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Showing papers in "Journal of Human Resources in 1974"


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: This paper found that while high status mothers have a relatively high potential wage, they spend from two to three times as much time in preschool child care as do low status mothers and that this class differential in time investments to preschool children influences cognitive achievement.
Abstract: Using a unique data source on family time use both in and outside the home, we obtained estimates of parental time allocated to preschool children for several socioeconomic status groups. We find that while high status mothers have a relatively high potential wage, they spend from two to three times as much time in preschool child care as do low status mothers. To the extent that this class differential in time investments to preschool children influences cognitive achievement, our results indicate again that equal educational programs across different school systems need not imply equal educational opportunity.

198 citations


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present results from an examination of teacher flows within a large city school system, focusing on the mobility of teachers among schools within the system, the movement of teachers into and out of the system and the effect of these flows on the allocation of teachers in different types of schools.
Abstract: : The paper presents results from an examination of teacher flows within a large city school system The focus is primarily on the mobility of teachers among schools within the system, the movement of teachers into and out of the system, and the effect of these flows on the allocation of teachers among different types of schools The data cover the movement of teachers in San Diego between the 1970-71 and 1971-72 school years However, the theoretical framework used and many of the empirical results should be directly relevant to school personnel systems in large cities throughout the United States

113 citations


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of co-payments on the use of physicians' services by poor families were investigated. Butler et al. found that co-payment is associated with an 18 percent reduction in utilization by the poor in 1968.
Abstract: This paper presents estimates of the effects of co-payments upon the use of physicians' services by poor families. The study is based upon pooled cross-section random samples of the population of the Province of Saskatchewan. Data for the period 1963 to 1968 are analyzed. A dummy variable is used to capture the effects of introducing co-payment in 1968. Estimates are presented for various types of service in an attempt to observe differences between patient-elective and physician-elective services. The results indicate that co-payment is associated with an 18 percent reduction in utilization by the poor in 1968.

92 citations


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: For both sexes, age is nonmonotonically related to the level of quitting, and higher earnings decrease the amount of quits as mentioned in this paper, and the relationship of quit level and variability to age and earnings is different between men and women.
Abstract: Establishment data on labor turnover and household data on job movement and labor market exit are used to distinguish between male and female quitting to exit the labor force and quitting to move to another job. Quitting to exit is larger for females and quitting to move to another job is larger for males. Total female quitting is usually larger than male quitting, while male quitting is more variable. For both sexes, age is nonmonotonically related to the level of quits, and higher earnings decrease the level of quits. The relationships of quit level and variability to age and earnings are different between men and women.

66 citations


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this article, a cross-section analysis of SMSAs in 1960 and 1970 is presented, relating the proportion of female-headed families and proportion of the female population receiving AFDC assistance to the size of the AFDC payment and related variables.
Abstract: The AFDC program contains incentives for family dissolution, as well as the usual incentives regarding work effort inherent in transfer programs of its type. The research discussed below attempts to determine the extent of the impact of these incentives. Cross-section analyses of SMSAs in 1960 and 1970 are presented, relating the proportion of female-headed families and the proportion of the female population receiving AFDC assistance to the size of the AFDC payment and related variables. The results indicate that both female-headship rates and AFDC recipient rates are significantly affected by the relative size of AFDC payments in white and nonwhite populations alike.

61 citations


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: It was found that the participation of blacks is more likely to be reduced by health factors than that of whites; that the primary importance of education derives from its association with skills and ability rather than health.
Abstract: Models are estimated to analyze the influence of health on labor force participation. It was found that the participation of blacks is more likely to be reduced by health factors than that of whites; that the primary importance of education derives from its association with skills and ability rather than health. Public transfer payments influence but do not control participation of nonseverely disabled workers. Including health measures can increase the explanatory power of labor force models. Better information on health of workers would allow separation of the cost of disability into those reducible through delivery of health care and those more appropriately dealt with through labor market policies.

56 citations


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: For example, this paper found that 61.4 percent of black wives and 46.7 percent of white wives worked in 1966, and that full-time work was more common among black wives in better educated, more stable families, and among white wives in less educated, poorer, unstable families.
Abstract: Analysis of labor force participation of black and white wives by family personal characteristics, from the 1967 Survey of Economic Opportunity, revealed that 61.4 percent of black wives and 46.7 percent of white wives worked in 1966. Full-time work was more common among black wives in better educated, more stable families, and among white wives in less educated, poorer, unstable families. The reverse applied to part-time employment. Results reflect the opening of white-collar jobs to qualified black women, as an alternative to domestic service. Strong sexist barriers to high-status employment of women explain the relatively low participation of upper middle-class white wives.

55 citations



Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: The authors analyzed differences in the duration, turnover, and distribution of unemployment by race, sex, age, and occupation, and found that high job turnover accounts for the relatively high unemployment rates observed among blacks in general, young people of both races, and individuals in unskilled occupations.
Abstract: This paper analyzes differences in the duration, turnover, and distribution of unemployment by race, sex, age, and occupation. Data are drawn primarily from the Work Experience Surveys conducted since 1964. We find that high job turnover accounts for the relatively high unemployment rates observed among blacks in general, young people of both races, and individuals in unskilled occupations. However, women, especially white women of childbearing age, experience higher unemployment rates because they are unemployed longer between jobs.

49 citations


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a brief account of the control variables used in some of the analyses and not in others, and further discussion is provided in the individual papers that follow.
Abstract: from treatment effects. Full descriptions of these normal wage variables are given in the papers that follow. The foregoing brief account is by no means a complete listing of control variables. Some variables were important in some of the analyses and not in others, and further discussion is provided in the individual papers.

37 citations


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine and interpret experimental data in the context of a formal model of labor supply which permits an explicit consideration of the issue of what can be inferred from a limited duration experiment about the behavioral effects of a negative income tax if such a program were adopted permanently.
Abstract: Among the many problems involved in interpreting the results of the New Jersey-Pennsylvania experiment is the determination of what can be inferred from a limited duration experiment about the behavioral effects of a negative income tax if such a program were adopted permanently. In this paper we examine and interpret experimental data in the context of a formal model of labor supply which permits an explicit consideration of this issue. Section I summarizes a formal model of labor supply which indicates that the response of a "rational" individual to a temporary negative income tax would differ from his response to a permanent program, and that a limited duration experiment will correspondingly yield a biased prediction of "permanent" behavior.' Qualitative statements are made about the nature of the biases and their relationship to interest or discount rates, time horizons, and concepts of intertemporal substitution. Section II discusses strategies for empirical estimation of the predicted effects of a permanent negative income tax from what is, in principle, observable from an "ideally" constructed experiment; alternative strategies to handle data limitations implicit in the experiment are then proposed. Section III presents the empirical estimates required to project the labor-supply effects of a permanent negative income tax and interprets the conventionally reported results of the experiment in light of these estimates. Section IV summarizes the basic empirical results presented in the paper.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: This paper develops an alternative model for the discriminatory pricing behavior of physicians that generates a result that price discrimination will be practiced by all physicians even if the elasticity of market demand is less than one and all or most of the physicians are profit-maximizers.
Abstract: This paper develops an alternative model for the discriminatory pricing behavior of physicians. By introducing search cost explicitly, it generates a result that price discrimination will be practiced by all physicians even if the elasticity of market demand is less than one and all or most of the physicians are profit-maximizers. The proposed model also explains the history and the recent trend of pricing behavior in medicine and may further explain some of the political actions of the American Medical Association.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this paper, an analysis of married professional nurses' labor supply response to changes in wage rates and in husband's earnings and to the impact of other inter-household differences is presented.
Abstract: With data obtained from married professional nurses, estimates are made of their labor supply response to changes in wage rates and in husband's earnings and to the impact of other interhousehold differences. Analysis was conducted for two time periods, and for each we estimated models to generate the probability of labor force participation and the expected amount of time worked, given participation. In contrast to the flow of labor supplied by employed married nurses, we find the participation decision is not dependent on the wage rate. Both dimensions of labor supply are dependent on husband's earnings. The results also provide strong evidence that the supply curve is backward-bending just beyond the range of our observations.


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: The result is that staffing patterns and optimal choice of techniques depend on the scale of practice and introduction of physician extenders into the medical care system increases the scale at which economies of staffing are obtained and raises the diseconomies of suboptimal practice.
Abstract: This paper presents an activity analysis model of primary medical care which, through the use of integer constraints, captures both the technology of ambulatory care and the institutional restriction that labor inputs must be employed in discrete units. The result is that staffing patterns and optimal choice of techniques depend on the scale of practice. Empirical experiments demonstrate this relationship and, furthermore, reveal that introduction of physician extenders into the medical care system increases the scale at which economies of staffing are obtained and raises the diseconomies of suboptimal practice.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this paper, the elasticities of the most commonly used formula with respect to accident frequency and severity were analyzed by analyzing the elasticity of the formula for small firms, and it was shown that financial incentives for safety are negligible for small companies and that quite large increases in benefit levels would do virtually nothing to increase those incentives.
Abstract: The workmen's compensation insurance premiums of most employers are adjusted, by the use of an experience-rating formula, to reflect the firm's accident record. This paper presents, by firm size, the elasticities of the most commonly used formula with respect to accident frequency and severity. The analysis shows that financial incentives for safety are negligible for small firms, and thus it fails to support the recent National Commission's recommendation that experience rating be extended to still smaller firms. It is also shown that quite large increases in benefit levels would do virtually nothing to increase those incentives.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: The labor-supply or work-effort response of male heads of families eligible for or receiving income subsidies such as a negative income tax is crucial from two points of view as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The labor-supply or work-effort response of male heads of families eligible for or receiving income subsidies such as a negative income tax is crucial from two points of view. First, the earnings of the male are typically the major source of earnings for poor and near-poor husband-wife families, and few such families have important amounts of income other than earnings. As the major earner, then, the husband has a large potential for labor-force withdrawal in response to a transfer payment. In other words, a negative response large enough to negate the augmentation in money income from the transfer is possible for the primary earner, but less so for the secondary earners. Second, there is a popular view that any reduction in work-for-pay on the part of husbands with heavy family responsibilities is unrelieved either by the offsetting gains in output of work-athome expected from wives, or by investments toward future income on the part


Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: The authors found that much more of the racial earnings gap should be attributed to labor-market discrimination than to differences in years of school, even when productivity differences are measured primarily in terms of predicted test scores.
Abstract: Using both the 1967 Survey of Economic Opportunity and the 1/1,000 sample of the 1960 Census, we find that much more of the racial earnings gap should be attributed to labor-market discrimination than to differences in years of school. Although differences in scholastic attainment have more effect than differences in years of school per se, labor-market discrimination remains important even when productivity differences are measured primarily in terms of predicted test scores rather than years of school.



Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: The authors examined the problems of generalizing from such an experimental setting to the national labor-supply responses that would be generated by a negative income tax that replaced existing welfare programs for families headed by able-bodied males.
Abstract: The Graduated Work Incentive Experiment took place in two states, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, in which able-bodied males were eligible for relatively generous welfare programs. The major purpose of this paper is to examine the problems of generalizing from such an experimental setting to the national labor-supply responses that would be generated by a negative income tax that replaced existing welfare programs for families headed by able-bodied males. A second question, closely related but theoretically and empirically more tractable, concerns what the labor-supply effects of the experimental plans would have been had there been no welfare program in New Jersey and Pennsylvania for families headed by able-bodied males. Primarily to shed light on the first question, this paper discusses the second question in some detail.1 In the experiment, families were assigned on a stratified random basis to either one of eight experimental groups or to a control group. Families assigned to the control group were not entitled to benefits from any of the experimental negative income tax plans. Each of the eight experimental groups were eligible for benefits from a different negative income tax program for a period of three

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: For example, this article argued that a program of unconditional cash payments should be avoided, perhaps to protect the potential recipients from their own folly, and certainly to prevent the use of public funds for such purposes.
Abstract: The primary policy issue to which the experiment on graduated work incentives addressed itself is, of course, the effect on willingness to work. There is, however, a second category of issues, somewhat broader and less easily defined but of comparable importance, which concern the general effects of graduated work incentives on the life style of the beneficiaries. These issues can be described, in considerably oversimplified form, as follows: Those who fear the worst of a system of graduated work incentives may hold the hypothesis that a large part of the payments will be wasted by the recipients-either being spent on drugs, drinks, and gambling or being dissipated in increased leisure time unproductively used. Those espousing such an extreme view would say that a program of unconditional cash payments should be avoided, perhaps to protect the potential recipients from their own folly, and certainly to prevent the use of public funds for such purposes. At the other extreme is the view that such a program might well improve the life style of the recipients. The assurance of financial support and the increase in expected income might lead to a modification in attitudes that could, perhaps, be described as the adoption of middle-class values and a reconciliation with the goals of the bulk of society. Such attitude changes might be expected to lead, among other things, to political activity, increased interest in education and quality of neighborhoods, lower crime rates, and reduced neurosis and psychosis. At least two intermediate hypotheses also suggest themselves as possibilities. The first is that a program of graduated work incentives simply does not interfere materially with recipients' life styles, aside from augmenting spending power, and that such a measure neither can nor (perhaps) should be an effective instrument to change people's lives. The second is that a social experiment limited in number of participants and duration, where the range of alternative states is chosen to be rather narrow, is unlikely to show striking effects.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors integrate reported unemployment into a model of labor supply to estimate empirically the proportion of reported unemployment that is leisure time, and conclude that the loss of income during a period of unemployment increases hours worked when employment is found, and there is only a slight additional worker effect.
Abstract: This paper integrates reported unemployment into a model of labor supply. Given the assumption that the individual faces a fixed wage rate, the model enables one to estimate empirically the proportion of reported unemployment that is leisure time. From cross section data, these estimates range from about half for married women to zero for men whose wives are out of the labor force. It is concluded that (1) unemployment is partly leisure, (2) the loss of income during a period of unemployment increases hours worked when employment is found, and (3) there is only a slight additional worker effect.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: The estimates indicate that the majority of the increase in average costs for the sampled hospitals was associated with factor price increases, while changes in technology and/or case mix also resulted in significant cost increases.
Abstract: The objective of this study is the estimation of the amount of hospital cost inflation associated with increases in factor prices, technological and case-mix change, and growth in hospital demand. The estimates indicate that the majority of the increase in average costs for the sampled hospitals was associated with factor price increases, while changes in technology and/or case mix also resulted in significant cost increases. These increases were offset to a relatively minor extent by the cost effects of increases in hospital output. To the extent that improvements in the quality of care are reflected by the observed increases in full-time equivalent employees per bed, the costs due to changes in technology and/or case mix may reflect the cost of quality improvements.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present estimates of hospitals' wage elasticities of demand for registered and licensed practical nurses, utilizing a cross-section sample of over 2,000 hospitals, and attempt to ascertain if these elasticities, and the extent to which hospitals substitute across classes of nurses, vary across types (public, private not-for-profit, or private for-profit) and size of hospitals.
Abstract: This study presents estimates of hospitals' wage elasticities of demand for registered and licensed practical nurses, utilizing a cross-section sample of over 2,000 hospitals. Attempts are made to ascertain if these elasticities, and the extent to which hospitals substitute across classes of nurses, vary across types (public, private not-for-profit, or private-for-profit) and size of hospitals. Tentative implications of the research relating to the economic and technical efficiency of hospitals are discussed.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: Analysis of hospital investment with a model based on the assumption that hospitals are run to maximize the incomes of staff physicians indicates that investment is a lagged response to output and physician income changes, while profits are not consistently an important determinant.
Abstract: After considering existing studies of hospital capital investment, this paper analyzes hospital investment with a model based on the assumption that hospitals are run to maximize the incomes of staff physicians. Optimal capital stock is shown to be related to physician income and hospital output. Analysis of a state-aggregate cross-section indicates that investment is a lagged response to output and physician income changes, while profits are not consistently an important determinant.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on family labor-supply response under income maintenance programs such as the negative income tax that has been the subject of the New Jersey-Pennsylvania experiment, where cash benefits are determined on the basis of family income and family size.
Abstract: Under income maintenance programs such as the negative income tax that has been the subject of the New Jersey-Pennsylvania experiment, cash benefits are determined on the basis of family income and family size. It follows, therefore, that the labor-supply response of the family as a whole, as well as the labor-supply response of individual family members, should be a focus of analysis. Recent theoretical literature in economics has emphasized the simultaneity of family decisions about work effort. Secondary workers are likely to make decisions about their level of work effort in light of the earnings opportunities of the primary earner, and vice versa. And this interdependence of work decisions is likely to be reinforced by the rules of income maintenance programs like those tested in the experiment.l Thus, this article is concerned with family labor-supply response.2 The obvious measure to use in such analysis is earnings. An earnings measure gives a straightforward way of weighting the importance of individual family members to get the total family response. It also provides the most direct translation of the family response into national cost implications. Here, however, an additional measure is used-family hours worked. There are two reasons for reporting an analysis of total family hours as well as earnings. First, there is reason to suspect the reliability of earnings differences reported between the experimental and control groups. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that initially some experimentals and some controls reported net rather than the requested gross earnings, but that the experimentals learned more rapidly than did the controls that the gross earnings were to be reported.

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: The first exploitation of the data collected during the New Jersey-Pennsylvania experiment can be found in this article, where the authors present a general description of the available data and present a summary of the most important products of the experiment.
Abstract: The preceding papers in this special section of the Journal are summaries of the first exploitation of the data collected during the New Jersey-Pennsylvania experiment. In a real sense, however, one of the most important products of the experiment so far is the extensive data base itself. Certainly, the most important ultimate scientific outcome will be the collective judgment of the research community on the relevance of the data in shedding new light on the issues of labor supply and income maintenance in general. Such a judgment can only be arrived at through access to the data by independent scholars. This paper presents a general description of the data available.1

Journal Article•DOI•
TL;DR: The authors used projected labor force data, classified by race, sex, and education, to define nondiscriminatory black-white occupational patterns and earnings ratios to the year 2000 and showed that these patterns and ratios would prevail if labor market discrimination continues unchanged from its 1965 level.
Abstract: This paper attempts to provide benchmarks by which we may measure our progress toward eliminating racial discrimination in the labor market Using projected labor force data, classified by race, sex, and education, we define nondiscriminatory black-white occupational patterns and earnings ratios to the year 2000 We also detail the occupational patterns and earnings ratios which would prevail if labor market discrimination continues unchanged from its 1965 level Neither of these projections is thought to be a realistic estimate of what will actually happen in the labor market over the coming years; rather, they are designed to serve as standards against which we can measure our performance