Showing papers in "Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology in 1992"
TL;DR: This article found that Hispanics prefer extreme responses to a greater extent than non-Hispanic Whites and that less educated respondents tend to make more extreme choices than the more highly educated (those with at least a secondary education).
Abstract: Secondary analyses were carried out with four large data sets that included responses by Hispanics (N = 1,908) and by non-Hispanic Whites (N = 14,425). Results are fairly consistent in showing that Hispanics prefer extreme responses to a greater extent than non-Hispanic Whites. In general, Hispanics prefer to agree with a given item more than non-Hispanic Whites. Two significant variables seem to affect the rate at which these response styles are chosen. First, the level of acculturation among Hispanics affects the level of extreme and acquiescent responses so that as Hispanics acculturate they tend to choose these types of response less frequently. The less educated respondents (less than 12 years of formal education) tend to make more extreme choices than the more highly educated (those with at least a secondary education). Gender does not affect these response sets in a consistent fashion.
366 citations
TL;DR: This article examined how cultures differ in the degree to which they perceive the universal emotions accurately, and found substantial and consistent differences according to the culture of the judges and the emotion portrayed, in terms of stable cultural dimensions that may influence the perception of emotion.
Abstract: Although the universal recognition of facial expressions of emotion is well documented, few studies have examined how cultures differ in the degree to which they perceive the universal emotions accurately. In this study, American and Japanese judges viewed expressions of six universal emotions posed by both Caucasian and Japanese males and females. In addition, all photos met external criteria for validly and reliably portraying the emotions. Subjects judged which emotions were portrayed and how intensely they were expressed. Results indicated substantial and consistent differences according to the culture of the judges and the emotion portrayed. These findings are discussed in terms of stable cultural dimensions that may influence the perception of emotion.
253 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that Caucasian American mothers scored higher on sensitivity, consistency, nonrestrictiveness, nurturance, and rule setting, whereas immigrant Chinese mothers score higher on physical punishment and yelling at the child.
Abstract: To study cultural differences in child-rearing practices, 38 middle-class immigrant Chinese mothers and 38 middle-class Caucasian American mothers of 3- to 8-year-old children completed the Parenting Dimensions Inventory (PDI) and the Parenting Goals Questionnaire (PGQ). Comparison of the PDI scale scores revealed differences on all but the reasoning dimension. Caucasian American mothers scored higher on sensitivity, consistency, nonrestrictiveness, nurturance, and rule setting, whereas immigrant Chinese mothers scored higher on physical punishment and yelling at the child. Examination of the parenting goals revealed no cultural main effect, however, a main effect was found for child's age. Both immigrant Chinese and Caucasian American mothers place more emphasis on manners, school-related skills, and emotional adjustment during the early elementary school years (6 to 8 years of age) than during the preschool years (3 to 5 years of age). Results related to terns of the need for immigrant Chinese to mainta...
206 citations
TL;DR: This article explored the ethnic identity of first and second-generation Chinese-Australian and Chinese-American adolescents and found that ethnic identity was assessed by: ethnic identification, the extent to which individuals engaged in culturally expected behaviors and their knowledge of the culture, the importance of maintaining these behaviors, and the value ascribed to their ethnic origins.
Abstract: This study explored the ethnic identity of first- and second-generation Chinese-Australian and Chinese-American adolescents. Ethnic identity was assessed by: ethnic identification, the extent to which individuals engaged in culturally expected behaviors and their knowledge of the culture, the importance of maintaining these behaviors, and the value ascribed to their ethnic origins. Responses of Chinese-Australians and Chinese-Americans were remarkably similar. There was erosion over time of ethnic identification and behaviors/knowledge but not of the importance and evaluative components of ethnic identity. No change over time occurred in individualism-collectivism, nor did this measure relate substantially to the ethnic identity measures. Correlations between ethnic identity measures were low to moderate, suggesting that these facets of ethnic identity overlap but are not identical. The importance of analyzing separately distinctive components of ethnic identity was confirmed. Despite some attrition over ...
186 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of individualism-collectivism on communication in ingroup and outgroup relationships was examined, and differences were predicted in group communication in collectivistic cultures.
Abstract: This study examined the influence of individualism-collectivism on communication in ingroup and outgroup relationships. Differences were predicted in ingroup and outgroup communication in collectivistic cultures. It was also hypothesized that self-monitoring and predicted-outcome value (POV) of the relationships also affect communication processes in these relationships. Data were collected in Hong Kong and Japan (collectivistic) and in Australia and the United States (individualistic). Results supported the prediction regarding the influence of cultural variability on ingroup and outgroup communication, as well as those regarding the influence of self-monitoring and POV.
143 citations
TL;DR: Haitian and Indian women rated their identification with (self-perceptions), and the extent to which they believed majority Canadians perceived them as being (metaperceptions), Haitian or Indian, immigrant, and Canadian.
Abstract: Haitian and Indian women rated their identification with (self-perceptions), and the extent to which they believed majority Canadians perceived them as being (metaperceptions), Haitian or Indian, immigrant, and Canadian. Self-perceptions and metaperceptions were compared in order to understand the quality of integration for the two sample An attempt was made to predict self-perceptions on the basis of pragmatic (years in Canada, age at arrival, citizenship status) and social psychological (motivation for culture retention, perceived discrimination) predictors in a series of multiple regression analyses. Although both samples expressed a strong identification with their ethnic groups, different results emerged for immigrant and Canadian identifications. Identity perceptions for these labels were more closely related to pragmatic predictors for the Indian, whereas social psychological variables were more predictive for the Haitian. The results are discussed in relation to the different visibility of the two...
105 citations
TL;DR: This article examined the relationship between level of acculturation and perceived intergenerational differences for 29 high school students from Hmong refugee families and found that higher acculturability was associated with higher perceived generational differences.
Abstract: This study examined the relationship between level of acculturation and perceived intergenerational differences for 29 high school students from Hmong refugee families. Students perceived themselves to be more acculturated than their parents. Higher acculturation was associated with higher perceived intergenerational differences. This association depended on the number of years students had spent in U.S. schools. Greater acculturation of traditional behavior, family relationships, and decision making was also associated with increasing perceived intergenerational differences.
102 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined the structure of leader influence among Australian, English, Japanese, and Taiwanese managers and found that the leader influence strategies of Reason, Bargaining, Higher Authority, Sanctions, Friendliness, Assertiveness, and Coalition accounted for at least half of the variance in leader influence with subordinates.
Abstract: This is an exploratory study examining the structure of leader influence among Australian, English, Japanese, and Taiwanese managers. The findings from these cultures are compared to a previous study of managers in the United States. This study demonstrates the utility of examining the factor structure of survey instruments rather than relying only on scale reliability scores in cross-cultural research. The leader influence strategies of Reason, Bargaining, Higher Authority, Sanctions, Friendliness, Assertiveness, and Coalition were found in each country and collectively accounted for at least half of the variance in leader influence with subordinates. However, the specific tactics defining these leader influence strategies were not uniform across cultures.
73 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined Maehr's Personal Investment Model of motivation, which has clear and significant implications for cross-cultural research in education, and designed and validated the Inventory of School Motivation (1SM) based on Personal Investment Theory.
Abstract: This article examines Maehr's Personal Investment Model of motivation, which has clear and significant implications for cross-cultural research in education. The design and validation of the Inventory of School Motivation (1SM) based on Personal Investment Theory is described. Evidence is presented for both the usefulness of the theoretical framework and the validity of the ISM in analyzing motivational variables for individuals from different cultural groups in educational settings. Multiple-regression analysis demonstrated the predictive power of the ISM, and discriminant analysis showed that variables from the scale were able to discriminate between students who returned to school for senior high school and those who did not.
62 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated the influence of the "subjugation control over nature" value orientation on attributions for a behavioral outcome and the effect of activation of beliefs associated with this value orientation.
Abstract: Two experiments were conducted to investigate: (a) the influence of the "subjugation control over nature" value orientation, a dimension of cultural variation, on attribution processes; and (b) the effect of activation of beliefs associated with this value orientation on attribution processes and helping behavior. In Experiment 1, introductory psychology students were classified as either "control" or "subjugation" oriented according to scores obtained from a measure of the value orientation. Results suggest an effect of value orientation on attributions for a behavioral outcome. In Experiment 2, an attribution empathy model of helping behavior was examined in relation to activation of beliefs associated with the "control over nature" value orientation. This model was tested using Bentler's program for the analysis of structural equations. Results show that beliefs interact with empathy to influence helping behavior. Overall, the two studies suggest the importance and feasibility of investigating cultural...
60 citations
TL;DR: A study of self-report depressive symptoms as measured by the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) was conducted in three Asian countries-Korea, the Philippines, and Taiwan - and in the United States as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A study of self-report depressive symptoms as measured by the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) was conducted in three Asian countries-Korea, the Philippines, and Taiwan - and in the United States. Mean scores for the 966 college students varied significantly across countries, with Korean students reporting high levels of depressive symptoms. Further, there are marked differences between countries in symptomatic manifestations, even after controlling for between-country differences in response set and overall level of symptoms. Future research addressed to cross-cultural differences in level and manifestations of depression should incorporate (a) research designs that control for identifiable measurement artifacts and (b) triangulation of measurement strategies.
TL;DR: The authors examined the effects of culturally based knowledge on memory for stories about people performing common activities and found that after 1 week, both groups of subjects misremembered the stories from the other culture as being more like their own culture than they in fact were.
Abstract: This study examines some of the effects of culturally based knowledge on memory for stories about people performing common activities. Monocultural college students in (a) the United States and (b) Mexico read three brief stories about people going on a date, going home from the office for lunch, and starting a new semester of school. There were two versions of each story, consistent with either a U.S. or a Mexican cultural script. A modified recognition memory test for information in the stories occurred at one of three different delay intervals (immediately after reading the stories, 1/24 hour later, or 1 week later). Results showed that, after 1 week, both groups of subjects misremembered the stories from the other culture as being more like their own culture than they in fact were. The findings were consistent with previous monocultural research and argue that any theory of the effects of script-based knowledge on memory must consider the cultural origin of that knowledge. Problems associated with use...
TL;DR: In a comparison of Filipino and American college students' self-reported academic motives, approval and self-improvement ranked higher for Filipino students and motives involving performance standards in comparison with American students as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: In a comparison of Filipino and American college students' self-reported academic motives, approval and self-improvement ranked higher for Filipino students and motives involving performance standards ranked higher for American students. Gender differences - men reported more assertive and competitive achievement modes, women stronger motives regarding performance standards -replicated across the two cultures, suggesting generalizable socialization differences for achievement. Intrinsic task motives-enjoyment of school tasks, persistence, and setting of high performance standards-were closely tied to affiliation and self-improvement motives for Filipino but not American students; achieving and affiliating motives may be less distinct in the Philippine setting than implied by Western theory.
TL;DR: The authors compared university students from Finland and the southern United States in (a) paranormal beliefs; (b) four personality adjustment constructs-alienation, anomie, death concerns, and death threat; and (c) relationships between paranormal beliefs and these personality adjustment constructions.
Abstract: University students from Finland and the southern United States were compared in (a) paranormal beliefs; (b) four personality adjustment constructs-alienation, anomie, death concerns, and death threat; and (c) relationships between paranormal beliefs and these personality adjustment constructs. Americans reported significantly greater belief in Traditional Religious Belief, Superstition, Witchcraft, and Extraordinary Life Forms. Finns reported significantly greater death concerns and death threat, whereas the Americans reported significantly greater anomie. Paranormal beliefs showed stronger relationships with measures of personality adjustment for the Finns than for the Americans. There were 13 significant relationships between paranormal belief subscales and measures of personality adjustment among the Finns and only five among the Americans. Findings are consistent with the notion that secularization has advanced further in Finland than in the United States.
TL;DR: The hypothesis that Chinese children would be more cooperative than American children was tested in a group of 76 Chinese children and 76 American children by use of the Social Values Task, a game-like choice task where each child selects a number of tokens for him or herself and an unspecified other as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The hypothesis that Chinese children would be more cooperative than American children was tested in a group of 76 Chinese children and 76 American children by use of the Social Values Task, a game-like choice task where each child selects a number of tokens for him- or herself and an unspecified other. Six patterns of outcome preferences are possible. Chinese children gave equality responses most often, followed by group enhancement responses, whereas American children gave individualistic and competitive responses more frequently.
TL;DR: In this paper, the concept of intuitive parenting was analyzed in three cultural samples (West Germans, Americans, and Greece) and the latencies of parental verbal/vocal and non-vocal behaviors toward infants' facial and vocal expressions were investigated.
Abstract: Components of the concept of intuitive parenting were analyzed in three cultural samples (West Germans, Americans, and Greeks). The three cultures selected were representing different rearing environments of infants (West Germany and United States: nuclear family; Greece: extended family), but similar geographical conditions (Utah, W. Germany, Northern Greece) and political and economic orientations. As behavioral manifestations of intuitive parenting, latencies of parental verbal/vocal and nonvocal behaviors toward infants' facial and vocal expressions were investigated. The interactional situations between parents and their 3-month-old firstborn infants were videotaped. The results illustrate general parenting programs that are not culturally specific. Quantitative cultural differences were found in the use of verbal behavioral modalities.
TL;DR: The authors examined the validity of the Strange Situation with Japanese infants and mothers by investigating the correlates and antecedents of Strange Situation behavior outside the United States and found that resistant infants referenced their mothers most frequently, avoidant infants the least, and secure infants an intermediate amount.
Abstract: Varying distributions across attachment classifications in different cultures have raised questions about the cross-cultural validity of the Strange Situation. These questions can be addressed by examining the antecedents and correlates of Strange Situation behavior outside the United States. If the Strange Situation is a mild-to-moderate stressor for both U.S. and Japanese infants, the antecedents and correlates of attachment classifications should be similar in both cultures. The present study examined the validity of the Strange Situation with Japanese infants and mothers by investigating the correlates and antecedents of Strange Situation behavior. In the United States, Ainsworth et al. reported that mothers' responsiveness to their infants was the best predictor of infants' later attachment classifications. Dickstein et al. found that resistant infants referenced their mothers most frequently, avoidant infants the least, and secure infants an intermediate amount. These findings suggested two hypothes...
TL;DR: In this article, a cross-cultural comparison was made to investigate the relative effects of speech rate in Korea and the United States for perceptions of the speaker's credibility, and they found that rapid delivery can be used as an effective means of enhancing one's credibility in United States and that this principle can be generalized to Korean female speakers, while slow delivery is more effective in increasing the credibility of Korean male speakers.
Abstract: A cross-cultural comparison was made to investigate the relative effects of speech rate in Korea and the United States for perceptions of the speaker's credibility. Employing a three-way factorial design (Speech Rate x Speaker Gender x Culture Type), this study found that rapid delivery can be used as an effective means of enhancing one's credibility in the United States and that this principle can be generalized to Korean female speakers. On the other hand, slow delivery is more effective in increasing the credibility of Korean male speakers. Moreover, regardless of culture type, the data indicate no main effect of the speaker's gender on credibility, except for perceptions of the speaker's competence.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of urban size, urgency, and cost on helpfulness in the United Kingdom and the Sudan were compared and the results showed that people were less helpful in the city, when the situation was not urgent, and when helping entailed high personal cost.
Abstract: The effects of urban size, urgency, and cost on helpfulness in the United Kingdom and the Sudan were compared. The first study examined the return rates of letters that were either unmarked or marked urgent and that were dropped face up either close to or distant from a mailbox. Analysis of return rates showed main effects of urban size, urgency, and cost, but no significant difference between countries. The second study investigated responses to requests for a street interview made under different urgency and cost conditions. Main effects of urban size, urgency, and cost were found, but there was no significant effect of country. In both countries, people were less helpful in the city, when the situation was not urgent, and when helping entailed high personal cost.
TL;DR: In this paper, a two-part study used Rotter's Social Learning Theory as a framework for comparing university students from Poland and from the Southern United States on four belief-based personality constructs: paranormal beliefs, locus of control, irrational beliefs, and social interest.
Abstract: This two-part study used Rotter's Social Learning Theory as a framework for comparing university students from Poland and from the Southern United States on (a) four belief-based personality constructs: paranormal beliefs, locus of control, irrational beliefs, and social interest; and (b) personality correlates of paranormal beliefs. Both Poles and Americans reported high levels of traditional religious belief, as well as disbelief in superstition, spiritualism, and witchcraft. As hypothesized, the Poles reported a significantly more external locus of control and significantly greater endorsement of irrational beliefs. Also consistent with hypotheses, for the Poles paranormal beliefs showed 10 significant personality correlates, whereas for the Americans only one relationship was significant. These findings are consistent with the notion that within the Polish sociocultural situation, fundamental political and ideological conflicts between the government and the Roman Catholic Church may have optimized pe...
TL;DR: The authors investigated the influence of ethnic cultural background and multicultural interaction on the structure of individual work cognitions and found that cognitive transition was found among individuals of minority ethnic groups who moved away from ethnic work norms, and moved toward work norms of the dominant cultural group.
Abstract: This study investigates the influence of ethnic cultural background and multicultural interaction on the structure of individual work cognitions. Subjects drawn equally from the Aboriginal, Anglo-Saxon, Chinese, and Lebanese Australian cultural communities responded to the Work Cognitions Questionnaire, an instrument designed to measure cultural and personal achievement goals and work values. The rank-ordering pattern of Cultural Goals, Personal Goals, and Work Values were positively correlated (all p <. 0001) within each cultural group. Multidimensional unfolding revealed that not only did the structure of achievement goals and work values vary between the four cultural groups, but that in environments where cultural groups interact, cognitive transition was found among individuals of minority ethnic groups who moved away from ethnic work norms, and moved toward work norms of the dominant cultural group. The variations in work cognition structures are explained in the basis of the culture-specific achiev...
TL;DR: This article found that Japanese children demonstrate higher task persistence, under noncompetitive conditions, than their peers in the United States, when compared to their American peers, while the type of school or sex of the pupil did not have any significant effect on task persistence.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that Japanese children do demonstrate higher task persistence, under noncompetitive conditions, than their peers in the United States. The subjects for the study were 107 first-grade students in Japan and 86 first-grade students in the United States from four elementary schools in each country. The research was designed to include three major independent variables: culture, school type, and sex. The results supported the hypothesis in demonstrating greater persistence by Japanese children, compared to their American peers. Type of school or sex of the pupil did not have any significant effect on task persistence.
TL;DR: This paper investigated the universality of R. Brown's invariant norm of address in German and found that the structure of address exchange is cross-culturally similar for Chinese, Korean, Greek, and German speakers.
Abstract: The authors' basic questions were: Does the alleged universality of R. Brown's Invariant Norm of Address extend to German usage and is the structure of address exchange cross-culturally similar for Chinese, Korean, Greek, and German speakers? Reports were obtained from two age samples of 91 female and male German speakers residing in West Germany of actual address usage received from and sent to 27 categories of interactants. The results supported Brown's description of address exchange such that German may be added to the languages that support the claim for the universality of the rules of address. The authors then compared German and previously reported Chinese, Korean, and Greek usage to reveal substantial cross-cultural consistency. The article discusses briefly the emerging connection of studies of address exchange with P. Brown and Levinson's theory of politeness.
TL;DR: This paper found that children in Korean-American families who had been at a middle-class occupational level in Korea but who subsequently dropped to working-class status after immigrating to the United States (downward mobile) tend to perceive their mothers as less warm and accepting than do children that maintained their prior middleclass occupational status after moving to the USA (middle class).
Abstract: In a sample of 44 Korean immigrant families, the hypothesis was tested that children in Korean-American families who had been at a middle-class occupational level in Korea but who subsequently dropped to working-class status after immigrating to the United States (downward mobile) tend to perceive their mothers as less warm and accepting than do children in Korean-American families that maintained their prior middle-class occupational status after moving to the United States (middle class). 'Two prior studies suggested the likelihood of this hypothesis. Contrary to expectation, however, children in the downward mobile families of this sample-at all years of U.S. residence perceived significantly more maternal warmth and affection than did their middle-class counterparts. Results of this research also show that children in both occupational strata experienced increasing maternal warmth and overall acceptance-and accordingly, decreasing maternal hostility, neglect, and undifferentiated rejection -the longer...
TL;DR: The relationship of children's self-understanding to social class, community type (modem vs. traditional), and ratings made by teachers was investigated in Iceland by as discussed by the authors, who found that children in the higher social classes offered more psychological descriptors than those in the lower social classes.
Abstract: The relationship of children's self-understanding to social class, community type (modem vs. traditional), and ratings made by teachers was investigated in Iceland. Subjects were seventy-three 12-year-olds in Reykjavik, distributed evenly across six social classes, and twenty-one 12-year-olds primarily from families in the lowest two social classes residing in two traditional rural communities. In clinical-developmental interviews, the children were asked to describe themselves. Responses were assigned to one of four content categories: physical (appearance and possessions), active (abilities and activities), social (social personality and relationships), or psychological (thoughts and feelings). Classroom teachers also rated children on scales of intellectual and social competence. As predicted, the results indicate that children in the higher social classes offered more psychological descriptors than those in the lower social classes. Children rated as intellectually and socially competent by their teac...
TL;DR: Cultural differences in automobile safety belt use were investigated prior to and following the initiation of mandatory safety belt legislation in two independent studies, one in Massachusetts ( United States) and the second in Hiroshima (Japan) as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Cultural differences in automobile safety belt use were investigated prior to and following the initiation of mandatory safety belt legislation in two independent studies, one in Massachusetts (United States) and the second in Hiroshima (Japan). Comparison of the pattern of findings in these studies indicated cultural differences over time. In both sociocultural contexts, there was an increase in drivers' use of safety belts on the highway and in the city from the test occasion prior to passage of the law to the test occasion immediately following legislation. However, whereas the usage rates began to level off and remained constant or increased further in Hiroshima, they continued to decrease steadily in Massachusetts. Further, a significant number of the Massachusetts participants voiced their concern that mandatory safety belt legislation was an invasion of privacy/infringement on human rights, which ultimately resulted in repeal of the legislation and further decrease in safety belt use. No parallel p...
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that Swedish women were more externally oriented than Swedish men or Americans of either sex; Swedish men did not differ from Americans in terms of their external orientation.
Abstract: Locus of control was compared in American college students and Swedish gymnasium students. Swedish women were more externally oriented than Swedish men or Americans of either sex; Swedish men did not differ from Americans. Differences in locus of control were only modestly related to perception of government versus individual locus of responsibility. Locus of control orientation was not significantly related to sex-role attitude.
TL;DR: The authors examined value differences in three samples: expatriate Iranian Baha'is (35 males, 30 females) resident in Australia, 59 Australian Baha"is (22 males, 37 females, and 66 unselected Australians) and found that men assigned more relative importance than women to values from the hedonism, achievement, power, and stimulation domains.
Abstract: This research examines value differences in three samples: expatriate Iranian Baha'is (35 males, 30 females) resident in Australia, 59 Australian Baha'is (22 males, 37 females), and 66 unselected Australians (35 males, 31 females). Subjects rated a set of 30 terminal values and 26 instrumental values for importance, using the Schwartz Value Survey. Values were classified into domains in terms of the Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) analysis of their universal content and structure. The results showed that the two Baha'i groups rated values concerned with restrictive conformity, tradition, and spirituality as relatively more important and values concerned with hedonism, self-direction, and stimulation as relatively less important, when compared with the unselected Australian sample. Other group differences in value priorities were also obtained when groups were compared two at a time. Men assigned more relative importance than women to values from the hedonism, achievement, power, and stimulation domains. Women ...
TL;DR: The authors investigated the modes of acculturation and the response tendencies of adolescents of biethnic families living in Athens, as compared to adolescents (n = 113) of homoethnic families in Greece, and homo-ethnic adolescents of Greek immigrants in Germany and the Netherlands, by means of a scale of family values.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the modes of acculturation and the response tendencies of adolescents (n = 133) of biethnic families living in Athens, as compared to adolescents (n = 113) of homoethnic families in Athens, and homoethnic adolescents (n = 80) of Greek immigrants in Germany and the Netherlands, by means of a scale of family values. Biethnic adolescents manifested different forms of acculturation of values as compared to homoethnic Greeks in Athens, Germany, and the Netherlands. The biethnic adolescents appear to be integrating primarily to the disparate value systems of their biethnic parents, manifested by reluctance to disagree with the values of the homoethnic or heteroethnic parent, and less to the ecological and social factors of the host culture. The response tendencies appear to be closer to "accommodation" but with a different response pattern dependent on whether they are toward the traditional or rejection of traditional values poles of the scale.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors tested the hypothesis that generalized self-related cognitions concerning sex-role orientations and locus of control beliefs are more strongly associated with cultural membership than with morphophenotype sex.
Abstract: The hypothesis was tested that generalized self-related cognitions concerning sex-role orientations and locus of control beliefs are more strongly associated with cultural membership than with morphophenotype sex. In addition, it was expected that differences in generalized locus of control orientations between the morphophenotype sexes can be duplicated by psychological sex-role orientation variables. Questionnaire data on normative sex-role orientations (SRO scale), gender-related self-concepts (masculinity, femininity, and androgyny; BSRI), and three dimensions of locus of control (internality, powerful others control, and chance control; IPC scales) were obtained from 98 Southern Italian and 98 West German university students. The samples were matched for age, sex, education, and student status. The hypothesis that morphophenotype sex differences in control beliefs can be duplicated by psychological sex-role orientation measures, and its corollary that these psychological variables explain more varian...