Showing papers in "Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management in 2006"

Critical success factors for lean implementation within SMEs

Abstract: Purpose – The aim of this research paper is to present the critical factors that constitute a successful implementation of lean manufacturing within manufacturing SMEs.Design/methodology/approach – A combination of comprehensive literature review and visits to ten SMEs based in the East of the UK were employed in the study. The companies' practices were observed to highlight the degree of lean manufacturing utilisation within these companies. This was followed by interviewing of the relevant and key personnel involved in lean implementation. Results were analysed and validated through workshops, case studies and Delphi techniques.Findings – Several critical factors that determine the success of implementing the concept of lean manufacturing within SMEs are identified. Leadership, management, finance organisational culture and skills and expertise, amongst other factors; are classified as the most pertinent issues critical for the successful adoption of lean manufacturing within SMEs environment.Research l...

Lean viewed as a philosophy

Abstract: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to act as a meticulous conceptual paper probing the contemporary view towards lean and illustrate that, despite its discernible benefits, the implementation record suffers as the prevailing opinion fails to encapsulate that an aspiring lean enterprise shall only succeed if it views lean as a philosophy rather than another strategy. Design/methodology/approach - The paper is based on a thorough literature search concerning the success and failure of lean implementations and acts as a precursor for one of the authors utilising a combination of methodologies; namely, interviewing, survey questionnaire and participant observation in attempting to prove his PhD hypothesis. Findings - Evidently, a cocktail of factors are needed for lean success; not only is it necessary to implement most of the technical tools but an organisation's culture needs transforming too. Furthermore, the alterations need to be implemented throughout an organisation's value chain. Lean has a major strategic significance, though its implementation procedure, HRM implications, general approach to the supplier base coupled with the overall universal conviction of viewing lean as a set of tactics rather than embracing it as a philosophy advocates that this contributes to the relatively low number of successful lean initiatives. Originality/value - The paper would prove invaluable to lean practitioners through its summation of the intricacies towards lean enterprise success and academic researchers by focusing their attention towards the necessary cultural implications. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

An analysis of the relationship between TQM implementation and organisational performance: evidence from Turkish SMEs

Abstract: Purpose – The principal aim of this paper is to determine the critical factors of total quality management (TQM) and to measure their effect on organizational performance of SMEs operating in Turkish textile industry.Design/methodology/approach – Data for this study was collected using a self‐administered questionnaire that was distributed to 500 SMEs in textile industry in the city of Istanbul in Turkey selected randomly from the database of Turkish Small Business Administration (KOSGEB). Of the 500 questionnaires posted, a total of 163 questionnaires were returned.Findings – Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, seven empirically validated dimensions of TQM were identified. The structural equation modelling technique was employed to investigate the relationship between the implementation of TQM practices and organizational performance. Data analysis reveals that there is a strong positive relationship between TQM practices and non‐financial performance of SMEs, while there is only weak inf...

Risk management in supply chain: a real option approach

Abstract: Purpose – The aim of this paper is that of individualizing a framework for the management of uncertainty in supply chain finalized to reduce the firm risks.Design/methodology/approach – Since a way for reducing the damages deriving from uncertainty sources is increasing the level of flexibility inside the supply chain, and the real option theory allows the increase of the flexibility level, in order to achieve the aim of this work, we utilize the real options theory to coverage of one or more risks inside the supply chain.Findings – A useful theoretical framework has been individualized enabling the selection of possible options to protect the firm against the risk originating from every source of uncertainty. In particular, on two types of risks, using Matlab software, a test has been conducted that proves the ability of the outsource option to cover risks under examination.Practical implications – In the paper a framework providing useful information for the supply chain management is presented.Original...

Supplier selection using combined analytical hierarchy process and grey relational analysis

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop an evaluation model considering the qualitative and quantitative criteria for supplier selection in an outsourcing manufacturing organization.Design/methodology/approach – In this paper, the authors propose an integrated model by combining the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and grey relational analysis (GRA) into a single evaluation model. The model is illustrated with a case study of a notebook computer manufacturer to demonstrate the effectiveness of this integrated model.Findings – Through the proposed model, it is possible to effectively integrate the specialized knowledge and experience of each dispersed evaluator, and the quantitative data to select the best suppliers for cooperation.Originality/value – The decision‐aiding software (AHP‐GRA model) has been implemented in Excel to automate the supplier selection process. This can widely apply the integrated model for the industry.

Towards lean product lifecycle management: A framework for new product development

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to discuss a holistic framework for guiding applied research within the field of new product development. This work is a precursor to developing a framework for undertaking lean product lifecycle management (PLM). Design/methodology/approach – The research approach taken in this work has been based around theory development from a review and synthesis of a range of primary industry cases, practical approaches and partial solutions available within the existing literature. Findings – The result is a six-step theoretical framework that can be used as a point of reference for academics discussing the development of systemic approaches to the subject, as well as those from industry searching for a framework for their new product development activity. At this point the framework as a whole has not been tested, although each of the various elements has been successfully applied in isolation. The implications of this paper are that the existing technical product development literature has a number of gaps and weaknesses. These include, but are not limited to: a propensity to be functionally myopic, tending to be mostly dominated by marketing or quality/engineering perspective; a lack of focus on the human aspects of product development and a lack of focus on real world environments that often involve a high volume of medium to low innovation products being developed simultaneously. Research limitations/implications – Owing to space limitations, we have not covered in detail the wider process of lean PLM which will be covered in future work Originality/value – The originality of this paper is not in its constituent framework elements but more in its synthesis of existing best practice from industry, consultancy and academia into a coherent framework for the achievement of effective lean PLM.

Achieving agility in supply chain through simultaneous “design of” and “design for” supply chain

Abstract: Purpose – The two main constituting elements of the supply chains are “product” and “supply chain operations”, which are highly inter‐related across more than one dimension. Many of the drawbacks in the success and sustainability of supply chains often relate to the segregation of these dimensions. This paper seeks to examine the ideas and to propose an integrated approach to facilitate the dynamic and simultaneous design and development of products and supply chains, thus contributing to the notion of agile supply chains.Design/methodology/approach – Two critical areas of product design and development, and supply chain design and management have been studied, leading to the conceptual development of practical models for approaching the subject. The proposed framework then is examined in a field case study in which a number of issues raised in this paper are validated through observing these supply chains.Findings – A detailed view of the model of simultaneous approach to “design of” and “design for” sup...

Evaluation of overall line effectiveness (OLE) in a continuous product line manufacturing system

Abstract: Purpose – The total productive maintenance concept provided a quantitative metric – overall equipment effectiveness (OEE), for measuring the effectiveness of individual equipment in a factory, which is significant but insufficient since world class manufacturing (WCM) system focus on product line involving machines in series. This paper aims to present an approach to measure the overall line effectiveness (OLE) in continuous line‐manufacturing system.Design/methodology/approach – Systematic methodology, based on OEE metrics, is developed to model the productivity of a line manufacturing system in terms of OLE. The general and step‐by‐step method of OLE measurement in the line consisting of n number of processes is explained using a flow chart.Findings – Computer simulation has been carried out for the evaluation of OLE in product line manufacturing system with n number of machines. It also identifies the bottle‐neck machines and the effect of specific contributing parameter for improvement.Practical impli...

Practice of information systems: Evidence from select Indian SMEs

Abstract: Purpose – To provide the outcome of information system (IS) related practice survey designed to identify current trends in Indian small and medium enterprises (SMEs).Design/methodology/approach – This research is exploratory in nature, a survey methodology is used for study and the focus of study is cross‐sectional. Two companies have been selected for detailed case studies. The objective of the study was to become more familiar through survey and information collected to one point in time. The methodology was based on a questionnaire survey and personal interviews.Findings – The outcomes, based on a survey of 210 SMEs, reveal that though SMEs understand and acknowledge the importance of the IS in day‐to‐day operations management in the present dynamic and heterogeneous business environment but these are yet to implement, operate and exploit it fully in a formal and professional manner so as to enable them to derive maximum business gains out of it. SMEs are not found equipped adequately with the IS resou...

Perceptions of generic strategies of small and medium sized engineering and electronics manufacturers in the UK: The applicability of the Miles and Snow typology

Abstract: Purpose – To present the main findings of a study conducted in manufacturing firms in the UK to determine the applicability of generic strategies to small and medium sized firms (SMEs)Design/methodology/approach – The Miles and Snow strategic orientation typology was used to examine the emphasis on the factors used to craft strategy and its subsequent impact on organizational performance The study examined its applicability in two contrasting sectors: engineering and electronicsFindings – Based on the responses obtained from 194 SMEs, the findings indicate that the main strategic orientation types present in this study are associated with different environment types; prospectors tend to perceive their environment as “dynamic” whereas defenders perceive their environment as “stable” Distinct differences were found in relation to the emphasis of both orientation types on leadership, culture, strategy, and performance outcomes Finally, the findings indicate that “prospectors” perform better than “defend

The extended VMI for coordinating the whole supply network

Abstract: Purpose – To highlight how vendor managed inventory (VMI) can be extended both upstream and downstream in the supply network to co‐ordinate the material and information flows among a number of different suppliers, manufacturing and distribution plants (“extended VMI”).Design/methodology/approach – The research is based on data and information gathered during an in‐depth case study within the supply network co‐ordinated by GlaxoSmithKline, one of the world's leading research‐based pharmaceutical and healthcare companies.Findings – Defines the peculiarities and the requisites of the extended VMI as to: the information flows supporting the relationships among the supply network members; the information systems, supporting the data collection, management, diffusion and elaboration; the performance monitoring system, highlighting the benefits for each supply network member as well as avoiding opportunistic behaviours.Research limitations/implications – The research intends to offer an original contribution to ...

Developing an SME based six sigma strategy

Abstract: Purpose – The effective implementation of the six sigma strategy within UK manufacturing industries, in particular SMEs, can be considered to be poor. SMEs cite high costs and complexity of implementation as being the major limiting factors as to its widespread use. This paper aims to describe the application of six sigma in an SME and to show how the company applied a cost-effective six sigma methodology to eradicate a critical to quality (CTQ) issue. The paper seeks to conclude by developing a strategic framework for the widespread use of six sigma in SMEs. Design/methodology/approach – This paper applies the six sigma strategy in an SME in order to eradicate a major CTQ issue. It identifies the approach employed, the tools and techniques used and shows the savings that were made through the structured application of the DMAIC procedure, which is at the heart of the six sigma approach. Findings – Through the correct application of experimental design approaches, this paper identifies the optimum parameter settings that enabled the company to eradicate the CTQ issue and achieve significant improvements in quality and cost from a modest financial outlay. Research limitations/implications – The design and implementation of an SME-specific six sigma strategy and its application to a real engineering problem will enable companies to apply the techniques and to attain improvements in terms of cost and quality. Originality/value – The application of the six sigma strategy and the resulting conclusions as to its effectiveness for industry are the real value of this paper. This paper will be valuable for quality professionals, design engineers and manufacturing specialists in a wide range of industries.

Towards best management practices for implementing manufacturing flexibility

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this research is to develop a framework and an initial list of best management practices for implementing manufacturing flexibility.Design/methodology/approach – To identify these practices, recent frameworks (i.e. 1988 and onward) for implementing manufacturing flexibility in organizations are reviewed. Based on this review, the major management practices for implementing flexibility are identified and synthesized into a new framework.Findings – This framework suggests that manufacturing flexibility should be implemented using a three‐stage approach, labeled: identifying required flexibility (i.e. identifying and justifying the flexibility types, measurements and tools needed to achieve the required manufacturing flexibility), achieving required flexibility (i.e. acquiring and implementing the organizational and technological tools needed to achieve the required manufacturing flexibility) and managing required flexibility (i.e. monitoring and changing the required flexibility typ...

Transforming the supply chain

Abstract: Purpose – Today's business environment emerges the need for organizations to continuously transform themselves, in order to maintain and reinforce their ability to compete successfully. The purpose of this paper is to present an analysis of the transformation process of supply chain in order to provide a modular structured management tool for planning, implementing and measure the effectiveness of supply chain transformation process (SCTP), in relation to overall organizational performance and business strategy.Design/methodology/approach – The focal concepts upon which the overall approach is based are the strategic planning process, the human resources management techniques, the link between organizational structure and culture, the marketing integration and the importance of quality evaluation.Findings – The success of such efforts depends on a number of correlated parameters, among which, those of top management commitment and behavioural issues of human resources are the most critical. The tool propo...

Rapid hard tooling process selection using QFD‐AHP methodology

Abstract: Purpose – To provide a systematic framework for mold designers, that can be used for rapid tooling (RT) process selection and prioritization of process parameters.Design/methodology/approach – This paper presents a QFD‐AHP methodology which has three phases. The first phase involves prioritizing the tooling requirements (driven by customer preferences) against a set of die/mold development attributes (such as product material, geometry, and die material and production order) through pair‐wise comparison using analytical hierarchal process (AHP). These priority ratings are used for selecting the most appropriate tooling process using quality function deployment (QFD) in the second phase. Finally, QFD is used again for identifying critical process parameters (such as layer thickness, scan pitch and laser power) for the selected RT process.Findings – The QFD‐AHP methodology has been illustrated with industrial examples on RT for molded parts. The molds were fabricated using direct metal laser sintering and s...

E‐business capabilities model

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present a conceptual framework to evaluate e‐business strategic capabilities using structural equation modelling (SEM) approach.Design/methodology/approach – The paper identifies three e‐business capabilities, namely business strategy, supply chain strategy and e‐business readiness. These capabilities are further decomposed under technology, organization and people dimensions to assess their contribution for business effectiveness. A questionnaire is designed and implemented using SEM technique. Survey data from 143 firms from the UK are collected to test our theoretical model. In particular, we have tested a positive, mediating/reciprocal relationships among multidimensional measures of business strategy, supply chain strategy and e‐business adoption. Further hypotheses are developed to evaluate a direct positive impact of e‐business on company's performance.Findings – This empirical analyses demonstrate several key findings: success of e‐business in UK firms is ...

AHP‐based evaluation of CMMS software

Abstract: Purpose – To provide a structured methodology to permit an optimal selection of the best suited Computer Managed Maintenance System (CMMS) software within process industries.Design/methodology/approach – The analysis has been executed adopting a multi‐attribute decision making methodology, namely the analytic hierarchic process (AHP) technique. A specific hierarchic structure has been defined considering 46 criteria outlined via questionnaires and interviews with administration, production and maintenance managers of several industries. To improve the effectiveness of the methodology, AHP has been coupled with a sound sensitivity analysis.Findings – The application of the proposed approach allows the maintenance practitioners to concentrate on a limited subset of CMMS applications and to compare their actual capabilities in order to select the right one, rather than considering only their purchase cost.Practical implications – The methodology enables decision makers to restrict the selection process to a ...

Technology roadmapping for the next generation manufacturing enterprise

Abstract: Purpose – For high technology companies, the successful acquisition and management of technology to enable the development and manufacture of innovative products is a key factor in their competitiveness. Seeks to present an integrated technology road‐mapping methodology that enables management to define its technology requirements, taking account of financial and other issues, to assess proposed technology projects against these requirements and to create a balanced technology project portfolio.Design/methodology/approach – The methodology consists of six steps or phases; the first three steps produce a set of technology requirements based on a company's business drivers, products and competitive position; the last three steps enable the creation and assessment of a portfolio of research and development projects.Findings – Applications of the methodology in industry have demonstrated that the integrated nature of the process, from a derivation of technology requirements to investment decision making, impr...

Multiple response optimization using Taguchi methodology and neuro‐fuzzy based model

Abstract: Purpose – To provide a good insight into solving a multi-response optimization problem using neuro-fuzzy model and Taguchi method of experimental design. Design/methodology/approach – Over the last few years in many manufacturing organizations, multiple response optimization problems were resolved using the past experience and engineering judgment, which leads to increase in uncertainty during the decision-making process. In this paper, a four-step procedure is proposed to resolve the parameter design problem involving multiple responses. This approach employs the advantage of both artificial intelligence tool (neuro-fuzzy model) and Taguchi method of experimental design to tackle problems involving multiple responses optimization. Findings – The proposed methodology is validated by revisiting a case study to optimize the three responses for a double-sided surface mount technology of an electronic assembly. Multiple signal-to-noise ratios are mapped into a single performance statistic through neuro-fuzzy based model, to identify the optimal level settings for each parameter. Analysis of variance is finally performed to identify parameters significant to the process. Research limitations/implications – The proposed model will be validated in future by conducting a real life case study, where multiple responses need to be optimized simultaneously. Practical implications – It is believed that the proposed procedure in this study can resolve a complex parameter design problem with multiple responses. It can be applied to those areas where there are large data sets and a number of responses are to be optimized simultaneously. In addition, the proposed procedure is relatively simple and can be implemented easily by using ready-made neural and statistical software like Neuro Work II professional and Minitab. Originality/value – This study adds to the literature of multi-optimization problem, where a combination of the neuro-fuzzy model and Taguchi method is utilized hand-in-hand.

Performance measurement practices in manufacturing firms: an empirical investigation

Abstract: Purpose – The objective of this study is to shed some light on performance measurement issues relevant to current practices.Design/methodology/approach – The performance measurement practices in terms of utilization, relevance, and availability of information are studied for a sample of 92 Portuguese manufacturing executives. Several statistical instruments were used namely multiple regression analysis, cluster analysis and gap analysis.Findings – The results of this study underscore consistent patterns pointing to a lack of a broad perspective on manufacturing performance measurement. Conclusions and their implications to the theory and art of performance measurement are presented.Research limitations/implications – The sample used in this study is specific in nature (Portuguese executives). Thus, the results should be interpreted accordingly. Future research should test the applicability of the obtained results using other sample frames.Practical implications – This study provides practicing managers wi...

Integrated Performance Management: A Guide to Strategy Implementation

Abstract: No wonder you activities are, reading will be always needed. It is not only to fulfil the duties that you need to finish in deadline time. Reading will encourage your mind and thoughts. Of course, reading will greatly develop your experiences about everything. Reading integrated performance management a guide to strategy implementation is also a way as one of the collective books that gives many advantages. The advantages are not only for you, but for the other peoples with those meaningful benefits.

Optimizing multi‐machining characteristics through Taguchi's approach and utility concept

Abstract: Purpose – Taguchi's technique is best suited to optimize a single performance characteristic yielding an optimal setting of process parameters. A single setting of process parameters may be optimal for one quality characteristics but the same setting may yield detrimental results for other quality features. Thus the purpose of this paper is to describe simultaneous optimization of multi‐characteristics.Design/methodology/approach – The multi‐machining characteristics have been optimized simultaneously using Taguchi's parameter design approach and the utility concept. The paper used a single performance index, utility value, as a combined response indicator of several responses.Findings – A simplified model based on Taguchi's approach and utility concept is used to determine the optimal settings of the process parameters for a multi‐characteristic product. The model is used to predict optimal settings of turning process parameters to yield the optimum quality characteristics of En24 steel turned parts usin...

Improving a manufacturing process by mapping and simulation of critical operations

Abstract: Purpose – This study aims to demonstrate the application of process mapping and simulation, using popular software tools, by examining a paper sheet cutting operation.Design/methodology/approach – An integrated approach is utilized to model a sheeting operation at Advance Agro, PCL, Thailand, a pulp and paper manufacturer. The sheeting operation is one of the most critical operations. The redesigned sheeting operation resulted in setup time reduction. This was carried out by studying the process map, data analysis, and simulation of the redesigned operation (using Visio, Excel and Arena software) before a real implementation at the manufacturing plant. The simulation of redesigned sheeting process showed increase in productivity and annual cost savings.Findings – Case experiences indicate that combining process mapping and data analysis with simulation is beneficial. The computer‐based integrated approach successfully reduces the risk of ineffectiveness of the redesigned critical manufacturing operation. ...

How organisational culture impacts on the implementation of ISO 14001:1996 – a UK multiple‐case view

Abstract: Purpose – To investigate the influence of organisational culture on the implementation of ISO 14001:1996 environmental management system (EMS) standard in two manufacturing case study organisations (CSOs).Design/methodology/approach – This research is a case study action research conducted in two manufacturing organisations in the UK.Findings – The hassles authors identified a framework of four dimensions of organisational culture that play an important role during the ISO 14001:1996 implementation process of. These are recognised as people, process, structure and environment.Research limitation/implications – The study is limited to two case organisations, which are based in the UK.Practical implications – The four dimensions of organisational culture identified through this research can help practitioners to coordinate their ISO 14000:1996 implementation projects.Originality/value – This paper fulfils the need to improve the understanding of the impact of the organisational culture on ISO 14001:1996 imp...

Dispersed network manufacturing: adapting SMEs to compete on the global scale

Abstract: Purpose – To develop a conceptual framework for a new form of production system unique from many perspectives. The proposed system is based on the creation of a network of plants that are electronically linked so that the participating members focus on their specialized tasks yet also share their manufacturing and production resources to create a loosely structured and flexible enterprise.Design/methodology/approach – To introduce dispersed network manufacturing (DNM) as a new business model, and to discuss dispersed manufacturing network (DMN) as a possible realization of DNM. To link DMN to complex adaptive systems and to provide a prototype as to how SMEs can form a dynamic and adaptive network to create competitive advantages on both collaborative and individual scales.Findings – The notion of DNM advocates a reciprocal bonding among network members but calls for no obligatory egalitarian responsibility to one another. This research shows the feasibility of a network of plants that are electronically ...

Translating knowledge of supply chain uncertainty into business strategy and actions

Abstract: Purpose – This paper seeks to present the process and results of the application of a decision‐making tool, namely TAPS, which enables translation of knowledge of supply chain uncertainty into business strategy and actions.Design/methodology/approach – The knowledge of supply chain uncertainty is collected from previous research performed under enterprise resource planning (ERP)‐controlled manufacturing environments. The knowledge is used as the input for TAPS and is mapped to investigate and formulate appropriate business strategy and action plan to manage supply chain uncertainty in such environments.Findings – The results of knowledge translation provide a set of guidelines to academics and practitioners, which indicates the underlying causes of supply chain uncertainty in ERP‐controlled manufacturing environments in a priority order, and the suitable business strategy and actions that could potentially be adopted to manage the uncertainty.Practical implications – Owing to the increasing level of compl...

Operations and logistics issues in modular assembly processes: cases from the automotive sector

Abstract: Purpose – To identify operations and logistics issues which are critical for the operational performance in modular assembly processes.Design/methodology/approach – Based on case studies of Volvo Cars, Toyota, and Saab, the paper identifies operations and logistics issues that are critical for the operational performance of modular assembly processes. The issues are used for extending our understanding of the design and operation of modular assembly processes.Findings – The issues identified concern production planning, deviation handling, assembly flow balance, small unit disadvantages, and module flow control. They reveal that a modular assembly process design brings structural disadvantages related to the dispersion of activities and resource needs. The issues also demonstrate the need for extensive coordination across the interfaces of the decoupled parts of the process.Research limitations/implications – The findings will mainly be relevant for firms that design and produce complex products involving...

How does the industry work with sourcing decisions? Case study at two Swedish companies

Abstract: How does the industry work with sourcing decisions? : Case studies at two Swedish companies

A web‐based logistics management system for agile supply demand network design

Abstract: Purpose – Online, on‐demand and real‐time availability of information to all members of a manufacturing system enables them to be agile and in the best position to react quickly, efficiently, synchronously, and collectively to the changing market. This paper proposes an integrated web‐based logistics management system for agile supply demand network design (ASDN).Design/methodology/approach – The paper presents a software system, which is distributed as open source. A case study of ABB Company in Finland has been undertaken and this demonstrates the validity of ASDN in designing and managing supply demand networks.Findings – Current software applications, such as ERP, WMS and EAI do not support a higher‐level decision making. There are several performance measures, which are directly connected to structure of the network.Practical implications – The presented software supports modeling, analyzing and limited optimizing of supply demand networks. Also discussed is the network level logistics analysis that ...

Managing stock‐outs effectively with order fulfilment systems

Abstract: Purpose – When approaching a stock‐out situation, a company should be able to actively manage the allocation of available products on the basis of customer requirements and priorities as well as contractual relationships. The purpose of this paper is to describe different order promising mechanisms and analyze how well they can contribute to the effective management of stock‐out situations.Design/methodology/approach – The paper provides a formal description and analysis of alternative order promising mechanism applicable in make to stock systems. Numerical analysis is conducted based on the data of a pharmaceutical company.Findings – The paper clearly points out the potential of alternative order promising mechanisms to alleviate the negative consequences associated with a temporary stock‐out situation.Research limitations/implications – The paper does not consider implications of inventory pre‐allocation to customer classes. Further research should address the interplay between pre‐allocation and differ...