Showing papers in "Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma in 2013"
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the mediating effects of insecure attachment and early maladaptive schemas on the relationship between CEA and IPV-V and perpetration in college women.
Abstract: Theoretical and empirical research suggests possible pathways between women's experiences of childhood emotional abuse (CEA) and later intimate partner violence victimization (IPV-V) and perpetration (IPV-P), including attachment style and early maladaptive schemas. This study tested a model examining the unique mediating effects of insecure attachment and early maladaptive schemas on the relationship between CEA and IPV-V (n = 396) or IPV-P (n = 409) in college women. Contrary to hypotheses that both attachment style and maladaptive schema endorsement would mediate the relationship between CEA and IPV-V and IPV-P, regression analyses indicated the disconnection/rejection schema domain was the only significant mediator between CEA and IPV-V (p = .01). This same relation held for childhood emotional abuse and IPV-P (p < .001). These findings provide preliminary clinical utility for examining schema endorsement, the use of schema therapy (Young, Klosko, & Weishar, 2003), or both with women who have emotiona...
73 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a relational approach is proposed to address possible gaps in current humanitarian approaches, and current gaps and possible ways forward in research studying this group, starting from relational approach, are discussed.
Abstract: Worldwide, about 250,000 children are employed in armed factions. Their time in the army or rebel group charges them with a range of difficult and possibly traumatizing experiences. Moreover, when returning from the armed group, they often encounter difficulties reintegrating into their community and familial context, in particular social processes of stigmatization, discrimination, and expulsion. This article frames these difficulties within the broader social context, where organized violence induces deeply rooted processes of collective trauma on entire communities. Elaborating on diverse initiatives supporting the rehabilitation and reintegration processes of former child soldiers, a relational approach is put forward to address possible gaps in current humanitarian approaches. Additionally, current gaps and possible ways forward in research studying this group, starting from a relational approach, are discussed.
65 citations
TL;DR: For instance, this paper offered Narrative Exposure Therapy for Forensic Offender Rehabilitation (FORNET) to 15 ex-combatants with the goal of reducing traumatic stress and appetitive aggression compared to "treatment as usual".
Abstract: Former child soldiers and ex-combatants are at high risk of developing trauma-related disorders and appetitive aggression, which reduce successful integration into peaceful societies. In a randomized controlled clinical trial, we offered Narrative Exposure Therapy for Forensic Offender Rehabilitation (FORNET) to 15 ex-combatants with the goal of reducing traumatic stress and appetitive aggression compared to “treatment as usual.” Measures included the PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview and the Appetitive Aggression Scale assessed prior to treatment and 2 weeks and 6 months after the treatment. We also assessed closeness to combatants as an index of reintegration. The treatment group reported reduced PTSD symptoms and less contact with combatants. Appetitive aggression decreased substantially in both groups. The results indicate that it is feasible to add psychological treatment to facilitate the reintegration process. We wish to thank the former combatants and former child soldiers who participated in this stud...
61 citations
TL;DR: Results suggest that although cultural expectations influence their coping strategies, West African–born men and women face different realities, with women reporting multiple instances of abuse and a sense of frustration with the existing options for assistance.
Abstract: Although the number of African immigrants arriving to the United States has increased significantly, there has been little investigation regarding their experiences of intimate partner violence or coping strategies. This study used focus groups and individual interviews to explore intimate partner violence among 32 heterosexual West African immigrants. Results suggest that although cultural expectations influence their coping strategies, West African-born men and women face different realities, with women reporting multiple instances of abuse and a sense of frustration with the existing options for assistance. Although participants discussed multilevel support structures within the immediate West African community to address intimate partner violence, all of these options maintained a gender hierarchy, leaving women dissatisfied. Challenges and barriers to partner violence resolution and coping strategies are identified. Results are examined in terms of their implications for addressing the needs of this underserved population. Implications for future research and services are discussed and highlighted.
60 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that acceptance of rape myth acceptance was positively correlated with psychopathy, and perpetrators scored higher on both constructs, possibly suggesting that this myth is related to a larger tendency to excuse aggressive behavior.
Abstract: Perpetrators of sexual aggression consistently report higher scores on measures of psychopathy and acceptance of rape myths relative to nonperpetrators. However, less is known about psychopathy among nonincarcerated individuals and the relation between the two constructs has not been empirically examined among college perpetrators. To address this gap, both constructs were measured in a sample (N = 308) of college men. Rape myth acceptance was positively correlated with psychopathy, and perpetrators scored higher on both constructs. Myths transferring responsibility to victims were related to Factor 1 psychopathy (i.e., callous and manipulative traits). The myth that “rape is trivial” was associated with Factor 1 and Factor 2 (i.e., impulsive and antisocial behavior), possibly suggesting that this myth is related to a larger tendency to excuse aggressive behavior. Although both constructs distinguished perpetrators when considered individually, rape myth acceptance did not explain unique variance in the p...
59 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined individual perceptions of domestic violence victims who remain in abusive relationships and found that students moderately support domestic violence myths and that myth promotion is associated with support for increased criminal justice penalties such as prosecution of mothers and approval of delayed police response in cases of repeat victimization.
Abstract: Prior research shows that individual perceptions of victims play an integral role in the societal response to domestic violence, as well as victims' responses to their own victimization. However, little research has specifically examined individual perceptions of domestic violence victims who remain in abusive relationships. This study begins to fill the void in the literature by examining college students' attitudes toward battered women. Specifically, the study considers whether students adhere to common myths associated with battering and if myths lead college students to view domestic violence victims as “blameworthy.” The study relies on a sample of 370 university students attending a large Southern metropolitan university. Findings indicate that students moderately support domestic violence myths and that myth promotion is associated with support for increased criminal justice penalties such as prosecution of mothers and approval of delayed police response in cases of repeat victimization. Implicati...
55 citations
TL;DR: This mixed-methods study examined associations between prejudice events and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among 382 lesbians, gays, and bisexuals (LGBs) and 126 heterosexuals and found that White LGBs were more likely than White heterosexuals to encounter a prejudice-related qualifying event.
Abstract: This mixed-methods study examined associations between prejudice events and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among 382 lesbians, gays, and bisexuals (LGB) and 126 heterosexuals. Using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, we assessed PTSD but relaxed Criterion A1, that is, allowed prejudice events that did not involve threat to life or physical integrity to also qualify as traumatic. First, we tested whether exposure to prejudice events differed with respect to sexual orientation and race. White LGBs were more likely than White heterosexuals to encounter a prejudice event, but Black and Latino LGBs were no more likely than White LGBs to experience a prejudice event. Second, we used qualitative analysis to examine the prejudice events that precipitated relaxed Criterion A1 PTSD among 8 participants. Two specific themes emerged: the need to make major changes and compromised sense of safety and security following exposure to the prejudice event.
51 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the mediating role of parenting styles in the transmission of maternal trauma to children and found that mothers who experienced interpersonal trauma were more likely to have an authoritarian parenting style, including verbal hostility, physical coercion, and low nurturance.
Abstract: Although the intergenerational transmission of trauma has been well documented, the pathways by which trauma symptoms are passed between parents and children remain unclear. This study examined the mediating role of parenting styles in the transmission of maternal trauma to children. Participants were a sample of 105 mothers of toddlers (18–30 months old). Mothers who had experienced interpersonal trauma were more likely to have an authoritarian parenting style, including verbal hostility, physical coercion, and low nurturance. Verbal hostility especially predicted more prevalent and increasing toddler symptoms associated with affective, hyperactive, and oppositional defiant disorders. Thus, the verbal hostility component of authoritarian parenting could serve as a major intergenerational pathway between maternal trauma and early child symptoms.
49 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that former child soldiers of Uganda with military rank reported committing a greater variety of violent acts compared to those without rank, and that the potential for rapid development of appetitive aggression is rewarded with higher social status in war-afflicted communities.
Abstract: Committing violent acts can be appealing, fascinating, exciting, and addictive (i.e., appetitive). Cultural settings that accept violence as a means to power and success promote this appetitive form of aggression. Former child soldiers of Uganda with military rank reported committing a greater variety of violent acts compared to those without rank. They experienced aggressive behavior as more positive than both those without rank and controls who had never been involved in armed groups. The relation between the number of individually committed offense types and appetitive aggression is weaker in former child soldiers without rank compared to those with rank. This indicates that the potential for rapid development of appetitive aggression is rewarded with higher social status in war-afflicted communities.
41 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of family, peer, and community relations after reintegration on psychosocial outcomes: hope, functional impairment, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Abstract: The experience of child soldiers during postwar civilian reintegration is recognized as a major contributor to mental health. For some children, postwar social relations may be more important than war trauma in determining psychosocial well-being. Mixed methods incorporating epidemiology and qualitative case studies were employed to evaluate the effects of family, peer, and community relations after reintegration on psychosocial outcomes: hope, functional impairment, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Participants were 142 child soldiers, including 9 qualitative case studies. Peer support predicted increased hope, decreased functional impairment, and decreased PTSD symptoms. Conversely, problems with peer relations predicted less hope and more PTSD symptoms. Maximizing peer support and minimizing stigma from peers should be prioritized within psychosocial reintegration programs, especially among former child soldiers with PTSD.
40 citations
TL;DR: International research on child soldiers might serve to inform research on gang-involved youth in the United States, and the importance of understanding trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress reactions as both risks for and consequences of participation in both forms of armed groups is discussed.
Abstract: This article examines ways in which international research on child soldiers might serve to inform research on gang-involved youth in the United States In particular, we discuss the importance of understanding trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress reactions as both risks for and consequences of participation in both forms of armed groups In addition, we point to the value of expanding our view of trauma to include dimensions that have yielded important insights in the study of child soldiers, including developmental trauma disorder, perpetration-induced trauma, and the unique sequelae of sexual victimization for girls The roles of ethnic pride and ideology, moral agency, and the processes that promote desistance and reintegration of former child soldiers and gang members are discussed Finally, we suggest that future research on children in armed groups should give consideration not only to psychological constructs like resilience and post-traumatic growth, but to social forces that can promote pro
TL;DR: This article examined how proactive and reactive aggression related to traditional bullying and cyberbullying Participants were 851 students in Grades 6 through 8 who completed a survey that assessed bullying behaviors, proactive aggression, and reactive aggressiveness.
Abstract: This study examined how proactive and reactive aggression related to traditional bullying and cyberbullying Participants were 851 students in Grades 6 through 8 who completed a survey that assessed bullying behaviors, proactive aggression, and reactive aggression Most of these students were Caucasian and from a rural background For both traditional bullying and cyberbullying groups, uninvolved students were found to have significantly lower proactive and reactive aggression than bullies and bully-victims Further, it was found that for traditional and cyberbullying groups, bully-victims had significantly higher proactive and reactive aggression than bullies Implications and future directions are discussed
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors assessed how exposure to domestic violence during early childhood and increases in exposure over time influenced toddlers' behavior and peer problems, physical health, and cognitive abilities in middle childhood.
Abstract: This study assessed how exposure to domestic violence (DV) during early childhood and increases in exposure over time influenced toddlers' behavior and peer problems, physical health, and cognitive abilities in middle childhood. Data from three waves of the survey component of “Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three-City Study” were assessed. Thirty-five percent of the 2- to 4-year-olds had mothers who reported DV victimization; 16% reported an increase in DV victimization over 2 years. Opposing past literature, none of the middle childhood outcomes were significantly influenced by early DV exposure. However, increases in mother's DV victimization from 1999 to 2001 significantly increased children's internalizing and externalizing problems and marginally decreased their school engagement in middle childhood in 2005.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reviewed the literature and discussed the present understanding of these 7 domains and alluding to the importance of clinicians understanding the complexity and diversity of development trauma outcomes.
Abstract: Developmental trauma disorder is a provisional disorder that characterizes multiple trauma exposure that impairs certain domains of human development. These domains are attachment, cognition, behavior regulation, affect regulation, self-concept, dissociation, and biological functioning and maturation. This article reviews the literature and discusses the present understanding of these 7 domains. It discusses the effects of developmental trauma exposure on each domain and alludes to the importance of clinicians understanding the complexity and diversity of development trauma outcomes.
TL;DR: It is indicated that even short-term intervention could result in meaningful change in key aspects of child functioning, if they participated in the program.
Abstract: This study assessed whether participation in an intervention program enhanced social competence in 113 preschool-aged children who were exposed to intimate partner violence. Change in competence was evaluated from baseline to approximately five weeks postbaseline and compared preschool children who did and did not receive intervention services. Protective factors, such as exposure to less severe violence, were identified that predicted change in competence scores. Results indicated that children with the highest social competence pre-intervention exhibited a significant increase in their postintervention scores, if they participated in the program. The extent of this change was predicted by a higher preintervention score and exposure to less severe violence. This study indicates that even short-term intervention could result in meaningful change in key aspects of child functioning.
TL;DR: This article explored an intervention that placed girls' participation as a central organizing principle, and examined how young mothers transformed their identity and membership within communities of return through drama, songs and poetry, and engagement in social actions.
Abstract: Experience of traumatic stressors within armed groups can negatively impact social cognitions of mastery, self-efficacy, and control. This could be compounded by postreturn conditions of stigma, little access to education, and limited means of livelihood. We explore an intervention that placed girls’ participation as a central organizing principle. Based on study reports and ethnographic field work, we examine how young mothers transformed their identity and membership within communities of return through drama, songs and poetry, and engagement in social actions. Meaningful participation offers a culturally grounded intervention in which the impacts of traumatic stressors on individual functioning and the social relational world are directly targeted, resulting in a positive modification of developmental trajectories for young women and, ultimately, their children.
TL;DR: The authors used data from a 13-year longitudinal study of adolescent health to examine the catalyst model and found that adult criminality was best explained by a confluence of genetic and proximal social risk factors.
Abstract: The catalyst model suggests that adult criminality arises from the interaction of genetic and proximal social influences such as family influences, but that distal social influences such as media exposure have only negligible influence. This article uses data from a 13-year longitudinal study of adolescent health to examine the catalyst model. As expected by the catalyst model, adult criminality was best explained by a confluence of genetic and proximal social risk factors. The influence of media exposure on adult criminality was negligible. Implications of these findings for both theory and policy are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, a representative survey of youth in northern Uganda suggest that former female child soldiers experience a range of distress symptoms, have initial problems reintegrating, and have fewer education and employment opportunities than males.
Abstract: Findings from a representative survey of youth in northern Uganda suggest that former female child soldiers experience a range of distress symptoms, have initial problems reintegrating, and have fewer education and employment opportunities than males. Given the multiple layers of needs, the findings pose a question of where best to intervene. Would broad-based economic programs address this population's poverty while also indirectly addressing mental health symptoms by reducing stress and improving social capital? This article describes how these findings led to the development and evaluation of an economic and social program designed to reduce daily stressors and improve this population's economic, social, and psychological outcomes through livelihoods training, a cash grant for small business development, and follow-up support.
TL;DR: There was a significant difference in depression, anxiety, and burnout across nationality, and traumatic exposure increased the risk for anxiety, depression, and PTSD.
Abstract: Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) serve Iraqis living in Jordan as “guests.” In 2008, 258 Jordanian humanitarian staff and Iraqi volunteers working for NGOs completed a needs assessment survey. Work characteristics, stressors, and support variables were evaluated regarding their influence on depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and burnout through multivariate logistic regressions. There was a significant difference in depression, anxiety, and burnout across nationality. Traumatic exposure increased the risk for anxiety, depression, and PTSD. Working longer in the humanitarian sector was associated with less risk of anxiety and depression, and lower social support was a risk for anxiety. Managers were at higher risk for burnout, and low team cohesion was a risk for burnout. Implications for aid organizations are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the social, psychological, and economic lives of 40 adults who were abducted as children and used as child combatants and conclude that the majority of former child soldiers have become productive, capable, and caring adults.
Abstract: Journalistic accounts in 1988 labeled Mozambique's child soldiers as “future barbarians.” Our research suggests evidence to the contrary. The majority of former child soldiers we followed have become productive, capable, and caring adults. This article discusses the social, psychological, and economic lives of 40 adults who were abducted as children and used as child combatants. It is based on a longitudinal study that began when the boys were placed in a rehabilitation center and continued for 16 years after they were reintegrated into communities. It summarizes findings on their psychological status, with a focus on post-traumatic stress disorder symptomatology, and presents further findings gained through ethnographic research on social, religious-spiritual, political, and economic factors that enabled or hindered reintegration and adaptation.
TL;DR: This article found that negative appraisals of the world were related to some domains of growth, but neither negative cognitions about the self nor self-blame was a significant predictor of any of the growth domains.
Abstract: This study tested the extent to which negative appraisals following traumatic events and the centrality of traumatic events predicted posttraumatic growth (PTG; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). Participants were 405 undergraduates at a Midwestern university who reported experiencing at least one traumatic event. Regression analyses indicated that the centrality of the event was a significant predictor for all five domains of PTG. Negative appraisals of the world were related to some domains of growth, but neither negative cognitions about the self nor self-blame was a significant predictor of any of the growth domains. Interpretation of these results is considered in light of the consistencies with Janoff-Bulman's (2004) explanatory models of development of PTG.
TL;DR: Results suggest childhood emotional abuse is statistically related to psychosis in adulthood, adding tentative support to the hypothesis thatotional abuse is related to psychotic experiences; in particular to hallucinations and persecutory delusions.
Abstract: This article evaluates the published empirical findings on childhood emotional abuse and its proposed relationship with psychotic symptoms. Research and governmental policy indicates that emotional abuse is present in all forms of abuse and neglect, suggesting it is the form of abuse most frequently linked to mental health problems. Literature searches were conducted in 3 peer-reviewed electronic databases and relevant papers were reviewed. Results suggest childhood emotional abuse is statistically related to psychosis in adulthood. This adds tentative support to the hypothesis that emotional abuse is related to psychotic experiences; in particular to hallucinations and persecutory delusions. A number of studies also provide tentative support to the dose–response effect proposed between cumulative trauma and a greater risk of positive psychotic symptoms.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined complex trauma symptoms in a sample of 330 former Ugandan child soldiers (age 11-17 years, 49% female) and found that DTD symptoms were significantly associated with experiences of domestic violence, community violence, social support, and depression.
Abstract: Children exposed to repeated interpersonal trauma often develop symptoms that exceed those documented in criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and are better described with the emerging concept of developmental trauma disorder (DTD). This study examines complex trauma symptoms in a sample of 330 former Ugandan child soldiers (age 11–17 years, 49% female). Prevalence rates were 33.0% for PTSD, 36.4% for depression, and 78.2% for DTD. Whereas PTSD symptoms were significantly related to traumatic war experiences and depression, DTD symptoms were significantly associated with experiences of domestic violence, community violence, social support, and depression. Assessment tools and tailored interventions for DTD are urgently needed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors defined the construct of social peer rejection and described the development of the Social Peer Rejection Measure (SPM) and presented evidence for the validity and reliability of the scale.
Abstract: This article defines the construct of social peer rejection and describes the development of the Social Peer Rejection Measure. Social peer rejection entails being rejected, excluded, ostracized, or criticized by one's peers; lack of active sympathy and active dislike on the part of one's peers; ignoring; preventing access to friends, playtime activities, toys, or important information; verbal aggression; commands; and blaming the rejected child. Evidence for the validity and reliability of the scale is presented. Results indicated strong content validity, construct validity, and criterion-referenced validity. Differences were found between females and males in terms of insult, accusation, and reported levels of physical attack.
TL;DR: The Trauma Symptom Checklist–40 is appropriately reliable for indexing the traumatic sequelae of CPA as well as CSA in nonclinical samples and the effects of gender and abuse severity on resulting symptomatology are explored, finding that women and severely abused individuals report the most negative sequelae.
Abstract: This study used the Trauma Symptom Checklist–40 (TSC–40) to index both childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and childhood physical abuse (CPA) in a college student sample of both men and women (N = 441). Although the TSC–40 was designed as a measure of CSA trauma, this study concludes the measure is appropriately reliable for indexing the traumatic sequelae of CPA as well as CSA in nonclinical samples. This study also explored the effects of gender and abuse severity on resulting symptomatology, finding that women and severely abused individuals report the most negative sequelae. Both CSA and CPA emerged as significant explanatory variables in TSC–40 scale scores beyond gender, supporting its validity for indexing traumatic sequelae in nonclinical samples. Tess M. S. Neal is now at the Department of Psychiatry, University of Massachusetts Medical School and Department of Psychology, Worcester State Hospital.
TL;DR: It was found that participation in GREAT was significantly related to changes in parenting practices and these changes significantly predicted changes in violence exposure, and adolescents who reported greater increases in exposure to violence also tended to experience greater decreases in parental monitoring, discipline, and involvement.
Abstract: To prevent youth violence, the GREAT Families program was implemented with a selective sample of 1,196 families of sixth-grade children from low-income schools in 4 cities making the transition to adolescence. To assess intervention effects, we used pre- and posttest data to estimate a structural model to test the hypothesis that random assignment to the intervention would predict changes in parenting practices, which in turn would predict changes in exposure to violence (i.e., a mediational model). We found that participation in GREAT was significantly related to changes in parenting practices and these changes significantly predicted changes in violence exposure. Furthermore, adolescents who reported greater increases in exposure to violence also tended to experience greater decreases in parental monitoring, discipline, and involvement. Implications for future research and prevention efforts are discussed.
TL;DR: This paper investigated the mediating role of early maladaptive schemas (core beliefs) in the relationship between childhood abuse and eating psychopathology, and found that mistrust and abuse beliefs were fully mediators of relationship between sexual abuse and symptoms of bulimia nervosa.
Abstract: This study aimed to investigate the mediating role of early maladaptive schemas (core beliefs) in the relationship between childhood abuse and eating psychopathology. Three self-report questionnaires assessing experiences of childhood abuse, eating psychopathology, and levels of maladaptive schemas were administered to 118 female university students. Emotional abuse predicted drive for thinness, whereas sexual abuse predicted symptoms of bulimia nervosa (BN). Mistrust and abuse beliefs were found to fully mediate relationships between childhood abuse and drive for thinness and bulimia scales. Abandonment beliefs were also shown to be partial mediators of the relationship between sexual abuse and symptoms of BN. In a sample of nonclinical women, beliefs pertaining to abandonment and mistrust or abuse appeared to be important in the explanation of the relationship between recollections of childhood abuse and adult eating disorder symptoms.
TL;DR: This paper found that low family cohesion predicted higher PTSD symptoms, depression, dissociation, and post-traumatic cognitions among multiracial youth. But little empirical work exists regarding the role of ethnic identity and family cohesion as influential factors among different ethnic groups.
Abstract: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is prevalent among maltreated youth, but little empirical work exists regarding the role of ethnic identity and family cohesion as influential factors among different ethnic groups. This study included an ethnically diverse sample of adolescents affiliated with a state-administered residential facility for maltreated youth. Variables included ethnic identity and family cohesion, as well as symptoms of PTSD, depression, dissociation, and post-traumatic cognitions. The most prominent finding was that low family cohesion predicted greater PTSD symptoms, depression, dissociation, and post-traumatic cognitions. This finding was especially pronounced for multiracial youth. Results are discussed within the context of developmental pathways regarding ethnic identity development in multiracial youth.
TL;DR: Children and adult traumatic experiences were found in the majority of the sample, and one-third presented with suspected PTSD diagnosis at the time of the interview.
Abstract: Women living in vulnerable neighborhoods experience higher rates of poverty, homelessness, psychiatric issues, illicit substance use, rates of HIV, and a lowered life expectancy. The aim of the study was to further explore the history of mental illness and trauma in a sample of women (N = 31) who had recently given birth and had a substance use problem while pregnant. We investigated sociodemographic characteristics, history of trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), rates of substance use and dependence, and psychiatric symptoms. Childhood and adult traumatic experiences were found in the majority of the sample, and one-third presented with suspected PTSD diagnosis at the time of the interview. Women-centered services are in great demand, as well as trauma informed care, and further research on appropriate treatment for substance using, traumatized, women with a mental illness.
TL;DR: Progressive counting (PC) as mentioned in this paper has been shown to reduce post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, memory-related distress, and presenting problems at one week posttreatment, and maintained at 12-week follow-up, with no significant differences in outcomes, treatment efficiency, or dropout rate.
Abstract: Ten therapists who were already trained and experienced in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) received training in progressive counting (PC), a newer trauma resolution method Nineteen volunteers with single-incident trauma or loss were assigned to a therapist and then randomized to treatment condition; 15 completed treatment to termination criteria or until the 4th session Participants in both conditions experienced significant reductions in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, memory-related distress, and presenting problems at one week posttreatment, and maintained at 12-week follow-up, with no significant differences in outcomes, treatment efficiency, or dropout rate The preliminary findings of this pilot study suggest that PC is an efficient, well-tolerated, and effective trauma treatment that is relatively easy for therapists to master