reconsideration of the available evidence show that emotional advertising is not penalized by recall, and that emotional content in well-executed commercials can actually boost recall. Strong empirical evidence shows that recall, when used in combination with other measures, is a valid measure of advertising effectiveness and, as the analysis here illustrates, does not miss the emotion in advertising that builds brands.

153 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors found that favorability toward brands is strongly correlated with emotional content in advertising, but not with factual content, which suggests that high attention weakens the effect of emotional content, so the implications are that advertising aimed at building strong brand relationships might be more effective if processed at lower levels of attention.
Abstract: This article explores the way in which advertising builds brand relationships. Behavioral research by Watzlawick, Bavelas, and Jackson (1967) suggests it is the emotional not the rational content in communication that drives relationships. This assertion is tested using a new research copy-testing system—the CEP™Test—and the results confirm that favorability toward brands is strongly correlated with emotional content in advertising, but not with factual content. However, learning from psychology indicates that high attention weakens the effect of emotional content, so the implications are that advertising aimed at building strong brand relationships might be more effective if processed at lower levels of attention.

149 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined outcomes associated with an automobile manufacturer's sponsorship of a six-day charitable sporting event and found evidence for inclusion of event marketing in the company9s promotional mix and indicate that experience with the sponsor9s products during the event may enhance event outcomes.
Abstract: The number of companies sponsoring events has increased over the past decade. Yet, for many firms it is unclear how the effectiveness of event marketing activities can be measured. The study examines outcomes associated with an automobile manufacturer9s sponsorship of a six-day charitable sporting event. Data for the study were collected from a sample of 565 spectators in five cities during the six-day event. Results provide evidence for inclusion of event marketing in the company9s promotional mix and indicate that experience with the sponsor9s products during the event may enhance event outcomes. The role of event marketing as a form of communication is discussed, and recommendations and directions for future research are suggested.

135 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper used the Anholt Nation Brands Index to measure the power and appeal of America's brand image by surveying 10,000 consumers in 10 countries on their perceptions of America cultural, political, commercial and human assets, investment potential, and tourist appeal.
Abstract: This article uses the Anholt Nation Brands Index to measure the power and appeal of America's brand image by surveying 10,000 consumers in 10 countries on their perceptions of America's cultural, political, commercial and human assets, investment potential, and tourist appeal. The findings show that while U.S. exports, investment, immigration, tourism, and people rank relatively high among the other nations indexed, the global opinion of U.S. governance and culture and heritage are very low. Recommendations for improving America's global brand image are presented.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper investigated whether the form of negative information about a celebrity (other-or self-oriented) results in differential evaluations of the brand endorsed by the celebrity, and found that both Japanese and Americans view endorsed products more positively in the presence of selforiented negative information, a possible suspension of the famous fundamental attribution error in human judgment.
Abstract: This research involves a comparative study conducted in the United States and Japan to investigate whether the form of negative information about a celebrity (other- or self-oriented) results in differential evaluations of the brand endorsed by the celebrity. Surprisingly, we find that both Japanese and Americans view endorsed products more positively in the presence of self-oriented negative information, a possible suspension of the famous fundamental attribution error in human judgment. Implications for advertising practitioners are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyze the effect of ambushers' attacks on a business-to-business relationship and confirm the potential to approach the sponsorship relationship as a co-marketing alliance to optimize co-branding objectives and to negate the effects of ambush.
Abstract: This global study analyzes ambush marketing from the perspective of the sponsor and sport entity as partners in a business-to-business relationship. While it remains a real threat to the strategic co-branding objectives sought from the relationship, ambush is not necessarily as dangerous to sponsors as it has been in the past. Sponsors can use ambushers' attacks to their advantage by drawing attention to issues of legitimacy, by enhancing brand or corporate authenticity, and by appealing to consumers increasingly wary of disingenuous brands. Our findings confirm the potential to approach the sponsorship relationship as a co-marketing alliance to optimize co-branding objectives and to negate the effects of ambush.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors defines the integrated marketing process and shows how it can be used to improve advertising, and discusses how integrated marketing thinks about brands, the consumer experience with products or services, and contact points.
Abstract: This article defines the integrated marketing process and shows how it can be used to improve advertising. It discusses how integrated marketing thinks about brands, the consumer experience with products or services, and contact points. The role of media in delivering messages is reconsidered and ways of measuring the engagement with a medium are discussed. Integrated marketing also addresses the relationship between brands and customized contact points.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine and comment upon the practice of sport sponsorship management from an English perspective, specifically in soccer, using face-to-face interviews and questionnaires, 43 corporations provided information about their sponsorship programs.
Abstract: Following recent increases in the financial value of sport sponsorship programs, some commentators believe this has been accompanied by the development of sponsorship management practices. Despite this, there are still widespread concerns about some of these practices. This study therefore sets out to examine and comment upon the practice of sponsorship management from an English perspective, specifically in soccer. This is an area of sponsorship that has previously been examined and is a sport in which there have been significant commercial developments in recent years. Using face-to-face interviews and questionnaires, 43 corporations provided information about their sponsorship programs. While there is some evidence of good practice, a continuing failure to effectively manage sport sponsorship programs is clear. The study thus concludes by making recommendations about the future development of sport sponsorship management.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors analyzed audience reactions to 3,000 commercials broadcast on Dutch TV in the period 1992-2001 and found that over time, commercials were perceived as less likeable and less effective, while the predictive value of different advertising likeability dimensions remained stable over time.
Abstract: In the early 1990s various studies showed the importance of advertising likeability for advertising effectiveness. Has the role of advertising likeability changed since then? We analyzed audience reactions to 3,000 commercials broadcast on Dutch TV in the period 1992–2001—a period in which the amount of media and advertising boomed. Over time, commercials were perceived as less likeable and less effective. The predictive value of different advertising likeability dimensions, however, remained stable over time. We also found that the influence of advertising likeability differed for different types of products.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors studied heavy and light consumer acceptors of SMS direct advertising texts and SMS direct marketing prompts to watch TV programs and found that younger consumers higher in social class are the most willing to accept SMSdirect advertising text and respond favorably to SMS-TV integrated marketing communications.
Abstract: As a direct marketing tool, electronic Short Message Service (SMS) is likely to surpass internet-based advertising before the end of 2006. This article profiles heavy and light consumer acceptors of SMS direct advertising texts and SMS direct marketing prompts to watch TV programs. The article includes empirical findings of practitioner campaign evaluations of SMS-TV direct marketing campaigns in U.K. and U.S. markets. The results support the view that younger consumers higher in social class are the most willing to accept SMS direct advertising text and respond favorably to SMS-TV integrated marketing communications. The article closes with a call for true experiments to validate consumer acceptance and use of SMS-TV interactive, commercial, communications via split-run testing.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors found that plausibility-based inferences, whether correct or incorrect, can have as much influence on attributions of sponsorship as actual exposure to genuine sponsorship information, and the plausibility effect was equally pronounced for actual sponsors and for foils.
Abstract: Event sponsors often do not receive proper credit for their efforts. This issue was examined in a field study involving over 300 baseball fans attending minor league games during the summer season. Signal detection analyses reveal that, even among such sports fans, the ability to correctly discriminate actual official sponsors of the home team from matched foils, although above chance, was rather poor. Consistent with recent laboratory findings, sponsor identification responses were further found to be heavily influenced by the mere plausibility of the brand as a potential sponsor. This plausibility effect was equally pronounced for actual sponsors and for foils. The phenomenon seems to be driven by a reliance on plausibility-based inferences that was widespread across respondents (as opposed to limited to a few). These plausibility-based inferences, whether correct or incorrect, can have as much influence on attributions of sponsorship as actual exposure to genuine sponsorship information. Implications for potential sponsors and properties are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report two studies showing that a brand crisis changes consumer perceptions and the game rules of the entire product category, and the effects on competing brands differ depending on similarity to the brand in crisis.
Abstract: Negative publicity is increasing in frequency to become part of the everyday lives of consumers and everyday business of brands. Previous research reports several negative effects on the focal brand and tests strategies to cope with one9s own brand crisis. But one question needs examining: how does a brand crisis affect the product category and competing brands? This article reports two studies showing that a brand crisis changes consumer perceptions and the game rules of the entire product category. The effects on competing brands differ depending on similarity to the brand in crisis. Implications for advertising, positioning, and tracking are reported in the study9s findings.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the effects of popular music in advertising to determine both the theoretical and practical implications of advertising using popular music, and found that song vocals, either original or altered, are more effective stimuli of advertising effects than instrumentals or no music.
Abstract: This study examines the effects of popular music in advertising to determine both the theoretical (the effect of popular music on the processing of advertising messages) and practical (the design of more effective advertisements using popular music) implications. An experiment is reported that tested the effects of three integrations of popular music in advertising: original lyrics, altered lyrics, and instrumentals (plus a control treatment with no music) on attention and memory. The results indicated that song vocals, either original or altered, are more effective stimuli of advertising effects than instrumentals or no popular music.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the individual-difference antecedents of attitude toward advertising have been investigated in the context of consumer purchasing behavior and the freedom of the advertising industry in placing its messages in media outlets.
Abstract: Attitude toward advertising has been widely researched in the last few decades. Its ubiquitous effect on the advertising industry manifests itself in the domain of consumer purchasing behavior and in the freedom of the industry in placing its messages in media outlets. Although the relationship of demographic variables with attitude toward advertising has been explored in past research, psychographic variables have not been looked at in the context of their effect on the construct. This article studies the individual-difference antecedents of attitude toward advertising. In addition to the traditional demographic variables, psychographic antecedents are suggested based on past theory.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors examined the process by which audiences integrate expert and consumer endorsements into their product evaluations and how endorsement consensus affects this process, and found that positive consumer endorsements and higher perceived credibility of consumer endorsements, rather than expert endorsements, enhance audiences' behavioral intents when audiences were already interested in the endorsed product.
Abstract: This study examines the process by which audiences integrate expert and consumer endorsements into their product evaluations and how endorsement consensus affects this process. The results suggest that positive expert and consumer endorsements both enhance audiences' attitudes toward the endorsed product. However, positive consumer endorsements and higher perceived credibility of consumer endorsements, rather than expert endorsements, enhance audiences' behavioral intents when audiences are already interested in the endorsed product.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors explored the question of whether masculinity/femininity at the cultural level can influence responses to advertisements employing image and utilitarian appeals, presumably through its effect on individual-level self-construals with regard to masculinity and femininity.
Abstract: This study explored the question of whether masculinity/femininity at the cultural level can influence responses to advertisements employing image and utilitarian appeals, presumably through its effect on individual-level self-construals with regard to masculinity/femininity. An experiment showed that participants from the United States, considered to be a predominantly “masculine” culture, liked the utilitarian appeal advertisement better and rated it more believable than the image appeal advertisement. In addition, they liked the image appeal advertisement more and found it more believable when it was preceded by a utilitarian appeal advertisement than when it came first. In contrast, participants from Taiwan, considered a predominantly “androgynous” culture, responded equally well to both advertising appeal types, and presentation order did not influence their evaluations. Ethnographic interviews were included to provide emic perspectives from consumers, depicting the subjective significance of experiences for consumers in both cultures. Cultural masculinity/femininity appears to be an important factor to consider when formulating advertising appeals.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the persuasive effects of a message that is presented either as advertising or publicity, and study whether sequencing (i.e., advertising then publicity or publicity-then-advertising) matters in integrated marketing.
Abstract: The purpose of this research is twofold: (1) to examine the persuasive effects of a message that is presented either as advertising or publicity, and (2) to study whether sequencing (i.e., advertising-then-publicity or publicity-then-advertising) matters in integrated marketing. Specifically, this research tests (1) whether there is a difference between advertising and publicity on message acceptance and message response, and (2) whether the sequencing of publicity and advertising affects message processing. Four dependent variables are studied: message strength, perceived credibility, attitude toward the destination, and purchase intent. Results suggest that the sequence, publicity-then-advertising, is most effective at persuading potential customers to visit a tourist destination.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the benefits of an approach to market-oriented ethnographic research that leads to insights somewhat different than those provided by two dominant approaches in applied ethnography are discussed and illustrated.
Abstract: This article discusses and illustrates the benefits of an approach to market-oriented ethnographic research that leads to insights somewhat different than those provided by two dominant approaches in applied ethnography. Our approach privileges relationships and participation in relatedness as the object of analysis. This contrasts with the macro-level approach of trying to “get inside the consumer9s head” and also contrasts with micro-level approaches that narrowly focus on “the consumer9s feelings about my brand.” The insights our meso-level approach provides are enhanced understanding of the place of firm-provided resources (products, services, symbols, slogans, environments, etc.) in the conduct of everyday consumers9 lives in consumer centric marketspaces. We illustrate our meso-level approach drawing on an empirical illustration of homemade food preparation and related managerial opportunities.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the influence of subjective age on various old age-appropriate consumer behaviors, interest in age-segmented stimuli (senior discounts), and responses to old-age stereotypes in advertisements is examined.
Abstract: Subjective age has been an important construct in studies of older consumers. The present study builds upon previous research by providing theory-based consumer behavior consequences of subjective age. Using both empirical and humanistic designs, the study examines the influence of subjective age on various old age–appropriate consumer behaviors, interest in age-segmented stimuli (senior discounts), and responses to old-age stereotypes in advertisements. The study findings suggest implications for theory and practice. Directions for future research are also suggested.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a biologically-based measure of audience engagement was proposed based on a neuroscience informed combination of signal processing methods that yield a continuous time-locked index of synchrony plus intensity leading to engagement from four noninvasive wireless biosensors.
Abstract: The present study presents a biologically based measure of audience engagement. The measure is based on a neuroscience informed combination of signal processing methods that yield a continuous time-locked index of synchrony plus intensity leading to engagement from four noninvasive wireless biosensors. The study compared two television commercials in several different contexts. The results suggest that levels of engagement were significantly different depending on the context of the presentation. The results highlight the importance of context in study design and support the use of a biologically based measure of audience engagement.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A repeat audit of the use of brand portfolios by leading companies using exactly the same method used over a decade ago reveals much change. as discussed by the authors investigates if and how leading companies have responded in the deployment of their brand portfolios.
Abstract: The stock market response to corporate scandals and the use of the internet by pressure groups have sensitized boards to the risk of reputation loss. Particularly at risk are companies using corporate brands whose fame and spread makes them particularly vulnerable. This study looks at these and other pressures on branding and investigates if and how leading companies have responded in the deployment of their brand portfolios. A repeat audit of the use of brand portfolios by leading companies using exactly the same method used over a decade ago reveals much change. Brand structures of the 20 companies investigated have indeed changed but not uniformly in extent or direction.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of web advertising and product publicity on trust, message believability, and attitudes toward web advertising has been examined, and the results suggest that perceptions of trust toward the marketing communication forms are the most influential factors when integrating product publicity and advertising.
Abstract: This study examines the within-participants effects of web advertising and product publicity and the between-participants effects of similar versus varied web product publicity and advertising messages on audiences9 perceived trust, message believability, and attitudes toward web advertising and product publicity. The results suggest that perceptions of trust toward the marketing communication forms are the most influential factors when integrating product publicity and advertising. When audiences determine their perceived trust toward advertising and product publicity messages, it does not really matter what the messages are. Positive increments in attitude toward the article and message believability toward the advertisement are evident, however, in the varied messages condition, compared to the similar messages condition.