Showing papers in "Journal of Marketing in 1975"
TL;DR: The authors analyzes a number of dimensions of the exchange paradigm that have not been dealt with in the marketing literature, and attempts to show that what marketers have considered as "what marketers have not considered as" is not the most important dimensions of exchange.
Abstract: T HE exchange paradigm has emerged as a framework useful for conceptualizing marketing behavior. Indeed, most contemporary definitions of marketing explicitly include exchange in their formulations.' Moreover, the current debate on "broadening" centers on the very notion of exchange: on its nature, scope, and efficacy in marketing. This article analyzes a number of dimensions of the exchange paradigm that have not been dealt with in the marketing literature. First, it attempts to show that what marketers have considered as
1,615 citations
319 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a wide variety of empirical studies have found positive relationships between high levels of perceived role conflict and job-related tension and anxiety, on the one hand, and low levels of job satisfaction.
Abstract: T HE IMPORTANCE of the field salesman in the successful marketing of industrial goods has long been appreciated. Only recently, however, has attention been given to the fact that the nature of the field salesman's job can produce some perplexing problems for marketing and sales managers, as well as for salesmen themselves. Specifically, several characteristics of the industrial salesman's job make him particularly susceptible to role conflict and role ambiguity.1 Role conflict occurs when the salesman faces two or more incompatible job demands from his organizational superiors, customers, family members, or other role partners. The salesman experiences role ambiguity when he is uncertain about how he is expected to perform his job. The high potential for role conflict poses a problem for the individual salesman because of the negative psychological reactions people often experience in conflict situations. A wide variety of empirical studies have found positive relationships between high levels of perceived role conflict and high levels of job-related tension and anxiety, on the one hand, and low levels of job satisfaction, on the other.2 There is also evidence that prolonged exposure to high levels of role conflict can have physical consequences, such as an increased incidence of coronary disease.3 Similarly, when an individual experiences a great deal of uncertainty about how he is expected to perform his job (role ambiguity), he may experience more mental anxiety and tension and less job satisfaction.4 The potential for high levels of perceived role conflict and ambiguity among field salesmen also presents some major problems for sales and marketing managers. To the extent that conflict and ambiguity reduce the job satisfaction of salesmen, for example, they are likely to produce higher levels of turnover within the sales force and accompanying recruitment and training costs.5 The amount of conflict and ambiguity the salesman experiences may also affect his job performance, although the relationships between conflict, am-
297 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the concepts of inert set and inept set are introduced, and the results of an exploratory study are presented to demonstrate the applicability of this conceptualization, based on the consumer's "psychology of simplification", and the consequences of such behavior for product performance are discussed.
Abstract: IN the consumer goods market, there are many product categories that are represented by numerous brands. To cope with this multiplicity of relatively similar brands in such common consumer product categories as toothpaste, beer, and canned vegetables, consumers must devise a means to simplify their purchase decisions. Several models and theories have been proposed to explain this consumer behavior. This article expands the concept described by the term evoked set by including and classifying all the brands that may be in the consumer's awareness set. This classification, based on the consumer's "psychology of simplification," is examined and the consequences of such behavior for product performance are discussed.' In this regard, the concepts of inert set and inept set are introduced, and the results of an exploratory study are presented to demonstrate the applicability of this conceptualization.
275 citations
TL;DR: For example, this paper found that a significant number of consumers want, and will use, information about the nutritional value of the foods they are buying, that such information can influence buying habits.
Abstract: significant number of consumers want, and will use, the information disclosed. Marketing research appears to have two roles in this program. The first is to identify what information is material, in the sense that I have just described it. If consumers don't care what mileage their cars are getting, that is something that goes to the legal roots of the program and that can be determined with the aid of marketing research. There is another, more constructive, role for marketing research in these proceedings: to determine the most effective way of communicating material information. Several surveys, for example, have established that a significant number of consumers want, and will use, information about the nutritional value of the foods they are buying, that such information can influence buying habits. Experience has shown that it is extremely Journal of Marketing, July 1975
200 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors empirically test the question of role clarity as perceived by sales force members, both in terms of its effect on several job-related factors and its importance for salesmen as compared with another group in the organization.
Abstract: O NE of the major causes of job tension is a lack of role clarity; that is, either the nonexistence of information needed to do his job effectively, or the lack of adequate information, leaves the worker with an ambiguous perception of his role.1 It has been shown that a lack of role clarity increases the probability that a person will be dissatisfied with his job, will experience psychological stress (job tension), will seek opportunities for improving clarity and satisfaction, will be less innovative, and will generally show a lack of job interest.2 While different groups within the same organization may experience different amounts of role clarity, there appear to be several factors associated with the sales position that make it more susceptible to a lack of role clarity than other positions in the firm. First, the salesman must often perform with inadequate or nonexistent information. This can occur in his relationships with customers as well as with his company. In many instances he lacks clear-cut knowledge of his customers' needs or has little indication of whether or not they are interested in his proposals, whether their potential business is worth his time and effort, or what the probability of making a sale is. Within the company, the salesman often is not provided with adequate information concerning his performance. This lack of performance feedback has long been a bone of contention between salesmen and their managers .3 Second, most salesmen occupy a boundary position-one that requires much crossing of boundaries between departments within organizations. Such positions are very likely to exhibit a lack of role clarity.4 The salesman's boundary position in relation to his customers is obvious. However, he is also frequently required to coordinate his activities with other departments within his own firm (e.g., production). Often information necessary to achieve this coordination is not provided, and conflict results between different functional areas of the firm.5 Finally, the salesman's occupation might be called semi-innovative. Most salesmen are required to develop new business, and much of their workday is relatively unstructured. Innovative roles are very susceptible to a lack of role clarity. This is because innovative personnel are often expected to seek a change in the status quo which other elements of the firm are attempting to maintain, and the information to perform this role effectively is usually nonexistent.6 Despite the fact that the selling role is highly conducive to a lack of role clarity in most firms, the sales occupation has seldom been the subject of research that focused on role clarity and emotional reactions to it. In the study.reported here, the authors sought to empirically test the question of role clarity as perceived by sales force members, both in terms of its effect on several job-related factors and its importance for salesmen as compared with another group in the organization. The results reveal that greater role clarity may lead to better job performance.
190 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the contexts for these issues and propose some fruitful avenues for investigation, and present the context of comparison advertising as a powerful marketing tool, in this regard, there are many interesting issues that require further consideration.
Abstract: ALTHOUGH not new, comparison advertising has only in the last few years become prevalent enough to provoke growing interest and controversy. The subject is of concern to many groups-consumer organizations, the advertising industry, government bodies-and, of course, to individual marketers. The question arises as to whether comparison advertising is, indeed, a powerful marketing tool; in this regard, there are many interesting issues that require further consideration. The purpose of this article is to present the contexts for these issues and to propose some fruitful avenues for investigation.
181 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a conceptual approach to understand and categorize deception in advertising and suggest several research approaches that might aid in the measurement of deceptive advertising, which is not adequate for either the advertiser or the regulator merely to know that deception is wrong.
Abstract: T HE recent activity of the Federal Trade Commission and the complaints of numerous consumer interest groups have focused great awareness and interest on deceptive advertising. Unfortunately, it is not adequate, for either the advertiser or the regulator, merely to know that deception is wrong. What is needed is, first, a common understanding of deception that focuses on the consumer. Then, accepted ways of detecting deception must be devised. The purpose of this article is to offer a conceptual approach to understanding and categorizing deception in advertising and to suggest several research approaches that might aid in the measurement of deceptive advertising.
167 citations
136 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the role of M ULTIDIMENSIONAL scaling (MDS) in modern marketing analysis and the future outlook for these techniques and what problems are most in need of research.
Abstract: M ULTIDIMENSIONAL scaling (MDS) has played an important role in modern marketing analysis. Since 1938, when Richardson published an abstract of the first application of MDS,1 numerous applications of the technique have been described in various social science publications. During the 1960s and 1970s, in particular, several important descriptions of marketing applications of MDS procedures have appeared in the literature. To invoke the theme of the recent cigarette commercial, it would seem that we "have come a long way, baby." Or, have we? Just what of significance has MDS contributed to marketing analysis over the past several years? Just as importantly, what is the future outlook for these techniques and what problems are most in need of research?
TL;DR: In spite of the plausibility of this reasoning, and of broad acceptance of unit pricing, the results of research that measured the effects of unit prices have been inconclusive as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: UNIT pricing is an idea whose time has come. As a means of improving consumers' decisions, the posting of unit price information has already been accepted by many groups. Beginning with Massachusetts in 1970, several states have enacted legislation requiring the posting of unit prices for some products.' Many supermarket chains are currently posting unit prices or have experimented with them.2 Finally, consumer advocates are campaigning for the wider adoption of unit pricing.3 The argument for unit pricing is straightforward. First, the posting of unit prices should eliminate any confusion due to price calculation, especially across packages of different sizes. The removal of calculation problems ought, in turn, to encourage meaningful price comparisons and result in more purchases of the most economical items. In spite of the plausibility of this reasoning, and of the broad acceptance of unit pricing, the results of research that measured the effects of unit pricing have been inconclusive. Some studies report high consumer awareness of unit pricing, while others show a low level of awareness.4 Some studies indicate a change in purchasing patterns, while others report no change.5 One purpose of the researdh reported in this article is to resolve the paradox between the apparent usefulness of unit price information and the failure of unit pricing to change consumer purchasing habits.
TL;DR: The consumption patterns of individuals and groups in the United States have been studied from innumerable perspectives, and many of the concepts and findings have helped marketers gain a better understanding of consumers as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A CONSUMER orientation is generally considered essential to the development of an effective marketing strategy. In response to this idea, the consumption patterns of individuals and groups in the United States have been studied from innumerable perspectives, and many of the concepts and findings have helped marketers gain a better understanding of consumers. The results have often provided a basis for more effective marketing strategies. Unfortunately, the international marketer has not received the full benefit of the interest in con-
TL;DR: For example, the authors found that consumers in different socioeconomic segments differ in their patronage of discount stores for some types of products but do not for others, and found that there is a significant relationship between a shopper's social class and his patronage attitudes toward discount stores.
Abstract: CONVENTIONAL retailers have faced vigorous competition from discount stores ove the past decade. The discount stores, in spite of the somewhat gloomy projections for their future that were made in the early 1960s,' have experienced steady growth. Since 1960, their total sales volume has risen fifteen fold. In 1973, the general merchandise sales of discount stores reached $23.1 billion and accounted for 19.5% of the sales of major retailers of general merchandise.2 In comparison, the corresponding figures for the conventional department stores were $17.1 billion and 14.5%, respectively.3 The extent to which competing retailers will be able to maintain their market positions in the face of the challenge of the discount stores depends on the extent to which they can creatively adapt their operations to the changing patterns of consumer shopping behavior and consumer patronage attitudes toward different retail store types. Industry surveys have shown that the patronage of discount houses is by no means limited to blue-collar workers, but is widely prevalent among higher occupational groups.4 This does not necessarily mean, however, that consumers in b th lower and higher socioeconomic classes have similar patronage attitudes toward discount stores for all their purchase needs. Rich, for example, investigated the effect of income on the purchase of nine selected items at discount stores.5 He observed that income had relatively little effect on the purchase of men's socks and shirt , large appliances, towels and bed linens, and kitchen utensils and small appliances. In the case of coats, better dresses, housedresses, undergarments, hosiery, and children's clothing, the incidence of purchase at discount stores decreased as income increased. This was most true of coats and better dresses, and least noticeable in the case of children's clothing. Dardis and Sandler, in their study of discount store shoppers in a small city, found a significant and inverse relationship be ween the shopper's social class and the amount of his purchases of clothing and household textiles at discount stores.6 These studies suggest that consumers in different socioeconomic segments differ in their patronage of discount stores for some types of products but do not for others.' An important question may thus be raised: for which types of purchases can one expect a significant relationship between a shopper's social class and his patronage attitudes toward discount stores? It is the thesis of the pres1. William R. Davidson and Alton F. Doody, "The Future of Discounting," JOURNAL OF MARKETING, Vol. 27 (January 1963), pp. 36-40; William R. Davidson, "The End of the Discount House as a Distinctive Type of Retailing Institution," Department Store Economist, Vol. 24 (December 1961), pp. 24-28; and Alfred R. Oxenfeldt, "The Retailing Revolution: Why and Whither?" Journal of Retailing, Vol. 36 (Fall 1960), pp. 157-162. 2. "The True Look of the Discount Industry," The Discount Merchandiser, Vol. 13 (June 1973), p. 32. 3. Same reference as footnote 2, p. 34. 4. Discount Store Study (Cleveland: The Cleveland Press, 1970), p. 20; and "The True Look of the Discount Industry," The Discount Merchandiser, Vol. 11 (June 1971), pp. 29-TL.
TL;DR: A body of research literature on methods of optimizing the use of display space and optimizing inventory levels for particular items has developed over time as mentioned in this paper, with the objectives of optimizing profits from display space or minimizing the costs of acquiring and carrying inventory, given a desired level of customer service.
Abstract: DISPLAY space and merchandise inventories are two of the most important assets a retail firm possesses. A body of research literature on methods of optimizing the use of display space and optimizing inventory levels for particular items has developed over time.' These studies have typically assumed the objectives of optimizing profits from display space or minimizing the costs of acquiring and carrying inventory, given a desired level of customer service.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on an area that has received relatively little attention in the ongoing furor of consumerism: warranty and complaint policies and practices of consumer packaged goods manufacturers (CPGMs).
Abstract: A DECADE of consumerism has substantially redefined the relationship of buyer and seller in the marketplace. Consumer activism, legislation, and heightened consumer expectations have placed more responsibility on the manufacturer for the performance of his goods, with a corresponding increase in the "rights" of the consumer. Direct complaints to manufacturers from the better-educated, increasingly affluent and aware consumer have burgeoned in this new climate. Although business appears to be doing a much better job in dealing with irate consumers, expectations have apparently outstripped this improvement. Federal Trade Commissioner Engman recently summed up the situation by saying: "The simple fact is that for vast and increasing numbers of consumers with valid complaints, there is nothing to be done . .. other than kick the dog, yell at his children, and curse at his wife."' In this article the authors focus on an area that has received relatively little attention in the ongoing furor of consumerism: warranty and complaint policies and practices of consumer packaged goods manufacturers (CPGMs). Although attacked by consumer activists on several fronts-unit pricing, informational labeling, package standardization, and the like-CPGMs have generally maintained a low profile in an area of business practice that has been a major issue for other types of manufacturers. Studies by the authors and others show that CPGM response to overt consumer dissatisfaction is generally good, but that many CPGMs choose to ignore-or do not fully appreciate-the magnitude of customer dissatisfaction with their products, and have not formulated adequate policies and procedures to deal with it.2 Furthermore, some opportunities inherent in offering guarantees and responding to complaints have not been fully explored. In the following pages, the authors:
TL;DR: Whether a prescription drug advertisement is false can be objectively determined and is independent of any impact it may have on the consumer, and the difficulty lies mainly with the advertisement that contains true, letter-perfect information from a regulatory standpoint, yet still creates a misleading impression.
Abstract: The amount of time, effort, and money invested to promote prescription drugs in this country is staggering. It is estimated that over $1 billion are spent annually to disseminate information to the physician. This figure is more than three times the total annual budget of all U.S. medical schools, and it constitutes $1 out of every $1000 of the American gross national product. Drug promotion was not regulated with any consistency until the early 1960s. At that time, disclosures before Senator Kefauver's Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly revealed that advertising to the medical professions had resulted in serious abuses which required new, specific controls for the protection of the public. On October 10, 1962, the Drug Amendments to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act gave jurisdiction over prescription drug advertising to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In most cases, whether a prescription drug advertisement is false can be objectively determined and is independent of any impact it may have on the consumer. For example, if an ad for a penicillin medication claims that it can cure certain types of breast cancer, this claim can be objectively disproved without any input from the consumer/reader of that ad. The difficulty lies mainly with the advertisement that contains true, letter-perfect information from a regulatory standpoint, yet still creates a misleading impression.
TL;DR: A recent study examines the current status of the product manager's role and the changes it has undergone as mentioned in this paper, showing that the role of product managers has changed significantly over the last few decades.
Abstract: A recent study examines the current status of the product manager's role and the changes it has undergone.
TL;DR: In spite of the plausibility of this reasoning, and the broad acceptance of unit pricing, the results of research that measured the effects of unit prices have been inconclusive as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: U NIT pricing is an idea whose time has come. As a means of improving consumers' decisions, the posting of unit price information has already been accepted by many groups. Beginning with Massachusetts in 1970, several states have enacted legislation requiring the posting of unit prices for some products. I Many supermarket chains are currently posting unit prices or have experimented with them.' Finally, consumer advocates are campaigning for the wider adoption of unit pricing." The argument for unit pricing is straightforward. First, the posting of unit prices should eliminate any confusion due to price calculation, especially across packages of different sizes. The removal of calculation problems ought, in turn, to encourage meaningful price comparisons and result in more purchases of the most economical items. In spite of the plausibility of this reasoning, and of the broad acceptance of unit pricing, the results of research that measured the effects of unit pricing have been inconclusive. Some studies report high consumer awareness of unit pricing, while others show a low level of awareness.' Some studies indicate a change in purchasing patterns; while others report no change.' One purpose of the research reported in this article is to resolve the paradox between the apparent usefulness of unit price information and the failure of
TL;DR: In this paper, a conceptual approach to understand and categorize deception in advertising is proposed and several research approaches that might aid in the measurement of deceptive advertising are discussed. But, it is not adequate for either the advertiser or the regulator merely to know that deception is wrong.
Abstract: T E recent activity of the Federal Trade Commission and the complaints of numerous consumer interest groups have focused great awareness and interest on deceptive advertising. Unfortunately, it is not adequate, for either the advertiser or the regulator, merely to know that deception is wrong. What is needed is, first, a common understanding of deception that focuses on the consumer. Then, accepted ways of detecting deception must be devised. The purpose of this article is to offer a conceptual approach to understanding and categorizing deception in advertising and to suggest several research approaches that might aid in the measurement of deceptive advertising.
TL;DR: Franchise sales of approximately 380,000 franchising firms reached $151 billion in 1973, nearly one-third of the $497 billion estimate for total retail sales.
Abstract: T HE franchise system of distribution continues to grow in importance. Retail sales of the approximately 380,000 franchising firms -both independent and company owned-approached $151 billion in 1973, nearly one-third of the $497 billion estimate for total retail sales. Independent, franchisee-owned units dominated the franchise system's retail sales, accounting for approximately 85% of the total. For 1974, franchising firms expected sales to exceed $159 billion, which would at least maintain their 30% share of
TL;DR: A wide variety of empirical studies have found positive relationships between high levels of perceived role conflict and job-related tension and anxiety, on the one hand, and low levels of job satisfaction as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: THE IMPORTANCE of the field salesman in J. the successful marketing of industrial goods has long been appreciated. Only recently, however, has attention been given to the fact that the nature of the field salesman's job can produce some perplexing problems for marketing and sales managers, as well as for salesmen themselves. Specifically, several characteristics of the industrial salesman's job make him particularly susceptible to role conflict and role ambiguity. 1 Role conflict occurs when the salesman faces two or more incompatible job demands from his organizational superiors, customers, family members, or other role partners. The salesman experiences role ambiguity when he is uncertain about how he is expected to perform his job. The high potential for role conflict poses a problem for the individual salesman because of the negative psychological reactions people often experience in conflict situations. A wide variety of empirical studies have found positive relationships between high levels of perceived role conflict and high levels of job-related tension and anxiety, on the one hand, and low levels of job satisfaction, on
TL;DR: The concept of demarketing as discussed by the authors is a marketing orientation that aims to shape demand to conform with long-term objectives rather than blindly engineer increases in sales without regard to such objectives.
Abstract: IN contemporary management, growth is implicitly a central element of successful marketing practice. This philosophy has developed in a marketing environment in which it was assumed that there would always be more consumption potential that could be serviced by marketing organizations. However, the continued growth of consumption in the early 1970s, together with more recent inflationary pressures and materials shortages, have tested the marketing system's ability to fully meet its objective of achieving customer satisfaction and long-term profitability. The development of a marketing orientation specific to this new marketing environment is the basis of the concept of demarketing.1 This concept maintains that the marketer's task is to shape demand to conform with long-term objectives rather than blindly engineer increases in sales without regard to such objectives. Interest in demarketing has rapidly increased internationally as companies worldwide have faced the decision problems associated with raw material or product shortages.2 These problems includethe nature and level of advertising that can be justified, the role of the salesman, the clients who are to be dropped, the desire to alter product pricing to equate supplies and demand, the allocation of limited supplies of products to distributors, and bases for product substitution. Business concern with these problems has been accentuated by the speed with which the situation developed and the wide range of company activities affected by these changes.' Decision making in times of severe change presents substantial problems to marketers. Specifically, two questions need to be answered: What is the relevant marketing orientation for developing strategy? What strategy alternatives are available for marketing mix elements? This article attempts to provide answers to these questions and to apply them to help marketing managers position demarketing strategy relative to overall marketing strategy.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on an area that has received relatively little attention in the ongoing furor of consumerism: warranty and complaint policies and practices of consumer packaged goods manufacturers (CPGMs).
Abstract: A DECADE of consumerism has substantially redefined the relationship of buyer and seller in the marketplace. Consumer activism, legislation, and heightened consumer expectations have placed more responsibility on the manufacturer for the performance of his goods, with a corresponding increase in the "rights" of the consumer. Direct complaints to manufacturers from the better-educated, increasingly affluent and aware consumer have burgeoned in this new climate. Although business appears to be doing a much better job in dealing with irate consumers, expectations have apparently outstripped this improvement. Federal Trade Commissioner Engman recently summed up the situation by saying: "The simple fact is that for vast and increasing numbers of consumers with valid complaints, there is nothing to be done . . . other than kick the dog, yell at his children, and curse at his wife."! In this article the authors focus on an area that has received relatively little attention in the ongoing furor of consumerism: warranty and complaint policies and practices of consumer packaged goods manufacturers (CPGMs). Although attacked by consumer activists on several fronts-unit pricing, informational labeling, package standardization, and the like-CPGMs have generally maintained a low profile in an area of business practice that has been a major issue for other types of manufacturers. Studies by the authors and others show that CPGM response to overt consumer dissatisfaction is generally good,
TL;DR: In this paper, it has been shown that a lack of role clarity increases the probability that a person will be dissatisfied with his job, will experience psychological stress (job tension), will seek opportunities for improving clarity and satisfaction, will be less innovative, and will generally show an ambiguous perception of his role.
Abstract: O N E of the major causes of job tension is a lack of role clarity; that is, either the nonexistence of information needed to do his job effectively, or the lack of adequate information, leaves the worker with an ambiguous perception of his role.! It has been shown that a lack of role clarity increases the probability that a person will be dissatisfied with his job, will experience psychological stress (job tension), will seek opportunities for improving clarity and satisfaction, will be less innovative, and will generally show a lack of job interest.P While different groups within the same organization may experience different amounts of role clarity, there appear to be several factors associated with the sales position that make it more susceptible to a lack of role clarity than other positions in the firm. First, the salesman must often perform with inadequate or nonexistent information. This can occur in his relationships with customers as well as with his company. In many instances he lacks clear-cut knowledge of his customers' needs or has little indication of whether or not they are interested in his proposals, whether their potential business is worth his time and effort, or what the probability of making a sale is. Within the company, the salesman often is not provided with adequate information concerning his performance. This lack of performance feedback has long been a bone of contention between salesmen and their managers.\
TL;DR: Tauber as mentioned in this paper reported on the use of the intention-to-buy question with eight new food products and concluded that an additional dimension, product importance, is required to successfully interpret the results.
Abstract: Certain rough rules of thumb have evolved for the two most favorable answers, \"definitely buy it\" and \"probably buy it.\" For instance, a concept statement should receive 80% to 90% favorable answers to encourage subsequent developmental work. A prototype product that the respondents can actually use should receive 70% to 80% favorable answers for development to continue. And a finished product in a finished package will rarely be successful in actual test marketing if it does not receive at least 60% to 70% favorable answers. (These norms are based on experience with over 100 brands in many product categories.) Since the intention-to-buy question is such an important factor in new product development, we wonder why so little has been done to validate the predictability of the question. Tauber reported on the use of the intention-to-buy question with eight new food products.! He concluded that an additional dimension, \"product importance,\" is required to successfully interpret the results. Unfortunately, Tauber did not report on the predictive validity of his combined dimensions. The field test reported here tries to give answers to two questions: