Showing papers in "Journal of Oil Palm Research in 2012"

Avian biodiversity and conservation in Malaysian oil palm production areas.

Abstract: Our study demonstrated the persistence of avian biodiversity in established oil palm production areas. Here, the empirical evidence on avian species richness reflects explicitly that oil palm production areas are not merely a ‘green biological desert’. We investigated the relationships between bird species richness and different management regimes (plantations vs. smallholdings) and vegetation characteristics in 30 oil palm areas in the states of Selangor, Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang. We recorded 72 bird species, comprising approximately 32% forest-dependent, 19% migratory and 10% wetland species. Our study showed that plantations and smallholdings supported a similar total number of bird species richness (P = 0.709). However, we found that a greater height of the ground vegetation cover had a positive effect on total species richness (P < 0.001). Similarly, there was no significant difference between plantations and smallholdings with respect to the total number of migratory species (P = 0.322). This number also increased when ground vegetation cover was higher (P = 0.010). We recommend the following appropriate conservation measures that may enhance avian biodiversity in oil palm production areas: (1) implementation of tree planting projects that benefit wild birds, (2) integration of oil palm with livestock grazing to phase out dangerous agrochemicals that are harmful to wild birds, and (3) continued promotion of ground vegetation cover to increase habitat heterogeneity on a local scale. Potentially oil palm can move towards becoming a sustainable and profitable commodity if production areas can be managed for conservation outcomes. * Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail: b_azhar@putra.upm.edu.my ** Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. ‡ TQEM & Sustainability, Sime Darby Research & Development Centre, 42700 Banting, Selangor, Malaysia. often linked to commercial agricultural areas in which some native fauna have been found to persist after land conversion (Krebs et al., 1999; Sekercioglu et al., 2007; Abrahamczyk et al., 2008; Fischer et al. 2008; Harvey et al., 2008; Perfecto and Vandermeer, 2008). It has been advocated that there is a need for better agricultural practices on farmlands that take into consideration the elements of biodiversity conservation. However, it remains questionable whether the idea of promoting oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) cultivation as being biodiversityfriendly can be accepted by consumers in the same way as is the case with other commodity crops (e.g. coffee and cacao) (Komar 2006; Fitzherbert et al., 2008; Rainforest Alliance Network, 2010). Industrial-scale expansion of oil palm has been INTRODUCTION Protecting biodiversity beyond that present in nature reserves is still a new conservation strategy, especially in developing countries (McNeely and Scherr, 2002; Sachs et al., 2010). Such a strategy is

Properties of residual palm pressed fibre oil

Abstract: Residual fibre oil was recovered from palm pressed fibre by using a solvent (hexane). The oil was analysed for its physical and chemical properties. The macro-nutrient and element contents of the pressed fibre were also analysed. The residual fibre oil contained high amounts of phosphorus (144 ppm), vitamin E (1153 ppm) and carotenes (1877 ppm). The compositional content of vitamin E present was 54.0% α-tocopherol, 19.2% α-tocotrienol, 16.7% γ-tocotrienol and 10.1% δ-tocotrienol. The major fatty acids of the residual fibre oil were palmitic and oleic acid at 31.9% and 24.8%, respectively. The oil also contained a high amount of lauric acid (22.0%) which is the major fatty acid in palm kernel oil. Density of the residual fibre oil as a function of temperature was measured at temperatures ranging from 40°C to 75°C. Density exhibited a linear relationship with temperature. Viscosity of the residual fibre oil was shown to decrease with an increase in temperature. The formation of needle-shaped crystals was observed when the residual oil was cooled down from 36°C to 34°C. There were no significant changes in the macro-nutrient and element contents of the palm pressed fibre before and after oil extraction with hexane. * Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail: rusnani@mpob.gov.my ** Department of Process and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. operation, the palm pressed fibre also contributes towards better soil and water conservation when used as a mulch for small and large seedlings in polybags in the nurseries (Chan et al., 1981). Oil losses occur at various stages of processing in a palm oil mill. In the pressing stage, oil is ‘lost’ in the pressed fibre. The amount of oil entrapped in these fibre depends very much on the effect of sterilisation on the fruit, the conditioning of the sterilised fruits in the digester, and also the pressure exerted on the press cake during pressing. Oil losses in the pressed fibre range from 5%-8% on a dry weight basis. The utilisation of palm pressed fibre as well as the residual fibre oil recovered from the fibre will be able to change the by-products into valuable products. As palm oil is well-known for its versatility in both edible and non-edible applications, great efforts are currently undertaken to study the application of the by-products generated from the palm oil milling process. These by-product applications require extensive studies on the physico-chemical properties of the by-products in order to ensure their suitability as raw materials for various final INTRODUCTION Fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are processed in the palm oil mill to produce two types of products: crude palm oil (CPO) and palm kernels. Palm oil milling processes consist of various stages which include sterilisation of the FFB, stripping, pressing, clarification and purification of the crude oil, nut cracking and kernel recovery. Besides the two main products, the mill also generates about 1.5 t of empty fruit bunches, 1.6 t of palm pressed fibre, 0.9 t of palm shells, 2.4 t of steriliser condensate, 10.0 t of centrifugal sludge and 0.7 t of dry mill effluent per hectare of oil palm annually as illustrated in Figure 1. Besides being used as a solid fuel for boiler

EVALUATION OF MPOB OIL PALM GERMPLASM (Elaeis guineensis) POPULATIONS USING EST- SSR

Abstract: MPOB has initiated an oil palm genetic resources programme which includes the collection, evaluation, utilisation and conservation of oil palm germplasm. The objectives of this study were to determine the potential use of expressed sequence tag-simple sequence repeats (EST-SSR) markers to study the genetic variability of the germplasm collection. A total of 330 palms originating from 11 countries in Africa were screened using 10 EST-SSR primers. The data were analysed using the Biosys-1 software to calculate the genetic variability parameters. It was found that the germplasm exhibited a high level of genetic diversity. Most of the loci tested were 100% polymorphic at 0.95 criterion. A total of 46 alleles were detected across all the germplasm populations. Of these, three were considered as rare alleles. The Nigerian germplasm showed the highest number of alleles per locus and the highest number of rare alleles, a high percentage of polymorphic loci and high heterozygosity, suggesting that Nigeria could be the centre of diversity of the wild oil palm. This study also revealed that the Madagascar germplasm is unique and different compared with the oil palm populations from the African mainland. Based on the dendrogram constructed, the germplasm populations could be divided into three major clusters; Cluster 1 consisting of Angola, Tanzania, Cameroon, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly known as Zaire), Sierra Leone, Guinea and Ghana germplasm, Cluster 2 consisting of Gambia and Senegal germplasm, while the Madagascar germplasm was placed in Cluster 3. The mean genetic distance across the MPOB germplasm populations was 0.251.

The estimation of frond base biomass (FBB) of oil palm.

Abstract: Increasing attention is being focused on the greenhouse gas (GHG) balance of crop production given the need to minimise emissions associated with global warming and climate change. Such emissions can be countered by growing crops such as oil palm that have a high capacity to sequester carbon. The ability to accurately determine carbon sequestration by the crop thus becomes increasingly important. In the case of oil palm, methods of estimating crop biomass are well developed. However, there are still improvements to be made to ensure a complete assessment of carbon stock. This article examines the role carbon sequestration played by frond bases of oil palm that remain attached to the trunk after frond pruning, and which are frequently ignored when assessing standing palm biomass and carbon stock. Data on frond base biomass (FBB) are reviewed, methods for its assessment are discussed, and its importance for calculating carbon sequestration and net carbon balance of oil palm plantations are examined. Carbon sequestration in the plantation for four mills in Papua New Guinea, with a mean crop rotation time of 21 years in their contributing estates was increased by an average of 11% after including FBB in the calculation of standing carbon.

Oil palm adaptation to compacted alluvial soil (Typic endoaquepts) in Malaysia.

Abstract: A study was carried out to evaluate the ability of oil palm to adapt to compacted Bernam series soil (Typic Endoaquepts). After six years of soil compaction treatments, the mean soil bulk density, available water as well as the percentages of mesopores and micropores increased, whereas total porosity, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rate and percentage of macropores decreased. Fresh fruit bunch (FFB) yield increased significantly with increased mean soil bulk density. On the other hand, the treatments resulted in significant reductions in oil palm standing biomass, root biomass as well as frond dry weight. Total green frond number, total leaf area and leaf area index were not affected by the treatments. The growth of oil palm roots was significantly affected by the compacted soil, resulting in lower primary and secondary root production, but compensated for by the production of longer and thicker tertiary and quaternary roots. The treatments caused changes in the soil physical properties and resulted in soil compaction, which then affected oil palm performance. The palms showed adaptation to these changes and responded positively by producing better yield following the compaction treatments. This shows that compacted soil may not be a problem to oil palm planted in the

Mutation induction using gamma irradiation on oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) cultures.

Abstract: This article reports on in vitro mutation induction in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) using gamma irradiation. The radiosensitivity tests were carried out to determine the level of gamma dose suitable for oil palm cultures with good regenerative capacity. Calli from Clone C3-5, Clone GP13-0, Clone GP13-1 and Clone C7-1 were exposed to various levels of gamma radiation (GR) from 0 to the highest 100 Gray (Gy). Of these, embryogenesis was observed in Clone C3-5 and Clone GP13-0 at 40 Gy and at lower doses of GR. The mean weight of callus growth was halved at about 40 Gy to 60 Gy of gamma rays. AFLP analysis was carried out on these callus cultures to monitor changes in the DNA profile. The DNA changes were observed even at a dosage as low as 10 Gy. The changes observed were basically random in nature. For a mutation induction study, leaf derived calli from a selected ortet was used. Friable callus from Clone CX49, Line A’ and Line B’ were exposed to both fractionated and acute irradiation. When fractionated irradiation was used, there were no significant differences in the establishment of polyembryoid cultures and shoot production. In this study, the highest gamma ray dose was 5 Gy repeatedly given for three and five times at 4-5 subculture intervals. Under acute irradiation with doses of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 Gy, the embryoid growth decreased significantly at doses of 40 Gy and above, which also affected the shoot r egeneration.

Conversion of lignocellulose from oil palm biomass into water-soluble cellulose ether

Abstract: Cellulose, in combination with lignin and hemicellulose, is found in all plant materials. It is also the most abundant form of plant biomass. In the oil palm industry, empty fruit bunches (EFB), which are generated in large amounts at the palm oil mill, is made up of approximately 37% a-cellulose (on a dry weight basis). The use of this oil palm by-product may be expanded by the chemical modification of the cellulose into products of high value, such as cellulose ether. This study attempted to synthesise water-soluble cellulose ether, particularly sodium carboxymethylcellulose (NaCMC), from the EFB fibre. The properties of EFB-based NaCMC including the degree of substitution (DS), and viscosity were studied. In addition, the a-cellulose and NaCMC were analysed for their structural properties by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffractometry. The properties of EFB-based NaCMC in comparison to the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) grade NaCMC (from Sigma-Aldrich) were discussed. EFB-based NaCMC exhibited viscosity of about 400 cps (2% at 25°C) while USP grade NaCMC exhibited viscosity of 500 cps (2% at 25°C), i.e. slightly higher than EFB-based NaCMC. The infrared spectrum of a-cellulose from EFB was identical to that of commercial cellulose (from Sigma-Aldrich) with the presence of C-O-C, C-C, O-H and C-H bands. The typical absorption bands observed between 1300 cm -1 and 1580 cm -1 on the infrared spectra for both the EFB-based NaCMC and USP grade NaCMC indicated the presence of the COO group. As for the X-ray diffractogram, the profiles of both the EFB-based NaCMC and USP grade NaCMC were identical, even though the EFB-based NaCMC was less amorphous in structure compared with that the USP grade NaCMC. The results suggest chemical disruption of the cellulose crystallinity by breaking hydrogen bonds in cellulose and opening the structure to accessibility by other chemicals. These findings on NaCMC from an underutilised by-product of the palm oil industry could contribute towards the development of an oil palm-based specialty chemicals industry.

The isolation and characterisation of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) β-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) synthase (KAS) II cDNA.

Abstract: Modulating endogenous levels and/or producing novel fatty acids of oils have gained significant attention in recent years to meet the demand for oils for specific markets. The commodity palm oil is composed mainly of four fatty acids: palmitic acid (16:0), stearic acid (18:0), oleic acid (18:1) and linoleic acid (18:2). The percentages of these fatty acids in palm oil average 44%, 4%, 39% and 10%, respectively, with trace amounts of other fatty acids. Metabolic engineering may be used to produce oil crops with desired fatty acid compositions. We have isolated and characterised b-ketoacyl ACP-synthase II (KASII) cDNA from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) which is one of the main components for the oil palm genetic engineering programme. KAS II is associated with the accumulation of palmitic acid in oil palm, and its role in controlling the ratio of C16:C18 has been previously determined. We isolated KAS II cDNA from oil palm, and functionally characterised the same in Escherichia coli and Arabidopsis. Partial length KAS II cDNA was first obtained by the reverse transcriptasepolymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) was then used to isolate both the 5’ and 3’ ends of the KAS II sequences. Assembly of the partial length sequence fragments, including the 5’ and 3’ ends, allowed for the full-length sequence information on the KAS II cDNA to be obtained and used in the gene isolation. Expression studies in E. coli resulted in an increase in oleic acid at the expense of palmitic acid. Arabidopsis thaliana was also used to further confirm the functional activity of the oil palm KAS II. A significant decrease in C18:0 and accumulation of C16:0 were detected in the plants that had been transformed with the antisense KASII construct. This suggests that the substrate specificity of the oil palm KAS II is similar to that of KAS II from other plants which preferentially elongate palmitic to stearic acids. The oil palm KAS II may, therefore, be useful in providing new opportunities in the genetic engineering programme for the production of high-value products such as an oil with a high content of monounsaturated fatty acids from the transgenic oil crops. * Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail: umi@mpob.gov.my ** ACGT Laboratories, Lot L3-I-1, Enterprise 4, Technology Park Malaysia, Bukit Jalil, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ‡ FELDA Biotechnology Centre, FELDA Agriculture Services Sdn Bhd, Tingkat 7, Balai FELDA, Jalan Gurney 1, 54000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ‡ ‡ Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. INTRODUCTION Plant oils are used in a variety of industrial and edible applications. Novel vegetable oil compositions and/or improved means to obtain such oil compositions, from biosynthetic or natural resources, are needed to meet the demand for expanding the range of high-energy and nutritious foods. Palm oil, a well-balanced healthy edible oil,

A time course anatomical analysis of callogenesis from young leaf explants of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.).

Abstract: Histological and scanning electron microscopy analyses were employed to analyse callus development in oil palm at fortnightly intervals over a period of 28 weeks. The emergence of primary calli on the surface of the oil palm leaf explants was generally observed after 10 weeks of culture. Callus initiation was detected earlier, at six weeks, upon the division of perivascular cells within the leaf explant. This is the first report documenting the presence of a net-like structure termed as an extracellular matrix surface network (ECMSN) on the callus surface and the epidermal layer of the leaf explants of oil palm. We also observed peculiar ‘empty’ epidermal cells and small spherical particles on the surface of the epidermal cells of the leaf explants concomitant with the formation of a callus that have not been reported during callus initiation in other plants. These results may provide basic knowledge and facilitate our understanding of the biological processes involved during oil palm callogenesis. The anatomical changes and the presence of unique features like ECMSN may act as structural markers during callogenesis of oil palm. * Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,

Effects of neonicotinoid and method of breaking dormancy on seed germination and seedling vigour of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.).

Abstract: The effects of two neonicotinoids at three application rates (0, 2.5 and 5.0 ml kg-1 seed for thiamethoxam, and 0, 2.0, 4.0 g kg-1 seed for imidacloprid) and two methods of breaking dormancy (dry heat treatment and operculum removal) on seed germination and seedling vigour were determined in tenera oil palm seeds. The results reveal that the seeds with operculum removed took a shorter time to germinate than the dry-heated seeds, regardless of the neonicotinoid treatments. Thiamethoxam and imidacloprid had no promoting effects on seed germination or on time to 50% germination (T50). In this study, phytotoxicity effects were observed with the neonicotinoid treatments in the operculum-removed seeds in terms of the percentage of seeds producing shoots and roots as compared to the normal seedlings (control); such effects were not found in the dry-heated

Optimisation of 2-deoxyglucose concentration for identifying the sensitivity level for oil palm embryogenic calli.

Abstract: In this study, the sensitivity of oil palm calli to 2-deoxyglucose (2-DOG) was evaluated to determine the optimal concentration to be used as a selection agent for oil palm embryogenic calli. It was reported earlier that 2-DOG has been used for selecting transformants using the DOGR1 gene which encodes 2-deoxyglucose-6-phosphate (2-DOG-6-P) phosphatase. In plants, 2-DOG is converted into 2-DOG-6-P by endogenous hexokinase which results in the inhibition of cell growth. Therefore, an experiment to determine the optimal concentration of 2-DOG required to fully inhibit the regeneration of untransformed oil palm embryogenic calli was carried out. The untransformed embryogenic calli were cultured on embryogenic callus (EC) medium supplemented with different concentrations of 2-DOG, ranging from 0 to 1000 mg litre-1. Results show that 400 mg litre-1 of 2-DOG led to nearly complete inhibition (>80%) of oil palm embryogenic calli regeneration. This was demonstrated by a reduction in the calli weight and in the ability to form whitish embryoids. This optimal concentration of 2-DOG is recommended to be used for the selection and regeneration of transformed oil palm embryogenic calli after transformation using the DOGR1 gene in future experiments. * Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail: parveez@mpob.gov.my ** School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. selectable marker gene results in a product that allows the survival of the transformed cell in the presence of a selective agent that prevents the regeneration of the untransformed cell (Brasileiro and Dusi, 1999). The selection system can be divided into two, namely the negative and positive selection systems. The most common negative selection marker genes are those that confer resistance to herbicides or antibiotics which will kill non-transgenic tissues in the presence of the selection agent (Darbani et al., 2007). Examples of negative selectable marker genes are the bar gene which mediates resistance to the herbicide phosphinothricine (Lohar et al., 2001) and the nptII gene which confers resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin (Burris et al., 2007). The selection agent used is usually toxic to the untransformed cells. Depending on the plant species, the selection method is not always effective and could frequently INTRODUCTION The prerequisites for producing transgenic plants are the availability of a suitable gene transformation system, the existence of an efficient transformant selection system and a regeneration system to fully regenerate the transformed plant cells (Parveez, 1998). A good selection system enables transgenic plants or cells to be distinguished, individually isolated and selectively regenerated into whole plants after transformation. The expression of a

Swelling and dissolution of oil palm biomass in ionic liquids.

Abstract: Malaysia is amongst the world’s top producers of palm oil and the current planted area is around 4.5 million hectares. The palm oil industry generates vast amounts of palm biomass, especially empty fruit bunches (EFB) (from the mills), oil palm fronds (OPF) and oil palm trunks (OPT) (during routine pruning and from the field during replanting). Oil palm biomass can be used efficiently after further treatment, either by physical or chemical means. In this study, the swelling and dissolution mechanisms of the lignocellulosic biomass by ionic liquids were compared. There are five modes in describing the swelling and dissolution for cotton and wood cellulose fibre, and these were compared to the results obtained. Depending on the quality of the solvent, disintegration into rod-like fragments and ballooning, followed subsequently by dissolution were all observed among the oil palm fibre. In a typical dissolution trial, 5 wt % of oil palm biomass and cellulose fibre from EFB, OPF and OPT were treated with two different ionic liquids: 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride/dimethyl sulphoxide ([bmim]Cl)/DMSO and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride/dimethyl sulphoxide ([emim]Cl)/ DMSO at a ratio of 80:20 wt %. They were heated at different fixed times, namely 4, 6, 8, 16 and 24 hr for untreated oil palm biomass, and 1, 2 and 3 hr for cellulose fibre. The mechanisms of swelling and dissolution were monitored by optical microscopy. * Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,

Greenhouse gas emissions for the production of crude palm kernel oil - a gate-to-gate case study.

Abstract: Currently, carbon footprint, also known as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is such a catchphrase in the world that it has become a must for responsible producers to quantify the carbon footprint of their products. The Malaysian oil palm industry is an export-orientated industry which relies heavily on the world market. Export earnings of oil palm products in 2010 alone reached RM 59.77 billion, while palm kernel oil exports increased to 1.16 million tonnes. However, the oil palm industry is under constant attack for its performance from the perspective of the environment, especially with regard to its GHG emissions. Being an export-orientated industry, this issue has to be tackled head-on to quantify the GHG emissions of the oil palm industry. The objectives of this study were to quantify the GHG emissions from the production of 1 t of crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) at the kernel-crushing plant, and to compare the GHG emissions of 1 t CPKO with and without biogas capture at the palm oil mill for a kernel-crushing plant located near the ports compared to a kernelcrushing plant located near the palm oil mill. The scope of this study is limited to the palm oil mill and the kernel-crushing plant. It starts at the palm oil mill where the fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are received, to the production of palm kernel at the mill, to the transportation of the palm kernel to the kernel-crushing plant, right up till the production of CPKO at the kernel-crushing plant. GHG emission was calculated using the global warming potential and emissions factors. Within the system boundary, the main contributor to GHG emission comes from the biogas at the palm oil mill, followed by the electricity from the grid for processing the palm kernel into CPKO. Capturing the biogas at the palm oil mill where the palm kernel is produced and using the biogas as a renewable energy source, reduces the main GHG emissions in this study. By integrating the kernel-crushing plant with the palm oil mill, GHG emissions from both the electricity to process the palm kernel into CPKO and transportation of the palm kernel to the kernel-crushing plant are reduced significantly. The best scenario will be to integrate the kernel-crushing plant with a palm oil mill that captures its biogas to obtain the best carbon footprint for the production of CPKO. * Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail: vijaya@mpob.gov.my INTRODUCTION Currently, carbon footprint, also known as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is such a catchphrase in the world that it has become a must for responsible producers to quantify the carbon footprint of their products.

Fate of thiram in an oil palm nursery during the wet season

Abstract: Thiram (tetramethylthiuram disulfide) is a fungicide used to control plant pathogenic fungi such as Rhizoctonia spp, Phythium spp. and Fusarium spp. which often infest oil palm seedlings from the prenursery until the main nursery stage. With increasing applications of thiram in oil palm nurseries, it is necessary to investigate the fate of thiram in the nursery environment. The trial was conducted from July till August 2008, i.e. during the wet season, at the Labu Estate Nursery (Sime Darby), Nilai, Negeri Sembilan. The subplots were treated with thiram at the manufacturer’s recommended dose and at double recommended dose. Thiram residue was detected in the soil at all depths (from 0-50 cm) for both treatment doses on the day of spraying (0 DAT). The amount of residue was observed to decrease with soil depth. Analyses of water and oil palm leaflets within the trial showed that thiram was found at 0 and 3 days after treatment of the trial plots at the recommended and double the recommended doses. The results showed that adsorption and dissipation of thiram were slowly being influenced by the type of soil and the total amount of rain received during the experiment. Run-off and wash-off were the major causes of the loss of thiram residues from the water in the nursery environment and from the leaflets of the oil palm seedlings.

Phenol adsorption by activated carbon of different fibre size derived from empty fruit bunches

Abstract: The capacity of empty fruit bunch-based activated carbon for phenol adsorption was studied. Four different particle sizes of activated carbon (AC) (unsieved, > 2, 0.355-1.0 and < 0.15 mm mesh number) were produced by the activation of prepared charcoal with CO2. Activated carbon with particle size greater than 2 mm demonstrated the highest percentage of phenol adsorption. The performance of this activated carbon in phenol removal was better than commercially available activated carbon with an adsorption capacity of the AC sample and the commercial AC at equilibrium time amounting to 73% and 68%, respectively. The experimental data were analysed using the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption models. The kinetics of adsorption were well described by a pseudo-second order model, whilst the adsorption equilibrium was best represented by the Langmuir isotherm model. * Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia. ** Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail: astimar@mpob.gov.my set by the Environmental Quality Act of Malaysia is 0.001 mg litre-1. Currently, phenols are abated in wastewater by a separation process: through liquid-liquid extraction, distillation, adsorption, membranesolvent extraction, electrochemical treatments, or microwave-induced heating (Bi et al., 2007; Busca et al., 2008). It appears that the adsorption of phenols by activated carbon is the best option over the other methods due to zero-sludge production. Activated carbon (AC) is most widely used in the adsorption process due to its chemical and mechanical stability, high degree of surface reactivity and high adsorption capacity (Demirbas, 2004; Azargohar and Dalai, 2005). In fact, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has recommended AC as one of the best available technologies in removing organic pollutants. However, commercially available AC is expensive, and thus researchers have been conducting a lot of studies on the feasibility of using less expensive raw materials, such as from rice husk (Yalcin and Sevinc, 2000), sawdust (Malik, 2004), hard wood (Arriagada et al., 2005), coconut shell (Hu and Srinivasan, 1999; Yang et al., 2010), coffee grounds (Reffas et al., 2010), and sugar-cane (Liou, 2010). INTRODUCTION Phenolics are a pollutant that are often found in effluents from the palm oil mill, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, paint, pulp and paper, and other industries (Shaarani and Hameed, 2010). These compounds are normally used as intermediates in the synthesis of pesticides, colours, plastics, insecticides, and many more substances. Improper treatment of these polluting compounds may produce a negative impact on human life and the environment, by contaminating the soil and polluting the ground water. Furthermore, their toxicity may seriously affect microorganisms. The permissible level of phenolic compounds before discharge into surface water and municipal sewers

Determining the optimal concentration of mannose as an effective selection agent for transformed oil palm cells using the phosphomannose isomerase (pmi) gene as a positive selectable marker

Abstract: The elimination of antibiotic or herbicide resistance gene usage in genetically modified plants is being encouraged due to public concern. In response to this, alternative selection systems for the recovery of transgenic oil palm were developed using positive selectable markers. To establish a selection system that utilises the phosphomannose isomerase (pmi) gene for oil palm transformation, we first determined the optimal mannose concentration for selecting the transformed cells. Non-transformed embryogenic calli were cultured on media containing various combinations and concentrations of mannose and a usable source of carbon, i.e. sucrose, ranging in content from 0 to 30 g litre -1 . Sucrose is often used as a carbon source in plant tissue culture media. The embryogenic calli were subcultured onto similar fresh media every four weeks, and growth was recorded monthly up to five months. From the 10 combinations of mannose and sucrose evaluated, mannose:sucrose at 30:0 g litre -1 was shown to be the most effective for selection because at this concentration the least plant growth was demonstrated for non-transformed embryogenic calli. We will thereafter use this particular concentration of mannose to select for oil palm embryogenic calli transformed with the pmi gene using biolistic bombardment.

EFFECT OF Bt PRODUCTS, LEPCON-1, BAFOG-1 (S) AND ECOBAC-1 (EC), AGAINST THE OIL PALM POLLINATING WEEVIL, Elaeidobius kamerunicus, AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH Cassia cobanensis

Abstract: The effects of Bacillus thuringiensis products, Lepcon-1, Bafog-1 (S) and Ecobac-1 (EC), on the oil palm pollinating weevil, Elaeidobius kamerunicus, and beneficial insects, especially parasitoids, were studied For pollinating weevils, oil palm male spikelets with weevils were treated by spraying with Lepcon-1 and Ecobac-1 (EC) at five different concentrations, ranging from 52 × 10 7 to 52 × 10 11 cfu ml -1 for Lepcon-1, and 734 × 10 7 to 734 × 10 11 cfu ml -1 for Ecobac-1 (EC) For Bafog-1 (S), male spikelets with weevils were fogged at a dose of 77 × 10 11 cfu ml ml -1 The Bt products Lepcon-1, Bafog-1 (S) and Ecobac-1 (EC) were safe for E kamerunicus Direct spraying of Lepcon-1, Bafog-1 (S) and Ecobac-1 (EC) at the highest concentrations caused 13%, 10% and 11% corrected mortality at nine days after treatment (DAT), respectively Cypermethrin was toxic to the pollinating weevils as it killed 100% of the weevils at as early as five DAT Lepcon-1, Bafog-1 (S) and Ecobac-1 (EC) were also harmless to beneficial insects Application of these products by spraying at the highest concentrations resulted in low mortality of the beneficial insects, ranging from 8% to 13% Cypermethrin was toxic to the parasitoids as spraying of the chemical at 75% w/w killed 100% of the beneficial insects at as early as five DAT The laboratory study showed that Lepcon-1, Bafog-1 (S) and Ecobac-1 (EC) were safe for the oil palm pollinating weevils and beneficial insects and, therefore, they are recommended for use in the integrated control of bagworms in oil palm

A bibliometric study on the worldwide research productivity of scientists in Elaeis guineensis Jacq. and Elaeis oleifera.

Abstract: This article has the general aim of assessing the worldwide research productivity of Elaeis guineensis Jacq. and Elaeis oleifera or more commonly known as oil palm, as reflected by the literature indexed in the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases. Specifically, the research aims to identify the most productive countries, institutions and authors in this area of research. It also investigates the subject characteristics of the publication and collaborative patterns among researchers and institutions. Overall, based on the number of publications indexed by both WoS and Scopus, the Asian region, represented by seven countries, are the dominant producers of publications in this field, of which Malaysia is in the number one position. Whereas, USA and some European countries, such as United Kingdom and France, are also leading in terms of publications and citations. Research in the areas of food science and technology (WoS) as well as agricultural and biological sciences (Scopus) account for the highest number of publications. High levels of collaboration among authors are evident among the top 10 most productive countries. This is a good indication of collaboration impact with increased research output. * Department of Library and Information Science, Faculty of Computer Science & Information Technology, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail: abrizah@um.edu.my 52.3 million tonnes for 2012/2013 (United States Department of Agriculture, 2012). It is thus by far the most widely-produced tropical oil, and constitutes almost 38% of total edible oil production worldwide (Basiron, 2011). From 1998 until late 2008, the international demand for palm oil had increased consistently, leading to alteration in the price of crude palm oil. Over 85% of the world’s crude palm oil comes from Malaysia and Indonesia (Timms, 2007), providing a considerable income to the national and regional governments of these two countries. Since 1970s, Malaysia has strengthened its position as the primary producer and exporter of world palm oil. In line with the very rapid expansion of planted area, Indonesia overtook Malaysia as the world’s biggest palm oil producer in 2007. The global production of palm oil has increased more than nine-fold in the past three decades, supplying the major markets including the European Union, China, Pakistan, India and Indonesia. Significant increases in production were also seen in countries INTRODUCTION Palm oil which is produced from the fruits of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq. and Elaeis oleifera) is the second largest edible oil worldwide, after soyabean oil. The Elaeis guineensis Jacq. originated from Africa, whilst the Elaeis oleifera originated from South America. In the past decade, palm oil was the highest produce of the world’s production of oils and fats (Oil World, 2010), exceeding soyabean oil in terms of global production in 2005 (Cheng, 2010). Worldwide, palm oil production for season 2011/2012 was 50.3 million tonnes, increasing to

Effects of severing oil palm roots on leaf nutrient levels and p uptake

Abstract: Physical damage to oil palm roots affects the palm’s ability to acquire nutrients. In spite of this huge impact on the palm, the effects of root loss on palm nutrient status are unknown and this is unfortunate because optimal palm nutrient status is an important factor in fruit production. In trying to understand the effects of damage to the roots and the consequent effects on the palms, the impact of root damage was simulated by severing roots within 0%, 25% and 50% of the palm circle. Five months after the roots were severed, changes in leaf nutrient levels in the various treatments were observed. Each treatment was replicated five times, using one palm per replicate. The impact of losing 25% of the roots within the palm circle changed the leaf K concentration and also the N:K ratio significantly (p 0.05) in the N, P, Mg and B leaf concentrations compared to control. Further assessment of the impact of root loss on nutrient uptake by the palm, especially by the surviving tertiary roots, was made using 32 P isotope. Five surviving tertiary roots from each treatment were placed in contact with the 32 P solution, and the amount of isotope absorbed by the palms from the various treatments over a fixed time was measured. No difference in the amount of the isotope absorbed was observed.

Emission reduction options for peatlands in the Kubu Raya and Pontianak districts, West Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Abstract: The peatlands of Indonesia are an increasingly important land resource for the livelihood of the people and for economic development, but they turn rapidly into a carbon source when the peat forests are cleared and drained. Therefore, strategies are needed for the sustainable management of the peatlands and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This research was conducted on 464 642 ha of peatland varying in depth between 200 and 680 cm, in the districts of Kubu Raya and Pontianak, in the West Kalimantan province of Indonesia. It was aimed at: (i) evaluating land use changes in the peatland of the two districts and assessing the CO2 emissions these entail; and (ii) recommending options for mitigation of the CO2 emissions. Satellite images in the years 1986, 2002 and 2008 were used for the evaluation of land use changes. This was followed by ground-truthing of recent land cover in 2009. Interviews were conducted with stakeholders to develop emission reduction strategies. The results show that the peatlands were used for various purposes, including the traditional slash-and-burn agriculture for maize, pineapple plantations, intensive vegetable farming, and rubber and oil palm plantations. The peat forest area decreased by 16% from 393 000 ha in 1986 to 329 390 ha in 2008, while shrubland increased by 153% from 9427 ha to 23 814 ha over the same period of time. Oil palm plantations and paddy fields also increased rapidly in expansion. The main sources of emissions were from peat burning, especially for the slash-and-burn farming, peat decomposition due to drainage, and the loss of biomass depending on the land use trajectories. Emission reduction can be achieved through various scenarios. Scenario I, confining future agricultural land development to peatland with peat of <3 m thick, is expected to reduce by 6.8±2.9% the 2010 to 2035 cumulative CO2 emissions from the 127 million tonnes ‘business as usual’ (BAU) level. Scenario II, providing fertiliser subsidy to replace the traditional burning technique in addition to Scenario I, is expected to reduce emissions by as much as 11.5±4.9%. Scenario III, switching future agricultural expansion to mineral soils, is expected to lower the cumulative emissions by as much as 20.5±8.8%. These scenarios form the basis for sustainable peatland management and for a state of preparedness to reduce emissions from peatland.

Dielectric behaviour of polyurethane coatings derived from palm oil oleic acid-based polyols -A renewable resource

Abstract: Dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (frequency range from 100 Hz to 40 MHz) was used to examine molecular motion in polyurethane (PUR) derived from palm oil oleic acid-based polyols at room temperature. PUR was prepared by varying the oleic acid content in the polyol (28%, 40% and 65%), while the NCO/OH ratio of PUR was varied to 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6. The effect of chemical contribution on dielectric behaviour of the samples was described. Dielectric parameters were in the range of 2.0 to 3.0 for real permittivity e ’ and 0.02 to 0.08 for imaginary permittivity, e”. A Cole-Cole plot was fitted using the Havriliak-Negami model, and curvefitting simulations were performed using Origin software program. A g-relaxation process was proposed as the probable mechanism for the dielectric behaviour of PUR. The dielectric constant and loss mechanism of the material were dependent on the NCO/OH ratio and the percentage of oleic acid content in the polyols used in synthesising PUR. The frequency-dependent conductivity of PUR materials was analysed using a Jonscher’s power-law expression, and the plot exhibited a dc plateau and a frequency-dependent region.

Analysis of oil palm calli and regenerants using flow and image cytometry and 18S-25S ribosomal DNA fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH).

Abstract: Flow (FCM) and image cytometry (ICM) and 18S-25S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) were used to analyse the genetic stability or variation in oil palm in vitro plantlets, various forms of calli, and slowand fast-growing liquid suspension cultures. Both FCM and ICM results show a similar correlation pattern where samples with lower DNA content had lower integrative optical density (IOD) peaks. The 18S-25S rDNA FISH showed two large signals in the interphase cells of calli analysed, indicating a diploid ploidy level. Significant differences were observed in the DNA content and pattern of nuclei activity of the slowand fast-growing liquid suspension cultures using FCM and ICM analysis, demonstrating the usefulness of the above-mentioned tools developed to analyse materials prior to micropropagation; hence, the oil palm’s clonal fidelity is ensured, and the efficiency and robustness of liquid culture are improved by selecting callus materials which have similar DNA content and IOD range and peak as the fast-growing friable suspension and friable calli used in this study. * Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur,

An improved method for the determination of chlorpyrifos in palm oil matrices using gas chromatography

Abstract: The objective of this study was to improve the method for determining chlorpyrifos, an organophosphorus insecticide, in various palm oil matrices. Chlorpyrifos was separated from the oil matrices using acetonitrile extraction and then subjected to the solid phase extraction (SPE) clean-up process. A silica-based SPE was used for the clean-up process. Quantification of the extracted chlorpyrifos was carried out using a gas chromatograph (GC) equipped with an electron capture detector (ECD). The GC detector response was tested using standard solutions containing 0.005 to 0.12 mg ml -1 of chlorpyrifos. The retention time for chlorpyrifos was 4.8 min with the minimum detection limit at 0.005 mg ml -1 . The average recoveries of chlorpyrifos from crude palm oil (CPO) spiked with 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08 and 0.1 mg ml -1 chlorpyrifos were 94 ± 2.3%, 93 ± 1.4%, 99 ± 1.6%, 97 ± 2.9% and 95 ± 0.7%, respectively. In the case of crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) and refined, bleached, deodorised palm olein (RBDPOo), the recovery of chlorpyrifos from the spiked oil samples containing 0.02 to 0.1 mg ml -1 of chlorpyrifos ranged from 100% to 101% and from 93% to 99%, with the coefficient of variation ranging from 1.3% to 3.0% and from 0.7% to 2.9%, respectively. The method developed was used to determine the chlorpyrifos content in samples of CPO, CPKO and RBDPOo from mills and a refinery in Selangor, Malaysia. No chlorpyrifos residue was detected in any of the CPO, CPKO and RBDPOo samples collected.

Physico-chemical properties and compatibility study on palm oil products with cocoa butter

Abstract: The physico-chemical properties of binary blends of palm oil products with deodorised cocoa butter (DCB, IV 32.7) at levels ranging from 10% to 90% (w/w) were evaluated. Cocoa butter equivalent (CBE, IV 32.4) showed full compatibility with DCB at all concentrations and crystallised to form a strong b in a mixture of b + bʹ polymorphic forms. Results of solid fat content (SFC) show that the addition of 10% to 20% palm-mid fraction (PMF, IV 41) and cocoa butter substitute (CBS, IV 0.3) with DCB gave rise to eutectic effects and that the mixture crystallised to form a strong bʹ in a mixture of b + bʹ polymorphic forms. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) melting thermograms of the CBE and DCB blends showed a single melting peak at ± 19.5°C. There were two prominent melting peaks observed in the blends containing more than 10% to 20% of CBS and PMF.

Dispersion of the bagworms Pteroma pendula and Metisa plana in oil palm.

Abstract: An attempt was made to determine optimum sampling unit of between-palm and within-palm distribution of bagworms and their interspecific association distribution in oil palm using aggregation indices or distribution models. The within-frond distribution of bagworms varied significantly within the oil palm crown. Peak bagworm density was recorded between frond numbers 9 and 19. Through polynomial regression, standardised residual and relative net precision analyses, frond number 17 was established as the representative sampling unit for experimental work, and frond numbers 10-19 should be used when a greater precision is required as in life-table construction. A lack of interspecific association suggested these sampling units to be applicable for single and mixed infestations. Evaluation of between-palm dispersion revealed that Taylor’s Power Law gave a more appropriate fit with highly significant r2 values for all categories of assessment. The bagworms were regularly dispersed in oil palm with a general mean-variance relationship of log (s2) = 1.780 + 0.821 log (x¯).

Biochemical studies and purification of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) β-ketoacyl-acyl-carrier-protein (ACP) synthase (KAS) II enzyme.

Abstract: The rapid increase in palm oil production over the last 20 years has made this oil the most important in the world. Palm oil produced in the mesocarp of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) fruit contains primarily palmitic (44%) and oleic (39%) acids with only a small proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids. As a prelude to detailed biochemical analysis of the fatty acid biosynthesis of oil palm, we examined β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase (KAS) II activity, and evidence is presented on its importance in palmitic acid accumulation. In this study, three different oil palm breeding materials were screened for KAS II and fatty acid compositions. Collectively, the results strongly suggest that KAS II plays an important role in determining the relative amounts of C16 and C18 fatty acids in oil palm. KAS II activity was profiled through various stages of fruit development from 12 to 22 weeks after anthesis (WAA). The data depicted a pattern of progressive increase in KAS II activity similar to that of triacylglycerol synthesis in the oil palm mesocarp which started at 15 WAA and reached a maximum around 20 WAA. The enzyme was purified to homogeneity (>9000-fold purification) using a combination of ion exchange on CM-Sepharose, HR-DEAE, hyroxyapatite and affinity chromatography (ACP-Sepharose). Activity of the purified enzyme was inhibited by the chelating agent ethylene diamine tetra-acetate (EDTA) (1 M), but the inhibitory action could be overcome by divalent cations such as Mn2+ or Mg2+ (10 mM). Optimal activity was observed at pH 4.5. The data represent the first contribution to the biochemical characterisation of oil palm KAS II activity associated with fatty acid biosynthesis. * Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur,