Showing papers in "Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology in 2000"

Job demands, perceptions of effort-reward fairness and innovative work behaviour

Abstract: Building on person-environment fit theory and social exchange theory, the relationship between job demands and innovative work behaviour was assumed to be moderated by fairness perceptions of the ratio between effort spent and reward received at work. This interaction of job demands with perceptions of effort-reward fairness was tested among 170 non-management employees from a Dutch industrial organization in the food sector. Results demonstrated a positive relationship between job demands and innovative work behaviour when employees perceived effort-reward fairness rather than under-reward unfairness.

Shopfloor innovation: Facilitating the suggestion and implementation of ideas

Abstract: Despite increasing recognition of the importance of fostering innovation among shopfloor employees, little empirical research has been conducted on the topic. Moreover, within work psychology, studies have tended to focus on the generation of ideas (creativity) rather than on their implementation. This study examines the impact of individual perceptions of individual, group and organizational factors on both elements of innovation. It was found that the suggestion of ideas was more highly related to individual (personal and job) characteristics than the group and organizational characteristics; whereas the implementation of ideas was more strongly predicted by group and organizational characteristics. As expected, interactions were found between the number of suggestions made and group and organizational characteristics, demonstrating how successful implementation of new ideas requires both their formulation in the first place and an appropriately supportive environment. Analysis to explore which factors have the greatest impact on the innovation process was also conducted. The practical, theoretical and methodological implications of the study are discussed.

Foci and correlates of organizational identification

Abstract: Adopting the social identity perspective on organizational identification proposed by Ashforth and Mael (1989), the present study tested two hypotheses concerning the importance of work-group identification (WID) relative to organizational identification (OID). WID was predicted to be stronger than OID as well as more predictive of organizational attitudes and behaviour. Data about employees’ WID, OID, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, job involvement, and job motivation from two samples (N = 76 and N = 163) supported these predictions. We conclude that our understanding of organizational attitudes and behaviour has much to gain by an open eye for the multiple foci of identification that are associated with organizational membership, and that managerial practice may benefit from an increased focus on the work group.

The factorial validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) across occupational groups and nations

Abstract: The factorial validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) was investigated among employees of a multinational company in the forest industry. The present study includes data from Finnish, Swedish and Dutch employees (total N = 9055). The hypothesized three-factor model of the MBI-GS (Exhaustion, Cynicism, Professional Efficacy) was replicated across occupational groups (i.e. managers, clerks, foremen technicians, blue-collar workers) and nations. The fit of this model to the data was superior to alternative one- and two-factor models in all samples under investigation. In addition, the three-factor structure of the MBI-GS proved invariant across all occupational groups. The internal consistencies of the three subscales are satisfactory, except for the cynicism scale in some subsamples. Therefore, it is suggested to exclude one—ambiguous—cynicism item. Finally, some differences in levels of burnout are found between nations and occupational groups that are consistent with earlier findings.

The impact of person and organizational values on organizational commitment.

Abstract: This study explored the relationship between personal values, organizational values, and organizational commitment. Participants from a large petrochemical company rated 24 values with respect to how important the value was to them and how important it was to the organization. They also completed Meyer and Allen's commitment scale. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses found that commitment was predicted by the employees’ perception of organizational values. Furthermore, affective, normative and continuance commitment were each predicted by different clusters of values. This study highlights the importance of recognizing that values are multidimensional and that each value cluster may affect behaviour differently.

Cultural variation of leadership prototypes across 22 European countries

Abstract: This study sets out to test the assumption that concepts of leadership differ as a function of cultural differences in Europe and to identify dimensions which describe differences in leadership concepts across European countries. Middle-level managers (N = 6052) from 22 European countries rated 112 questionnaire items containing descriptions of leadership traits and behaviours. For each attribute respondents rated how well it fits their concept of an outstanding business leader. The findings support the assumption that leadership concepts are culturally endorsed. Specifically, clusters of European countries which share similar cultural values according to prior cross-cultural research (Ronen & Shenkar, 1985), also share similar leadership concepts. The leadership prototypicality dimensions found are highly correlated with cultural dimensions reported in a comprehensive cross-cultural study of contemporary Europe (Smith, Dugan, & Trompenaars, 1996). The ordering of countries on the leadership dimensions is considered a useful tool with which to model differences between leadership concepts of different cultural origin in Europe. Practical implications for cross-cultural management, both in European and non-European settings, are discussed.

The role of interpersonal affective regard in supervisory performance ratings: A literature review and proposed causal model

Abstract: A literature review reveals that supervisors’ positive affective regard (‘liking’) for subordinates is associated frequently with higher performance appraisal (PA) ratings, and with other findings such as greater halo, reduced accuracy, a better interpersonal relationship, and a disinclination to punish poor performance. However, the interpretability of the empirical literature is weakened by a number of conceptual and methodological problems. Moreover, most investigators have simply assumed that the effects of liking constitute sources of bias in PAs, and the causal nature of the observed relationships needed to be clarified. Based on the review, nine causal hypotheses constituting a model of 10 latent constructs with 17 paths are presented. Each direct effect is characterized as representing either a relevant (valid) influence, a source of bias, or as biased/valid contingent on the particular indicator or circumstances. Suggestions are made for integrating the model with a developmental approach, and implications are drawn for employment test validation and the investigation of test bias.

Psychosocial job strain and productivity in human service workers: A test of the demand-control-support model.

Abstract: The aim of the study was to test the main and interactive effects of the key dimensions of the demand-control-support model in predicting levels of strain (specifically emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and job dissatisfaction) and feelings of productivity and competency (personal accomplishment) in a multi-occupational sample of human service workers (N = 813). Controlling for demographics, negative affectivity (NA), and quadratic terms, structural equation analyses showed some support for the additive iso-strain hypothesis: jobs combining high demands, low control and low support produced the lowest levels of satisfaction in workers. High demands and low supports only were associated with high depersonalization, and high emotional exhaustion. Support was also found for the additive active learning hypotheses: jobs combining high demands and high control produced the highest levels of personal accomplishment. The study supports job redesign interventions for improving worker well-being and productivity.

Adaptation to continued work and early retirement following downsizing: Long-term effects and gender differences

Abstract: As part of the downsizing of a large insurance company in Sweden, all personnel 55 years of age and older were invited to apply for early retirement on financially favourable terms. A total of 357 (55%) of senior employees applied for and were permitted early retirement, while 276 remained employed. Effects of voluntary/forced choice of employment status on subsequent adaptation were evaluated. Gender differences were also tested. The study compared early retirees and persons continuing to work over the years following downsizing with regard to satisfaction, well-being, health, and work centrality. 224 ‘retirees’ and 146 ‘stayers’ filled in a questionnaire on mental health and work conditions on two occasions (at an 18-month interval). Results indicated that voluntary (as opposed to forced) choice was directly and positively associated with satisfaction, psychological well-being and health for both groups. Females showed lower values of work centrality, appeared to be more inclined to apply for retirement, and were generally more satisfied with the outcome than males.

A study of individual differences and self‐awareness in the context of multi‐source feedback

Abstract: Studies of multi-source feedback systems have compared individuals’ self-assessments with others’ ratings of them on various performance dimensions. The extent of the congruence of self- with other-ratings has been used as a measure of self-awareness (SAw), and this variable has been found to be significantly related to a number of performance outcomes. However, little attention has so far been given to investigating what characteristics are associated with SAw. The study reported here examined the relationship of personality and cognitive ability measures to SAw in a group of managers participating in a multi-source (360 degree) feedback process. The 45 target managers assessed themselves on six management competencies and were also rated by 353 bosses and colleagues. Measures of SAw were obtained using the methodology outlined by Yammarino and Atwater (1997), and were calculated separately in relation to bosses ratings and colleagues ratings. Target managers completed measures of personality (Cattell 16PF and Firo-B) and cognitive ability (Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking). The target managers showed considerable variation in their level of SAw, and a number of personality and cognitive scores were found to be related to SAw. However, some of the correlates of SAw differed according to whether the rater group were bosses or colleagues. The conceptualization of SAw and its use as an assessment measure are discussed.

Conscientiousness and managerial performance

Abstract: Recent research has provided clear evidence that personality factors are associated with job performance. The construct of conscientiousness has been shown to be a particularly promising predictor of overall job performance. Some authors have proposed that conscientiousness might be the ‘g’ of personality and predict performance in most occupational areas. The nature of the construct of conscientiousness is reviewed and consideration given to the likely behaviour associated with high conscientiousness. It is hypothesized that, given the requirements of managerial work, the criterion-related validity of conscientiousness may not extend to all managerial jobs. Conscientiousness scores are derived for a sample of managers (N= 437), with the aid of personality questionnaire data. In a concurrent validity design these scores are correlated with indicators of current job performance, promotability and specific job performance factors. The correlation of conscientiousness with current performance is close to zero and the correlation with promotability is -.20. The pattern of relationships between conscientiousness and the job performance factors is used to interpret the finding that conscientiousness is not influential in determining managerial performance. The results suggest that there may be limits to the range of occupational areas in which conscientiousness is closely linked with job performance.

Predictive validity of personal statements and the role of the five‐factor model of personality in relation to medical training

Abstract: This paper explores the role of personality, and the predictive validities of personal statements (PSs) and previous academic performance in relation to future performance in medical training. One hundred and seventy-six medical students had their application PSs coded into information categories and were followed over a 1-year period and assessed on (1) 21 different assessments (observations, exams, essays, etc.) and (2) the dimensions of the five-factor model (FFM) of personality. Neither the PS information categories nor the amount of information in PSs were found to be predictive of future performance. However, both previous academic performance (Betas .41 and .45) and conscientiousness (Betas .58 and .49), from the FFM, were related to success in medical training. Conscientiousness also demonstrated incremental validity over previous academic performance. Implications concerning the role of personality in medical selection are discussed in terms of trait complexes and trait facets.

Deliberate practice at work: A study with insurance agents

Abstract: This paper applies the concept of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993) to work settings. Deliberate practice comprises regularly performed activities which aim at competence improvement. It is hypothesized that the amount of deliberate practice is positively related to work performance. Results of a study with 100 insurance agents provided evidence for the occurrence of deliberate practice activities in work contexts. The amount of current time spent on deliberate practice was significantly related to supervisory ratings of insurance agents' work performance. Accumulated amount of time spent on deliberate practice in the past was not related to work performance.

Interactive effects of absence culture salience and group cohesiveness: A multi‐level and cross‐level analysis of work absenteeism in the Chinese context

Abstract: This study examined the interactive effects of group cohesiveness and absence culture salience on absence proposed by Johns and Nicholson (1982). It was hypothesized that group cohesiveness and absence culture salience would be negatively related to work-group absence. Emphasis was placed on the interactive effects of cohesiveness and cultural salience on work-group absence rate and employee self-reported absence. In addition, the potential mediating effect of group absence norms was explored. Survey responses were collected from 800 employees in a state-owned manufacturing enterprise in the People's Republic of China. Aggregate measures of salience and cohesiveness each had a negative relationship with work-group absenteeism. Consistent support for the interactive effects of cohesiveness and salience was provided by group, individual, and cross-level analyses. Group absence norms mediated the effects of cohesiveness, cultural salience, and their interaction on self-reported absenteeism.

Revisions and further developments of the occupational stress indicator: Lisrel results from four dutch studies.

Abstract: The Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) is a popular instrument for the diagnosis of stress and stress-related personality and outcome variables. However, one weakness of the OSI was the low reliability of some of its scales. This paper describes in a series of four studies improvements of the reliabilities of most of the scales of the Dutch version of the OSI. All new scales were tested for unidimensionality. Compared to the original OSI, the personality scales (type A, locus of control, and coping styles) have been changed completely and nearly all original items were replaced. The other scales are revisions of the original OSI, with some items being deleted, rewritten, or added. A new scale for satisfaction with pay was included. All but two of the revised scales now show sufficient reliabilities and unidimensionality. This revision led us to suggest two versions of the OSI: an elaborate version with 28 scales and 188 items, and an abridged version with 15 scales and 94 items.

Jobless men and women: A comparative analysis of job search intensity, attitudes toward unemployment, and related responses

Abstract: The study examined gender differences in job search intensity, attitudes toward unemployment, and related responses among a sample of 594 Israelis. It was hypothesized that gender-based differences would be fewer among respondents with high levels of education than among those with low levels of education. At all levels of education, men spent more time searching for work and perceived the state of unemployment as more stigmatic. In contrast, women at all levels of education were more likely to believe that intensive job search efforts will result in finding employment. In addition, the women were more likely to reject jobs due to conflict with family responsibilities and lack of extrinsic job rewards. Moreover, atypical gender characteristics of occupations may constitute a reason for rejecting potential employment among both sexes, although this tendency was more prevalent among the women. No significant differences were found between the sexes in psychological responses of unemployment, although the women reported a more severe decline in health than did the men. Widowed and divorced respondents expressed more negative responses toward unemployment than did married and never-married respondents.

Information and communication technologies and the network organization: A critical analysis

Abstract: Recently, it has been suggested that we are witnessing the emergence of post-bureaucratic forms of organization, including the ‘network’ organization. The emergence of such new forms is seen to be closely tied to developments in the provision of computer-based technologies. In this paper, assumed links between new ways of organizing and new technologies are critically assessed, through an analysis of the empirical and theoretical literature. This analysis reveals a more complex picture than is usually presented and highlights weaknesses in some of the underlying conceptualization. In particular, it is not clear that new technologies are either able to support the new ways of working envisaged or that they herald a transformation in working practices. In conclusion, it is argued that insightful and useful research questions are waiting to be addressed by occupational psychologists who adopt a more critical and analytical perspective.

Short Research Note: Using the group‐value model to explain the role of noninstrumental justice in distinguishing the effects of distributive and procedural justice

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to distinguish the effects of distributive, instrumental procedural, and noninstrumental (i.e. group-value effects) procedural justice in a field study. As predicted by the group-value model (Lind & Tyler, 1988), noninstrumental procedural justice captured unique variance in organizational commitment, turnover intentions, as well as both individual and group performance. Furthermore, noninstrumental justice explained more unique variance in commitment and performance than did distributive justice or instrumental procedural justice. These findings provide a greater understanding of why procedural justice, as a whole, has been found to be more predictive of these outcomes in prior research.

A psychometric evaluation of the Occupational Stress Indicator

Abstract: Three samples of volunteer working adult participants, drawn from two countries (United Kingdom and New Zealand), provided data using the pencil and paper version of the Occupational Stress Indicator questionnaire (OSI; Cooper, Sloan, & Williams, 1988). In an attempt to examine the degree to which the psychometric structure of the test was reflected in the published score key, the three datasets were comprehensively analysed using item analysis and exploratory factor analysis. Little similarity existed between the published 25 subscale score keys and the meaningful, 11-scale psychometric structure found from these analyses. It is concluded that the current norms for the test are of dubious validity, and if these findings are replicated the normative data should be re-scored, perhaps using the revised score keys presented in this paper. The model underlying the OSI has not been tested comprehensively to date. The present results neither support nor disprove the model, but the new scales could be used to test it.

Short research paper: An updated look at depressive symptoms and job satisfaction in first‐year women teachers

Abstract: This report updates a longitudinal study (Schonfeld, 1992) of the effects of working conditions on newly appointed women teachers. The update included a later graduating cohort and additional outcome measures. Moreover, women who were not fully exposed to work stressors (e.g. part-time work, change of schools) were now excluded from the analyses. Among the 184 teachers, work environment measures were more highly correlated with future depressive symptoms, self-esteem, job satisfaction, and motivation to teach than with pre-employment counterparts of the outcomes. Regression analyses underlined the effects of the work environment on each outcome. Serious problems with depressive symptoms and job satisfaction among teachers exposed to the most adverse work environments were found.

Biodata in professional entry‐level selection: Statistical scoring of common format applications

Abstract: This study of professional graduate entrants provides evidence that biographical data, common to application forms and resumes, can predict future preformance at professional entry level, outperforming current selection procedures. An actuarial model is developed to predict the major selection criterion for such entrants and to overcome the practical difficulties associated with processing high volumes of applications at the pre-selection stage. The six variable model demonstrates validity on entrants up to 5 years after the development sample and may be used across a wide range of different firms. Inter-temporal validity (rpbi = 0.23) compares favourably with other preliminary selection strategies. The evidence is consistent with such models suffering acceptable levels of shrinkage while being more efficient and less costly alternatives to the conventional selection methods currently used by the accounting profession.

Employer willingness to comply with the Disability Discrimination Act regarding staff selection in the UK

Abstract: This study investigated personnel directors and managers’ willingness to revise their current selection procedures as a result of both their attitude towards disabled persons and their knowledge of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA). The DDA states that ‘reasonable adjustments’ must be made to the selection process for persons with a disability to enable them to compete on an equal level with non-disabled candidates. Results showed that employer willingness to comply with the Act is predicted by attitude towards disabled people and knowledge of the legislation. The results are discussed in terms of the likely impact that the DDA will have on the employment situation for persons with a disability and the factors which might affect its success.

A multi‐method study of accounts of personal change by graduates starting work: Self‐ratings, categories and women's discourses

Abstract: The extent and kind of personal change experienced by newcomers during organizational socialization has not been thoroughly addressed. Studies have concentrated on increases in knowledge and adjustment and neglected the influence of starting work on sense of self. Multiple methods are used to explore graduates’ accounts of change in early career. Questionnaires were sent to graduates in eight different organizations on two occasions one year apart (Time 1 N = 906; Time 2 N = 936). Graduates rated the amount of change they experienced highest in competence (median: Quite a lot), followed by career (median: A little), personality (median: A moderate amount/A little), values (median: Not at all/A little) and lowest in attitudes (median: Not at all). Content analysis of open-ended comments showed that changes were generally positive or neutral rather than negative. Discourses of personal change were explored in interviews with nine graduates who were selected as most likely to have experienced change. The criteria were that they were women in sex atypical occupations with high self-ratings of personal change. Accounts demonstrated the complexity and contradictions in defining and discussing change and the dilemma in both describing change and maintaining continuity. Narratives presented change as a response to adversity involving emotional control, increased self-knowledge and increased confidence. A further theme was the personal dilemma inherent in maintaining balance between the contested identities of self at work and outside. This research contributes to our understanding of newcomers’ experiences of organizational socialization by emphasizing the importance of multiple methods to understand the ambiguity and ambivalence in complex developmental processes. It highlights the elusive nature of change and the complex negotiations in establishing the sense of self in different contexts.

Assessing concertive control in the term environment

Abstract: Recent research has identified concertive control as an essential factor constraining teamwork. We extend this research by reporting the development and validation of a scale to measure concertive control in teams that will assist organizational and management professionals both in assessing how teams struggle with process issues and in furthering conceptual research.

The impact of development centre participation and the role of individual differences in changing self‐assessments

Abstract: Although much research has focused on assessment centres, rather less has been done on development centres (DCs), and in particular on the effects they have on participants. A study is reported of the impact of DC attendance on self-assessment made by 111 customer service staff. Participants rated themselves on the DC dimensions before and after attending, and these ratings were correlated with observers' assessments made at the DC. Results indicated congruence on only two out of 10 dimensions between observer- and self-assessments pre-DC, rising to six out of the 10 dimensions post-DC. Self-esteem also increased following attendance at the DC. Females showed more self-assessment accuracy than did males. Classifying the participants (pre-DC) into underraters, accurate raters and overraters showed that underraters became more accurate in their self-assessments post-DC whereas overraters did not; the latter group continued to have self-ratings significantly higher than observer ratings, and were unchanged in level of self-esteem. It is concluded that the DC studied has demonstrated its value as a process for increasing self-awareness for some but not all participants. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for both research and the application of DCs in practice.

Self‐assessment accuracy and assessment centre decisions

Abstract: A number of authors have proposed that self-assessment may represent a valid tool for use in assessment situations. Research suggests that those who are accurate in self-assessments of performance actually perform more effectively, e.g. in the job or at an assessment centre. This study examined the properties of two measures of self-assessment (absolute accuracy of self-assessment and degree of inaccuracy of self-assessment) in a graduate assessment centre. Results showed that an accurate self-rating of performance on one assessment centre exercise reliably distinguished between accepted and rejected candidates. Further, and importantly, this effect remained after variance attributable to psychometric tests and demographic variables had been controlled for. That is, some accurate self-assessments appear to have incremental validity above and beyond psychometric tests. However, the magnitude and direction of self-assessment inaccuracy was significantly different between the accepted and rejected candidates for three of the four exercises. These results suggested that while variables associated with self-assessment may impact on the size of the inaccuracy of self-assessments, the impact of such variables may not lead to accurate self-assessment.

A multimodal cognitive-behavioural approach to anger reduction in an occupational sample

Abstract: The effectiveness of a cognitive-behavioural package approach to anger reduction designed specifically for a non-research setting was investigated in 26 self-referring police officers. Participants who were available for session times were randomly assigned to either a treatment or a wait-list control condition. The treatment condition involved 6 90-minute weekly sessions and included training in relaxation skills, cognitive reappraisal, response disruption and problem solving, and was compared to a wait-list control group. At post-treatment, the treatment group showed reduced scores on a majority of the anger measures compared to the control group. In addition, a decrease in general anxiety in the treatment group was interpreted as a reflection of treatment generalization. Therapeutic gains were maintained at 8-week follow-up. The findings demonstrate the viability of anger-reduction programmes outside of the typical research populations employed to date.

Short research note: Rater positive and negative mood predispositions as predictors of performance ratings of ratees in simulated and real organizational settings: Evidence from US and Israeli samples

Abstract: Laboratory research shows that raters who experience positive mood evaluate others more favourably, while raters who experience negative mood provide less favourable ratings. Based on these findings it was hypothesized that in more realistic work situations, raters who are high on positive mood predisposition would provide higher job performance ratings of ratees, while raters who are high on negative mood predisposition would provide lower job performance ratings. These hypotheses were tested by examining performance ratings from two sources: a realistic organizational simulation conducted in the US and an Israeli industrial firm. In both samples, negative mood predisposition was negatively associated with performance ratings of ratees, whereas positive mood predisposition was unrelated to performance ratings.