Showing papers in "Journal of Counseling and Development in 2008"
TL;DR: Relational-cultural theory (RCT) was conceived after the publication of Jean Baker Miller's (1976) Toward a New Psychology of Women, a groundbreaking book that has been translated into more than 20 languages as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Relational-cultural theory (RCT) was conceived after the publication of Jean Baker Miller’s (1976) Toward a New Psychology of Women, a groundbreaking book that has been translated into more than 20 languages. The ideas in Miller’s book emerged from her clinical practice with women in which she noted that the centrality of relationships in her clients’ lives was inconsistent with the traditional theories of counseling and human development she had been taught in medical school. According to Miller and other feminist theorists of the time, these traditional theoretical models emphasize individuation, separation, and autonomy as markers of emotional maturity and psychological health. Miller (1976), like other multicultural and feminist theorists, suggested that a lack of understanding of the contextual and relational experiences of women, people of color, and
360 citations
TL;DR: One of the most well-known stress management programs is mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) as mentioned in this paper, which is typically run as an 8-week course instructing mindfulness through the practice of meditation, body scan (a type of guided awareness), and hatha yoga.
Abstract: Unmanaged chronic stress can have deleterious effects on the physical and psychological health of individuals. Stress may lead to or worsen disorders and diseases such as heart disease, anxiety, depression, hypertension, substance abuse, and gastrointestinal disorders (Astin, 1997; Brennan & Moos, 1990; Levy, Cain, Jarrett, & Heitkemper, 1997; D. Shapiro & Goldstein, 1982; Treiber et al., 1993; Whitehead, 1992). Stress is also a contributing factor for lifestyle behaviors that increase vulnerability to diseases such as lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and obesity (Brennan & Moos, 1990; Roth & Robbins, 2004; Treiber et al., 1993; D. R. Williams, 1999). Stress has an impact on absenteeism rates and job performance, effectiveness, and satisfaction (Burnard, Edwards, Fothergill, Hannigan, & Coyle, 2000). Given the prevalence of these stress-related health conditions in the United States, their costs to the nation's health care system, and the loss of quality of life for individuals, it is no surprise that public health professionals are increasingly concerned over the effects of stress. For instance, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2000) lists stress reduction as an objective in its publication Healthy People 2010. Health care workers are particularly vulnerable to stress overload because of high demands and unique challenges (Harris, 2001; Sharkey & Sharples, 2003; Wall et al., 1997). Burnout, defined as exhaustion of physical or emotional strength, is the most often-noted consequence of chronic stress in the workplace (Harris, 2001; Sharkey & Sharpies, 2003). Moore and Cooper (1996) found that mental health professionals experience emotional exhaustion alongside the usual organizational sources of stress, and Baker (2003) described the potential for "compassion fatigue" and "vicarious traumatization" (p. xi). These stressors may have harmful effects on counseling students' effectiveness and success by reducing their capacity for attention, concentration, and decision-making skills (S. Shapiro, Shapiro, & Schwartz, 2000). Educators have recognized the importance of providing counselors with tools for self-care early in their careers and even while they are being trained (Baker, 2003; Brems, 2001; Kuyken, Peters, Power, & Lavender, 2003; Weiss, 2004). In an extensive review of research on stress management in the education of health care professionals, S. Shapiro et al. (2000) stated that although many interventions demonstrated promising results, such as lower levels of anxiety and depression, greater capacity for empathy, and improved immunologic functioning, more research is needed. One of the most well-researched stress management programs is mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). MBSR teaches mindfulness, which is the ability to attend to thoughts and emotions as they arise and to be fully conscious of the present-moment experience. Taught to more than 5,000 medical patients since its inception more than 20 years ago (Kabat-Zinn, 1990), MBSR is typically run as an 8-week course instructing mindfulness through the practice of meditation, body scan (a type of guided awareness), and hatha yoga. One of the strengths of MBSR, in contrast to most stress-reduction programs, is that it offers participants different mindfulness practices from which to choose. Research indicates that participants often find one of the three practices more beneficial or preferred for personal reasons; consequently, having options can improve compliance (Kabat-Zinn, Chapman, & Salmon, 1997). This may help to explain why MBSR has been found to have high compliance rates, even after 3 years (Kabat-Zinn & Chapman-Waldrop, 1988; Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995). MBSR studies with varied populations have found significant decreases in anxiety/depression, mood disturbance, somatic symptoms of stress, and present-moment pain (Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, & Burney, 1985; Kabat-Zinn et al. …
349 citations
TL;DR: Racial microaggression themes were identified using a focus-group analysis of self-identified Black participants as discussed by the authors, and six categories of demeaning and invalidating messages reflected beliefs of White supremacy that were unintentionally conveyed by perpetrators.
Abstract: Racial microaggression themes were identified using a focus-group analysis of self-identified Black participants. Six categories of demeaning and invalidating messages reflected beliefs of White supremacy that were unintentionally conveyed by perpetrators. Implications for counselors and the counseling process are discussed.
348 citations
TL;DR: Wellness conceptualized as the paradigm for counseling provides strength-based strategies for assessing clients, conceptualizing issues developmentally, and planning interventions to remediate dysfunction and optimize growth.
Abstract: Wellness conceptualized as the paradigm for counseling provides strength-based strategies for assessing clients,
conceptualizing issues developmentally, and planning interventions to remediate dysfunction and optimize growth.
Wellness counseling models have stimulated significant research that helps to form the evidence base for practice in
the counseling field. The development of these models is explained, results of studies using the models are reviewed,
and implications for research needed to further inform clinical practice and advocacy efforts are discussed.
323 citations
TL;DR: In a more recent study, the authors found that international students who were less acculturated experienced significantly more difficulty in their academic life, with language, and with medical/physical health than did the students with higher levels of acculturation.
Abstract: One of the most important goals of U.S. higher education is to encourage the enrollment of international students for academic, economic, and cultural purposes. The successful recruitment of these students comes with the responsibility to welcome, serve, and maintain the well-being of international students, and also to create an environment for multicultural interaction with students in the United States (hereinafter referred to as American students; Peterson, Briggs, Dreasher, Homer, & Nelson, 1999). Marion (1986) suggested that international students may act as great resources for increasing global understanding and the perspectives of American students. Peterson et al. found that American students learned about different cultures, their histories, and international issues from foreign students. In addition, they learned to acknowledge and respect cultural and individual differences and broaden their perspectives, thereby preventing stereotypical thinking. Marion also suggested that international students play an important role in providing technological knowledge to less developed countries. In the United States, enrollment of international students has been encouraged for the economic contribution of nearly $13.5 billion every year that they spend on tuition, living expenses, and related costs (Institute of International Education, 2007). The United States has the largest number of international students who represent many countries. During the academic year of 2005-2006, there were approximately 600,000 international students from several nations, with Asian students representing 58% of all international students, followed by students from Europe (15%), Latin America (11%), Africa (6%), the Middle East (4%), and 6% from North America and Oceania (Institute of International Education, 2007). Adjustment to a new educational and social environment can be a stressful process. Most college students experience stress throughout this process. However, many international students experience even more serious stress because of the additional culture shock factor (Church, 1982) and various sociocultural factors that are involved in the adjustment process of international students (Luzio-Lockett, 1998). It is not surprising that international students often face language barriers, immigration difficulties, culture shock, social adjustment, and homesickness. During this period of adjustment, international students may experience isolation and loneliness. Mori (2000) reported that these negative experiences can cause the students to feel hopeless, and an intensive sense of hopelessness may be the manifestation of depression. Considering the cultural differences and misunderstandings of the new and diverse experiences, it is likely that international students will experience feelings of estrangement, anxiety, and depression as a part of their adjustment process (Adler, 1975). Spielberger (1966) reported that anxiety is related to stress, and Furukawa (1997) reported that people who are exposed to foreign cultures may become depressed or anxious and display maladaptive behaviors as a result of this acculturative stress. Understanding the experiences of international students has important implications for creating and implementing programs that provide academic and personal support. Therefore, it is crucial to increase awareness about international students' problems and to recognize the students' individual perspectives regarding the factors that are involved in the adjustment and adaptation process (Luzio-Lockett, 1998). Because of these concerns, a number of studies have focused on the academic, psychological and social effects on international students of studying and living in the United States (Marion, 1986). In one of these studies, Kilinc and Granello (2003) found that students who were less acculturated experienced significantly more difficulty in their academic life, with language, and with medical/physical health than did the students with higher levels of acculturation. …
290 citations
TL;DR: Stigma surrounding major mental illness creates many barriers and counselor training is a peak time to identify and begin to mitigate stigma related to people with mental illness.
Abstract: Stigma surrounding major mental illness creates many barriers. People who experience mental illness face discrimination and prejudice when renting homes, applying for jobs, and accessing mental health services. The authors review the current literature regarding stigma and mental illness. They define stigma and review theories that explain its impact. Counselor training is a peak time to identify and begin to mitigate stigma related to people with mental illness. Implications for counselor training are addressed.
245 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the results of a qualitative study of Black faculty working in counseling and counseling psychology programs were reported, which indicated that seven primary microaggression themes were perceived by participants, including alternating feelings of invisibility and hypervisibility, receiving inadequate mentoring, and difficulties determining whether discrimination was race or gender based.
Abstract: This article reports on the results of a qualitative study of Black faculty working in counseling and counseling psychology programs. This investigation involved the use of semistructured interviews to explore the racial microaggressions Black faculty members reportedly experienced in academia. Results of the analysis indicated that 7 primary microaggression themes were perceived by the participants, including alternating feelings of invisibility and hypervisibility, receiving inadequate mentoring, and difficulties determining whether discrimination was race or gender based.
200 citations
TL;DR: The authors discusses the insidious effects of the nice counselor syndrome and outlines a set of recommendations designed to assist school counselors in moving beyond this syndrome, which is referred to as "nice counselor syndrome".
Abstract: The transformed role of school counselors as advocates is key in reducing the academic achievement gap. Redefining the school counselors' role requires culturally competent practitioners, social justice advocates, and organizational/social change agents. A major obstacle to implementing culturally responsive social justice advocacy and change in schools is referred to as the nice counselor syndrome (NCS). This article discusses the insidious effects of NCS and outlines a set of recommendations designed to assist school counselors in moving beyond this syndrome.
177 citations
TL;DR: The authors examines the complementary nature of these models and discusses the need to promote a clearer understanding of the ways in which these common threads can be used in counseling practice, and argues that multicultural, feminist, and social justice counseling theories are often viewed as disparate helping models.
Abstract: Multicultural, feminist, and social justice counseling theories are often viewed as disparate helping models. This article examines the complementary nature of these models and discusses the need to promote a clearer understanding of the ways in which these common threads can be used in counseling practice.
174 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors delineate a liberation psychology that leads toward the psychological and spiritual emancipation of individual clients, communities, and the counseling profession, which is a common theme in our work.
Abstract: Oppression resulting in soul wounding has afflicted indigenous communities and the counseling profession. Internalized oppression has become part of oppressive practices inflicted on communities served. The authors delineate a liberation psychology that leads toward the psychological and spiritual emancipation of individual clients, communities, and the counseling profession.
171 citations
TL;DR: The authors discusses the challenges encountered by immigrants, taking into account the historical, sociopolitical, economic, cultural, and psychological factors that contribute to successful adjustment and adaptation to their new environment.
Abstract: Immigration is a major factor that is greatly contributing to the unprecedented demographic changes that are presently occurring in the United States. This article discusses the challenges encountered by immigrants, taking into account the historical, sociopolitical, economic, cultural, and psychological factors that contribute to successful adjustment and adaptation to their new environment. In doing so, it outlines a new theoretical approach to working with this unique cultural group that is embedded in a multicultural/social justice helping perspective.
TL;DR: Research findings reveal that more fully implemented comprehensive, developmental school counseling programs have positive effects on overall student development, including academic, career, and emotional development; academic achievement; and quality of life.
Abstract: An ongoing issue within the school counseling profession is the discrepancy between the actual practice of school counselors and what is advocated as best practice (Brott & Myers, 1999; Burnham & Jackson, 2000) The implication is that what school counselors are actually doing in schools may not adequately address the needs of the students they intend to serve One of the reasons for the discrepancy lies in the rich and diverse history of the development of the school counseling profession (Burnham & Jackson, 2000; Herr, 2001) Burnham and Jackson highlighted the problems associated with a history of divergent definitions of the roles of school counselors, "with long-standing discussions and discrepant viewpoints found in the literature, school counseling roles are often problematic in definition, interpretation, and implementation" (p 41) Therefore, the historic lack of an organizing structure for school counseling programs has been a primary focus of professional associations, school counselor education programs, and research * Defining and Outlining Best Practices This attention on defining an organizational structure has resulted in a focus on the development and implementation of a comprehensive, developmental school counseling program The school counseling program has characteristics similar to other educational programs, including a focus on student competencies, activities, and interventions to assist students in achieving the outcomes related to these competencies, and accountability methods (American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 1999) The ASCA National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) outline the knowledge, attitudes, and skill competencies that all students should achieve as a result of participating in the school counseling program There are four fundamental interventions related to a school counseling program: counseling (individual and small group), curriculum (classroom lessons), consultation (eg, with teachers, parents, and other professionals), and coordination (the organization and management of regular and special program activities; ASCA, 1999; Borders & Drury, 1992; Myrick, 2003) These interventions can be further specified in terms of activities related to each intervention Models exist that outline the components of the school counseling program, offer suggestions for its implementation, and provide guidelines for balancing time spent in each of the interventions (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; Myrick, 2003) In 2003, ASCA published the National Model for School Counseling Programs The comprehensive, developmental school counseling program is also emphasized through training standards in school counselor education programs (Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs [CACREP], 2001) Research indicates that this focus on an organized structural framework for school counseling has begun to have an impact on school counseling practice (Sink & MacDonald, 1998) Empirical research supports the benefits of the four overarching interventions put into practice by school counselors (counseling, consultation, coordination, curriculum; Borders & Drury, 1992; Whiston & Sexton, 1998) Research findings also reveal that more fully implemented comprehensive, developmental school counseling programs have positive effects on overall student development, including academic, career, and emotional development; academic achievement; and quality of life (Gysbers, Lapan, & Blair, 1999; Lapan, Gysbers, & Petroski, 2001; Lapan, Gybers, & Sun, 1997) * The Discrepancy Remains In spite of the best efforts of professional associations, accrediting bodies, and training programs to define the profession of school counseling, studies indicate that the actual functions of counselors in the schools do not always reflect what have been identified as the best practices in school counseling …
TL;DR: In this article, role overload, job satisfaction, leisure satisfaction, and psychological health were measured for 155 women who were employed full-time, and role overload was negatively correlated with psychological health.
Abstract: Role overload, job satisfaction, leisure satisfaction, and psychological health were measured for 155 women who were employed full time. Role overload was negatively correlated with psychological health, job satisfaction, and leisure satisfaction. Job satisfaction and leisure satisfaction were positively correlated with psychological health. Stepwise regression analyses indicated that role overload was the strongest predictor of psychological health and that job satisfaction and leisure satisfaction, respectively, added significantly to the prediction equation.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors define classism, ableism, and heterosexism in the counseling profession, and explicate their intersections with race, and summarize the resulting implications for counseling education and training.
Abstract: As the counseling profession charts its future course, issues related to classism, ableism, and heterosexism remain fully incorporated within the multicultural/social justice curriculum. The authors define each of these forms of oppression, explicate their intersections with race, and summarize the resulting implications for counseling education and training.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss available tools for evaluating counselors' awareness, knowledge, and skills for working with culturally diverse clients, as well as new directions and trends in multicultural counseling competency assessment.
Abstract: As the diversity within the U.S. population continues to increase, multicultural counseling competency (MCC) remains a central focus in counselor education and research. Accordingly, assessment of competencies is necessary to ensure culturally appropriate counseling services to an increasingly diverse clientele. This article discusses available tools for evaluating counselors' awareness, knowledge, and skills for working with culturally diverse clients, as well as new directions and trends in MCC assessment.
TL;DR: Among 261 undergraduate women, increased severity of eating disorders along a continuum was associated with decreased self-esteem, increased perfectionism, and increased scores on 7 subscales of the Eating Disorders Inventory-2 as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Among 261 undergraduate women, increased severity of eating disorders along a continuum was associated with decreased self-esteem, increased perfectionism, and increased scores on 7 subscales of the Eating Disorders Inventory-2. Women with eating disorders differed from both symptomatic women and asymptomatic women on all variables, whereas symptomatic women differed from asymptomatic women only on self-esteem, perfectionism, ineffectiveness, body dissatisfaction, and interoceptive awareness. Discriminant analysis correctly classified 45.2% of the women with eating disorders and 59% of the overall sample.
TL;DR: Kim et al. as mentioned in this paper compared self-report scores generated by the Multicultural Awareness Knowledge Skills Survey-Counselor Edition-Revised (B. S. Kim, B. Y. Cartwright, P. A. Asay, and M. J. D'Andrea, 2003) with observer ratings of actual videotaped demonstrations of multicultural competence in response to a preselected case vignette.
Abstract: This study compares self-report scores generated by the Multicultural Awareness Knowledge Skills Survey-Counselor Edition-Revised (B. S. K. Kim, B. Y. Cartwright, P. A. Asay, & M. J. D'Andrea, 2003) with independent observer ratings of actual videotaped demonstrations of multicultural competence in response to a preselected case vignette. Implications for counselor training and future research are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the historical and sociopolitical contexts of the multicultural competency movement and the challenges and promise of becoming a culturally competent counselor specific attention is directed to the promise and opportunity for those who commit to culturally competent personal and professional way of life.
Abstract: This article explores the historical and sociopolitical contexts of the multicultural competency movement and the challenges and promise of becoming a culturally competent counselor Specific attention is directed to the promise and opportunity for those who commit to a culturally competent personal and professional way of life
TL;DR: The authors explore the experiences of 4 female and 2 male Caucasian counseling students who facilitated 5 chat-based online counseling sessions and suggest that online counseling requires specific technical, ethical, and clinical considerations.
Abstract: To address the need for research regarding online counseling, the authors explore the experiences of 4 female and 2 male Caucasian counseling students who facilitated 5 chat-based online counseling sessions. Conducting semistructured interviews based in grounded theory methods, the authors discuss technological barriers, counseling without visual and verbal cues, online counseling techniques, counseling from home, and factors related to the pace of the sessions. They suggest that online counseling requires specific technical, ethical, and clinical considerations.
TL;DR: A review of the literature on the use of videotape in supervision reveals that few specific guidelines have been presented for supervisors on how to properly utilize video recording for supervisory purposes.
Abstract: Directors of clinical training in mental health programs report that videotaping is one of the most common means of supervision (Romans, Boswell, Carlozzi, & Ferguson, 1995). Despite this prevalence of use, there is little literature that provides guidelines for supervisors on how to conceptualize and use video recordings in supervision. The purpose of this article is to review the extant literature on the use of videotaping in supervision, to proffer an empirically supported model of supervision that can be used to guide supervisory interventions surrounding videotape use, and to present concrete suggestions to supervisors on how to use videotaping with their trainees in supervision. * Review of the Literature Historically, the 1940s marked the initial use of audio recording in psychotherapy training (Schnarch, 1981). By the 1960s, audio recording had become standard practice in most training settings. Video recording was introduced more gradually into training programs during the 1960s and eventually gained widespread use as a training tool (Gelso, 1974). As videotaping capabilities became more prevalent, some research on the use of videotape in supervision was undertaken, but no programmatic research on the use of the method emerged. A review of the literature on the use of videotaping in supervision reveals that few specific guidelines have been presented for supervisors on how to properly utilize video recording for supervisory purposes. Rather, this work has been focused more on the specific advantages and disadvantages of the use of video recording for supervision. Advantages included the utility of videotape as (a) a means of information storage and dissemination, (b) a medium to bring about changes in trainee self-perception, (c) a tool for enhanced self-analysis by trainees, (d) a way for supervisors to more accurately evaluate trainees, and (e) a way for trainees and supervisors to re-experience the therapy session. Supervisors viewed videotaping as a way in which a variety of information could be acquired, including the affective content of sessions, client reactions, counselor skills/actions, and the observation of nonverbal behaviors (Schnarch, 1981). With respect to research on applications, utilization of videotape in supervision appeared to bring trainees' perceptions of their performance more in line with supervisors' perceptions (Gelso, 1974; Poling, 1968; Walz & Johnston, 1963). In addition, videotape appeared to help trainees demonstrate an increased level of self-awareness of their behaviors (Chodoff, 1972; Star, 1977; Walz & Johnston, 1963) and allowed trainees to develop an increased sense of objectivity concerning their clinical work (Anderson & Brown, 1955; Goldhammer, 1969). Videotape was also reported to bring the client to life for the supervisor and increase the supervisor's involvement (Aveline, 1992). Videotape also provides supervisors with fact-based and impartial information on client progress in therapy, thereby allowing for more objective evaluation of both trainee and client status (Chodoff, 1972; Yenawine & Arbuckle, 1971). In fact, some scholars have argued that relying on trainee self-report in supervision has serious drawbacks, including the poor reliability of trainees' reporting, trainees' perceptual biases in the interpretation of events, and the pressure trainees feel to present an overly positive impression to supervisors of their clinical work (Noelle, 2002). Conversely, potential disadvantages in the use of videotape in supervision included increased evaluation anxiety for trainees that might result in diminished performance. For example, Roulx (1969) found increased physiological measures of perceived threat and anxiety (e.g., increased heart rate and skin temperature) among practicum students who were informed that their session would be videotaped and reviewed by their supervisor as compared with those who were told that their session was not going to be taped and reviewed. …
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the impact of a multicultural/social justice professional-organizational development project that was implemented at 5 universities across the United States and found increased organizational support for multicultural and social justice issues and gains in the participants' multicultural competence.
Abstract: This study examined the impact of a multicultural/social justice professional-organizational development project that was implemented at 5 universities across the United States. The results indicate increased organizational support for multicultural/social justice issues and gains in the participants' multicultural competence. The limitations of the study are also discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effectiveness of wellness counseling on increasing wellness among law enforcement officers was investigated. And the results indicated that counseling may increase wellness in law enforcement and that self-efficacy was associated with the effectiveness.
Abstract: The purpose of this exploratory study was to determine the effectiveness of wellness counseling on increasing wellness among law enforcement officers. The study also examined whether position in the Transtheoretical Model (J. O. Prochaska & C. C. DiClemente, 1982) and self-efficacy influenced the effectiveness of counseling on wellness. These findings indicate that counseling may increase wellness among law enforcement officers.
TL;DR: Yang et al. as mentioned in this paper conducted a survey regarding Internet usage in South Korea and found that 78.5% households had computers, and 93.6% of those households had Internet access.
Abstract: The millennial generation of students includes those born in the United States after 1982 who began graduating from high school in the year 2000 (Howe & Strauss, 2000). A unique feature of the millennial generation is that they grew up in a time of rapidly expanding technology. The networked generation (hereinafter referred to as the N generation) in South Korea, or individuals who were born after 1980 (Cho, 1999), is similar to the millennial generation in the United States. Like many generations defined by their time, the N generation has altered the face of Korean society. Comparable to earlier generations, the N generation has created tension among persons born in earlier times who have less than positive attitudes toward technological information transmission and communication. To students of the millennial and N generations, technology and networked communications are the norm. Computers, the Internet, cell phones, and MP3s are the tools that most college students know how to both use and misuse. Meeting people in a chat room can be as easy as making friends in classrooms. The nexus of these technologies means that millennial and N generation college students view electronically mediated communication as naturally as earlier generations viewed face-to-face communication. On most college and university campuses, baby boomer and generation X counselors, faculty, and staff interact with and provide necessary services to millennial and N generation students. The baby boomer generation (76 million) includes individuals who were born between 1946 and 1964 in the United States; generation X, on the other hand, represents individuals who were born between 1965 and 1980, representing a total of 50 million in the United States (Maples & Abney, 2006). Lowery (2004) emphasized that the demands this new generation will place on higher education will also require reconsideration not only of the services provided, but also of the means by which those services are delivered. * Characteristics of Cybercounseling in South Korea The National Board for Certified Counselors (as cited in Manhal-Baugus, 2001) defines cybercounseling as "the practice of professional counseling and information delivery that occurs when client(s) and counselor(s) are in separate or remote locations and utilize electronic means to communicate over the Internet" (p. 550). This definition seems to include Web pages, e-mail, and chat rooms. In 2005, there were an estimated 1 billion Internet users worldwide. According to the Institute for Computer Technology (see International Telecommunication Union, 2003), South Korea ranks second in the world for computer use, behind Iceland (61% and 67.5%, respectively). The United States ranks fifth (55.6%) in the world regarding such use. In terms of the number of Internet users who have logged onto the Internet once or more in the past month, South Korea ranks fifth (29,220,000) behind the United States (161,630,000), China, Japan, and Germany. Yang (2005) conducted a survey regarding Internet usage in South Korea and found that 78.5% households had computers, and 93.6% of those households had Internet access. He also revealed that more males (77.4%) tended to use the Internet than females (62.0%). Of all those who accessed the Internet, 47.7% were online for more than 10 hours per week, and the average Internet access time per week was 12.9 hours. He also noted that 88.9% of Korean Internet users have e-mail account(s), and 44.2% use the messenger function mainly for chatting to maintain their friendships. In the early 1980s, the computer began to appear as an important means of communication. In South Korea, the first computer network system was established through the opening of Ketel (a South Korean Internet service provider) by The Journal of Korean Economy in 1987 (Kim, 2001). LL Welfare Foundation (a professional counseling and social welfare foundation in South Korea) was the pioneer of cybercounseling in 1993. …
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the importance of addressing these complex issues by outlining strategies to infuse ethics into counselor education programs from a multicultural/social justice counseling perspective from a counseling perspective.
Abstract: Multiculturalism and social justice counseling issues influence counselors' ethical thinking and behavior. Counselor educators are responsible for facilitating students' understanding of the relevance of multicultural/social justice counseling issues and ethical standards for professional practices. Added insights in these areas aid students to work within a culturally diverse society. This article focuses on the importance of addressing these complex issues by outlining strategies to infuse ethics into counselor education programs from a multicultural/social justice counseling perspective.
TL;DR: In this paper, a 40-year review of multicultural counseling outcome research has been done in the mental health professions, focusing on outcomes that ensue from counseling situations that are composed of counselors and clients from different racial/cultural backgrounds and identities in individual, group, and family counseling settings.
Abstract: This study represents a 40-year review of multicultural counseling outcome research that has been done in the mental health professions. Particular attention is directed to the outcomes that ensue from counseling situations that are composed of counselors and clients from different racial/cultural backgrounds and identities in individual, group, and family counseling settings. Recommendations are presented for the next decade of multicultural counseling outcome research.
TL;DR: A selective review of research finds strong support for the validity of G. W. Allport's (1954) contact hypothesis conditions in reducing prejudice as mentioned in this paper, and implications of research findings for counselors are explored.
Abstract: This article addresses the origins, mechanisms, and expressions of prejudice. A selective review of research finds strong support for the validity of G. W. Allport's (1954) contact hypothesis conditions in reducing prejudice. Methodological advances in the study of prejudice are reviewed, and implications of research findings for counselors are explored.
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of school-based counselors in the prevention and treatment of emotional abuse is discussed, and the types of classroom behaviors teachers may demonstrate that are emotionally abusive to students.
Abstract: Emotional abuse of students by teachers is a topic infrequently discussed in the child abuse literature. In some classrooms, it can be a daily occurrence. This article defines emotional abuse and discusses the types of classroom behaviors teachers may demonstrate that are emotionally abusive to students. The role of school-based counselors in the prevention and treatment of emotional abuse is discussed.
TL;DR: Sites et al. as discussed by the authors found that only a small proportion of counselors are members of their national professional organization, indicating that counselors are more likely to join the divisions of ACA that reflect the specialties with which counselors identify.
Abstract: The existence of a formal professional organization is one of the characteristics of a profession (Cruess & Cruess, 1997; Greenwood, 1957; Pugh, 1989). Professional organizations advance and disseminate specialized knowledge and information by publishing journals, newsletters, and other materials. They provide opportunities for continuing education and professional development, such as conferences and workshops, and offer prospects for networking among members. Professional organizations advocate for members on issues such as licensure and funding (Pope, 2004), and they "influence public policy and inform the public within their areas of expertise" (Cruess & Cruess, 1997, p. 1675). Professional organizations may also assume responsibility for the development and dissemination of a professional code of ethics. In the case of counseling, and specialties under the counseling umbrella, professional organizations at local, state, and national levels perform these functions for the membership. Regarding membership in professional associations, VanZandt (1990) observed, "It is difficult to see how a counselor can 'grow' with the profession without belonging to professional organizations and taking advantage of their resources and services" (p. 244). This sentiment was echoed by Spruill and Benshoff (1996), who noted, "Evidence of professionalism includes active participation and leadership in professional organizations" (p. 468). Members of professional organizations have opportunities to contribute to their organizations in various ways. Some seek leadership positions in the organizations, whereas others influence the leadership of organizations through the power of their votes. Organizations also have various committees, boards, councils, state organizations, and special interest groups in which members may choose to participate (Dodgen, Fowler, & Williams-Nickelson, 2003). * Membership Rates Membership in professional organizations in the United States peaked in the 1970s; since then, most organizations have had a decrease in the percentage of members of a profession who join their professional associations (Putnam, 2000). For counselors, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS; n.d.) indicates that 526,000 individuals were employed as counselors in 2002, the most recent year for which data are available (Note. All statistics are "current" for the time that this article was written.) At the time this article was written, membership in the American Counseling Association (ACA) was 43,869 (R. A. Sites, personal communication, February 18, 2005). Although the discrepancy in years (2002 vs. 2005) for the data I have used weakens the comparison to some degree, the rate (approximately 8%) suggests that only a small proportion of counselors are members of their national professional organization. Given the expense of professional memberships, it might be that counselors are more likely to join the divisions of ACA that reflect the specialties with which counselors identify. The BLS indicated that there were 122,000 persons employed as rehabilitation counselors in 2002; 2005 membership in the American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA) was 740 (R. A. Sites, personal communication, February 18, 2005), a minuscule percentage. For mental health counselors, 85,000 were listed by the BLS; membership for the American Mental Health Counselors Association (AMHCA) was 6,000 (L. Moreno, personal communication, February 17, 2005), a rate of about 7%. Substance abuse counselors accounted for 67,000 positions in 2002, with a membership in the International Association of Addictions and Offender Counselors (IAAOC) of 921 (R. A. Sites, personal communication, February 18, 2005). BLS data showed 23,000 marriage and family therapists, with membership in the International Association of Marriage and Family Counselors (IAMFC) at 2,344 (R. A. Sites, personal communication, February 18, 2005), yielding an approximate membership rate of 10%. …
TL;DR: Forgiveness is not condoning, excusing, or forgetting what happened to the client; instead, it is a response to unfairness that includes the diminution of resentment or anger toward an offender and the institution of more positive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors toward that person as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Within the past decade, forgiveness as both a developmental construct and a counseling model has emerged in books, journal articles, and print media coverage (e.g., see Worthington, 1998). Dozens of self-help books in psychology and related disciplines are now available on the topic (e.g., see Enright, 2001; Luskin, 2003; McCullough, Worthington, & Sandage, 1997; Smedes, 1984; Worthington, 2001). Empirical evidence is mounting that forgiving someone for substantial injustices can regulate negative emotions and restore psychological health (Baskin & Enright, 2004; Coyle & Enright, 1997; Enright & Fitzgibbons, 2000; Freedman & Enright, 1996; Hansen, 2002; Ripley & Worthington, 2002). * Forgiveness Defined In the psychological literature, forgiveness is not condoning, excusing, or forgetting what happened to the client. Instead, it is a response to unfairness that includes the diminution of resentment or anger toward an offender and the institution of more positive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors toward that person (Enright, 2001; Worthington, 2001). Most researchers and counselors distinguish between forgiveness and reconciliation. It is possible to forgive and yet not reconcile with an abusive spouse, for example. One can forgive and still seek justice. In other words, forgiveness, properly understood, occurs from a position of strength, not weakness, because the forgiver recognizes an injustice and labels it for what it is. * Forgiveness Within Counseling Fitzgibbons (1986), as a practicing psychiatrist, was one of the first to see the toxic effects of deep and abiding anger on the emotional health of clients. The expression of anger in the short term is seen as important for catharsis, but without a process for actually reducing or ridding the client of the deep anger, psychological symptoms such as depression and anxiety can continue or increase (Enright & Fitzgibbons, 2000; Fitzgibbons, 1986). Fitzgibbons and other practitioners (e.g., Hope, 1987) have reasoned that because one role of forgiving is the reduction in resentment or deep anger toward another person, then perhaps forgiveness may be an efficacious means of going beyond expressing anger to reducing or eliminating it within a counseling context. People engaged in forgiveness counseling need to realize that as they forgive, they do not give up their right to a fair solution. They can have mercy on an offender and still ask for justice from that same person. In counseling, forgiveness is considered a process that takes time (Enright, 2001; Fitzgibbons, 1986). Research findings demonstrate that longer programs, taking 12 weeks or more, tend to show statistically stronger outcomes for clients than programs that are brief, taking a few sessions (Baskin & Enright, 2004). Luskin (2003), Worthington (2001), and Enright (2001), all of whom have written manuals for people who are trying to forgive, are clear that forgiveness is the client's choice. The client should be free to explore what forgiveness is and what it is not before she or he makes the informed decision to begin the process of forgiveness in counseling. * Pathways to Forgiveness Despite the plethora of studies that have been conducted and books that have been written over the past decade, there has yet to be a study charting the process of or pathway to a forgiveness response. To date, that pathway has been assumed within all models that try to describe the client's movement toward recovery from emotional difficulty through forgiveness. For example, Luskin (2003) posited a four-stage model in which the clients recognize rage, realize that abiding anger is unhealthy, reframe the unfair situation to see that it is not nearly as problematic as supposed, and resolve not to let anger dominate their emotional well-being. Worthington's (2001) pyramid model includes points that are similar to those in Luskin's (2003) model as the clients recall the hurt and experience anger; begin to empathize with the offender; offer a prosocial response to the person; commit to forgiving by a concrete act of telling the offender or a confidant of this choice to forgive; and resolve, as in Luskin's model, to use forgiveness in future situations. …
Abstract: As Asian American communities in the United States grow rapidly and specific ethnic groups increase at varying rates (Barnes & Bennett, 2002), the social realities of different Asian ethnic groups are becoming more diverse. This increase of individuals of Asian descent has prompted a plethora of research on personal adjustment, severity of problems, and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help (e.g., Leong, 1986; Yeh & Wang, 2000), particularly because Asian Americans use mental health services two thirds less frequently than do Whites (Breaux, Matsuoka, & Ryujin, 1997). In response to Sue's (1994) call to study specific Asian American subgroups and Lee's (1996) call to examine cultural and contextual issues by ethnicity, the current study addressed some of the factors that influence help-seeking attitudes of Korean American undergraduates. The educational experiences and subsequent needs of Asian American students are generally overlooked (Osajima, 1995) primarily because Asian Americans, in general, have high educational aspirations (Nakanishi & Nishida, 1995), hold a substantial number of bachelor's degrees (Humes & McKinnon, 2000), and are often held subject to the "model minority" stereotype (Lee, 1996; Suzuki, 1995). Furthermore, the specific context-based needs and educational experiences of Asian Americans are often masked by the aggregation of different Asian American ethnicities in educational and psychological research. For example, a closer examination of current educational trends based on ethnic groups reveals a bimodal achievement structure in which some Asian Americans have limited formal education and others have high degree attainment (Gloria & Ho, 2003; Ong & Hee, 1993). In particular, Korean Americans are among the Asian Americans who have high educational enrollment and degree attainment (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2003); the majority (60.3%) of traditional college-age Korean Americans attend college (Hune C Constantine, Robinson, Wilton, & Caldwell, 2002; Gloria, Castellanos, & Orozco, 2005; Hurtado, Carter, & Spuler, 1996; Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-Pedersen, & Allen, 1999). Few studies, however, have examined the educational experiences of Asian Americans in higher education, and even fewer have focused on specific Asian ethnic groups. One of these studies indicated that Asian American undergraduates perceived campus life negatively and felt strong social alienation and dissatisfaction (Bennett & Okinaka, 1990). In a study of Asian American undergraduate academic persistence, Gloria and He (2003) found that Chinese and Korean Americans reported lower cultural congruity and more negative perceptions of the university environment than did any other Asian ethnic group. Korean American undergraduates also reported the lowest perceived social support from family and friends and the lowest self-esteem and college self-efficacy of the different Asian ethnic groups. In one of the few studies that examined the role ofpsychosocial factors in depression, specifically for Korean American college students, Aldwin and Greenberger (1987) found that increased values orientation (i.e., perceived parental traditionalism of close familial ties and respectful authority relations) significantly predicted higher depression rates. More recently, Hurh and Kim (1990) found that Korean American college students reported higher depression rates than did White students, with Korean Americans having a higher prevalence of depression than other Asian American ethnic groups. …