Showing papers in "Journal of Personality in 1980"
TL;DR: In this paper, a comparison of both methods is applied to the qualitative literature review of Zuckerman (1979) and the meta-analysis of Arkin, Cooper, and Kolditz (1980) which reached different conclusions about the existence of self-serving attributions in studies of interpersonal influence.
Abstract: Meta-analysis is the name given to a set of techniques for reviewing research in which the data from different studies are statistically combined. Meta-analysts have criticized the more traditional qualitative methods of review on three principal grounds: (1) that relevant information is ignored in favor of a simplistic box count of the number of studies in which a particular relationship is and is not statistically significant; (2) that the sample of studies for review often contains important biases; and (3) that box counts ignore statistical interactions. Our discussion suggests that these criticisms are not intrinsic to qualitative reviews, but rather represent poor practices by reviewers using traditional methods. Moreover, although meta-analysis has some advantages, it is not without its unique limitations. Our comparison of both methods is applied to the qualitative literature review of Zuckerman (1979) and the meta-analysis of Arkin, Cooper, and Kolditz (1980) which reached different conclusions about the “existence” of self-serving attributions in studies of interpersonal influence.
284 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that self and peer trait attributions, since they tend to agree, must inevitably have an important impact on a person's life, and therefore are important to the understanding of personality.
Abstract: Subjects' descriptions of their own personalities were found to correlate quite well with descriptions contributed by their peers, especially on traits high in social desirability. As would be predicted from attribution research, subjects tend to rate themselves higher than do their peers on traits pertaining to inner states (e.g., “is introspective”), while peers tend to rate them higher on traits pertaining to behaviors especially salient to an external observer (e.g., “is personally charming”). But in general, self and peer ratings exhibit a considerable degree of covariance. It is concluded that self and peer trait attributions, since they tend to agree, must inevitably have an important impact on a person's life, and therefore are important to the understanding of personality.
203 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the frequency concept of disposition, which entails categories of acts that are topographically dissimilar but nonetheless considered to be manifestations of a common disposition, and find that a multipleact criterion based on prototypically dominant acts is predicted by personality scales with significantly greater success than are multiple-act criteria based on more peripheral acts within the dominance domain.
Abstract: Three studies of dominance explore the frequency concept of disposition, which entails categories of acts that are topographically dissimilar but nonetheless considered to be manifestations of a common disposition. In the first study, 100 difierent acts presumably belonging to the category of dominance were generated through a nomination procedure. In the second study, expert and student panels rated how prototypically dominant each act is, defined in terms of centrality of membership in the category of dominant acts. In this manner, an internal structure of the act category was specified such that some acts are more prototypically dominant while others are more peripheral members. Substantial agreement in these ratings exists within and between panels. The third study found that a multipleact criterion based on prototypically dominant acts is predicted by personality scales with significantly greater success than are multiple-act criteria based on more peripheral acts within the dominance domain. Discussion focuses on specifying the appropriate act category for other frequency dispositions and follow-up field studies of them. Implications for altemative notions of disposition (e.g., purposive-cognitive concepts) are considered.
186 citations
TL;DR: This article examined the effects of attributing initial failure to ineffective strategies on performance expectancies and found that subjects attributing task outcomes to strategies monitored the effectiveness of their strategies and concluded that by modifying their strategies they would become more successful.
Abstract: This experiment examined the effects of attributing initial failure to ineffective strategies on performance expectancies. Subjects were induced to attribute performance at a persuasion task to either their strategies (a controllable factor) or abilities (an uncontrollable factor). Subjects then failed at their initial persuasion attempt. Following failure, strategy subjects expected more successes in future attempts than did ability subjects. Strategy subjects also expected to improve with practice, while ability subjects did not. Comparisons to control subjects, who received no attribution manipulation prior to success or failure, clarify these results. Findings suggest that subjects attributing task outcomes to strategies monitored the effectiveness of their strategies and concluded that by modifying their strategies they would become more successful. In contrast, subjects attributing task outcome to abilities failed to attend to strategic features and concluded that they could not improve. Implications of this overlooked factor for attribution theory and learned helplessness are discussed.
122 citations
TL;DR: The discussion explores the relevance of an externality model of overweight eating in social domains, and focuses upon the interesting and somewhat distinct pattern of socially mediated eating exhibited by overweight females.
Abstract: Schachter's externality hypothesis suggests that overweight individuals are more likely to be induced to eat by salient external cues than normal weight individuals. While a range of studies have demonstrated the plausibility of this hypothesis in the case of sensory stimuli (e.g., taste cues), there is little evidence that the hypothesis applies to social stimuli. The current study examines this latter proposition by exposing male and female, overweight and normal weight subjects to a same-sex or opposite-sex peer model. Under the guise of engaging in a taste experiment, the subjects were either exposed to a model who tasted experiment, the subjects were either exposed to a model who tasted no crackers (no eat), one cracker (low eat), or twenty crackers (high eat). In addition, control model-absent conditions were also run for purposes of establishing baseline eating rates. If the externality hypotheses were to prevail in social domains, one would expect overweight subjects to be more prone to model the cracker-eating behavior of the peer than normal weight individuals. However, the findings indicate that all subject groups regardless of weight evidence a rather clear modeling effect and all subjects evidence social inhibition effects on their eating behavior as well. Several intriguing interactions among subject sex, model sex, subject weight, and social condition were also found. The discussion explores the relevance of an externality model of overweight eating in social domains, and focuses upon the interesting and somewhat distinct pattern of socially mediated eating exhibited by overweight females.
113 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, an extrinsic reward was found to decrease task satisfaction and persistence when a norm for no payment existed, but the inhibitory effect was not found when the norm for payment was associated with the task.
Abstract: Several previous studies have shown that rewarding individuals for preforming an interesting task may have an inhibitory effect on tast satisfaction and persistence. In this experiment, an extrinsic reward decreased task satisfaction and persistence when a norm for no payment existed, but the inhibitory effect was not found when a norm for payment was associated with the task. This result is discussed in terms of the “means-ends” theoretical perspective developed by Calder and Straw (1975b) as well as other dcompeting explanations.
86 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a revised model of learned helplessness in humans and define conditions under which performance deficits (helplessness) or enhanced performance (facilitation) will result from exposure to objective noncontingency.
Abstract: The present paper presents a revised model of learned helplessness in humans. The conditions under which performance deficits (helplessness) or enhanced performance (facilitation) will result from exposure to objective noncontingency are defined by a number of variables that have been shown to have an impact on human helplessness. The reformulated model specifies the operation of moderating variables as they affect a number of relationships: that between the perception of noncontingency and the future expectancy of response-reinforcement independence; and finally that between the expectancy of response-reinforcement independence and the behavioral deficits associated with learned helplessness. It is argued that exposure to noncontingency can affect both the value of future reward and the perceived probability of obtaining it. Performance deficits or enhanced performance will result from the perception of noncontingency depending on the nature of this double-edged effect of exposure to noncontingent delivery of reward.
83 citations
TL;DR: Based upon his review of the self-serving attribution bias literature, Zuckerman (1979) concluded that research employing an interpersonal influence setting was less likely than other research paradigms to produce significant differences in self-attribution for success and failure.
Abstract: Based upon his review of the self-serving attribution bias literature, Zuckerman (1979) concluded that research employing an interpersonal influence setting was less likely than other research paradigms to produce significant differences in self-attribution for success and failure. A survey of the research reviewed by Zuckerman as well as a more current survey of the relevant literature were undertaken. Statistical combinations of these two sets of evidence revealed Zuckerman's assessment may have been too conservative, at least with respect to two of three experimental paradigms. Additionally, a general tendency of individuals to assume more personal responsibility for success than failure on interpersonal influence tasks was found in the more comprehensive survey. Finally, the evidence concerning interactions of performance outcome with either contextual variables or individual differences indicated that the self-serving bias may be stronger under certain conditions than others and for certain types of individuals. Discussion centered on the conceptual distinctions between interpersonal influence and other achievement settings.
80 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the relation between individual differences in self-monitoring and humor production, and found that high self-monitors compared to low selfmonitors rated themselves as more humorous, generated more humorous cartoon captions, produced more humorous monologues, and were nominated by group participants as having made more witty remarks.
Abstract: According to reviews by Goodchilds (1972) and Lieberman (1977) of research on humor, the least studied component of the humorous event is the humorous person. Results of two studies investigating the relation between individual differences in self-monitoring and humor production are reported. In the first study, subjects completed a self-report measure of humorousness, captioned as many cartoons as possible within five minutes, and performed a three-minute monologue. The second study involved a group-discussion task. As predicted, high self-monitors compared to low self-monitors rated themselves as more humorous, generated more humorous cartoon captions, produced more humorous monologues, and were nominated by group participants as having made more witty remarks. The humorousness of the high self-monitors was discussed in terms of control of affective display and mastery of interpersonal skills required to initiate and maintain social interaction.
70 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the differential fame of 5,046 themes by 10 eminent composers of classical music and found that the popularity of a musical theme is a positive linear function of melodic originality rather than a curvilinear inverted-U function.
Abstract: In order to understand the foundation of eminence in cultural activities, an attempt was made at learning why some works creators produce are more famous than others. This paper specifically investigates the differential fame of 5,046 themes by 10 eminent composers of classical music. Hypotheses derived from past research in creativity and esthetics were tested using a computerized content analysis. The results show that (a) the fame of a musical theme is a positive linear function of melodic originality (rather then a curvilinear inverted-U function), and (b) melodic originality is a positive function of biographical stress and of historical time, and an inverted backwards-J function of age.
69 citations
TL;DR: Masculinity emerged as a beneficial constellation of traits for both males and females, correlating negatively with achievement conflicts and stress symptoms, and positively with mastery and work, and it was suggested that, in the future, research inspired by an ideal conception of adult behavior confront the ideal directly rather than describe it in terms of the traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity.
Abstract: Spence and Helmreich's (1978) claim that individual differences in four components of achievement motivation (mastery, work, competitiveness, and personal unconcern) are attributable to masculinity and femininity rather than to gender was generally supported, with one exception: Masculinity was associated with competitiveness for males but not for females. Furthermore, competitive women were more likely than noncompetitive women to have mental and physical health problems, but there was no such difference for males. In general, masculinity emerged as a beneficial constellation of traits for both males and females, correlating negatively with achievement conflicts and stress symptoms, and positively with mastery and work. Femininity, on the other hand, appeared to be a detrimental cluster of traits for both sexes, at least in terms of academic performance and health. Implications for the controversial concept of androgyny were discussed, and it was suggested that, in the future, research inspired by an ideal conception of adult behavior confront the ideal directly rather than describe it in terms of the traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity. Any such research effort will have to deal with the pivotal role of competitiveness.
TL;DR: Posthypnotic amnesia was breached under lie detection and honesty conditions, however, there appeared to be an interaction between how subjects reported their experience of amnesia (voluntary and involuntary) and the degree to which amnesia is breached.
Abstract: Subjects selected on the basis of being amnesic and experiencing their amnesia as “voluntary” or “involuntary” were subjected to two conditions designed to breach their amnesia: (1) lie detector, and (2) honesty instructions. A third group receiving relaxation instructions served as a control. Posthypnotic amnesia was breached under lie detection and honesty conditions. However, there appeared to be an interaction between how subjects reported their experience of amnesia (voluntary and involuntary) and the degree to which amnesia was breached. Voluntary subjects accounted for the majority of breaching. Implications for (1) studies on breaching, (2) theories and processes of breaching, Implications for (1) studies on breaching, (2) theories and processes of posthypnotic amnesia, and (3) studies in posthypnotic amnesia are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, an experiment was conducted in which participants read a brief description of a first encounter between two women and one of them made either an intimate or a nonintimate disclosure (low versus high initial intimacy).
Abstract: Chaikin and Derlega (1974a and b) maintain that social norms dictate reciprocal exchange of intimacy in dyadic interactions. A strong version of this normative hypothesis is that when personal information about self is revealed, only personal information in return from the recipient can satisfy the norm. But a more flexible view of the reciprocity norm might allow the hearer to acknowledge the intimate information received and express an interest or concern with its content in lieu of self-disclosure in return. An experiment was conducted in which perceptions of an individual responding to an initial disclosure were examined. Observer subjects read a brief description of a first encounter between two women. During the meeting one of the women made either an intimate or a nonintimate disclosure (low versus high initial intimacy). The other woman responded in one of five ways: with an intimate disclosure (high-return disclosure), a nonintimate disclosure (low-return disclosure), acknowledgment and sympathy (concern), concern-plus-high-return disclosure, or concern-plus-low-return disclosure. Regardless of initial intimacy, the most favorable impressions of the respondent were formed in the concern condition. When the respondent made a disclosure of her own, the interaction predicted by the normative hypothesis was replicated. In addition, perceptions of the intimacy of the initial discloser and the respondent were affected by each other: a contrast effect. The possibilities are discussed that a disclosure reciprocity norm may not apply to conversations and that there is a need for care in generalizing reciprocity results to settings in which respondents have other options than disclosure.
TL;DR: In this paper, low and high scoring individuals on Snyder's Self-Monitoring (SM) Scale were compared for differences in variability in personality descriptions provided by 10 acquaintances, and discrepancies between their self-ratings and the averaged acquaintance ratings.
Abstract: Low and high scoring individuals on Snyder's Self-Monitoring (SM) Scale were compared for differences in (a) variability in personality descriptions provided by 10 acquaintances, and (b) discrepancies between their self-ratings and the averaged acquaintance ratings. Each subject was rated by 10 different persons (e.g., parent, sibling, roommate, teacher), and the standard deviations of their ratings on each subject for 14 personality dimensions served as dependent measures. Contrary to the first hypothesis, no differences in the variability of acquaintance ratings were observed between SM groups. The second hypothesis received substantial empirical support. High SM subjects showed a significantly larger discrepancy between self-ratings and the mean acquaintance ratings, primarily because they rated themselves more highly on traits than their acquaintances did. High self-monitors also showed less similarity in the shape of the two personality profiles generated by self- and acquaintance ratings across the 14 traits. The discrepancies observed in high SM subjects between self-ratings and the averaged acquaintance ratings (the latter considered to be more objective) extends the finding of Snyder and Tanke (1976) that high SM subjects showed less congruence between self-reported attitudes and behavior. It is suggested that high SM individuals are particularly high on evaluation apprehension and that in both studies they acted in ways which they believed would enhance their self-presentations.
TL;DR: Subject groups were classified on the basis of behavioral ratings for degree of anxiety exhibited and level of social skill displayed during a simulated dating interaction and implications of the establishment of two types of heterosexual-socially anxious subjects were drawn for both clinical practice and research.
Abstract: Subject groups were classified on the basis of behavioral ratings for degree of anxiety exhibited and level of social skill displayed during a simulated dating interaction. Subjects were then asked to view and evaluate their own skill performance and the performance of bogus subjects during the same interaction when presented on videotapes. All subject groups were accurate in rating the performance of bogus subjects during the same interaction when presented on videotapes. All subject groups were accurate in rating the performance of the bogus subjects but the high anxious/high skill subjects underestimated (in comparison to judge's ratings) their own skill while high anxious/low skill subjects accurately assessed their poor performance. Implications of the establishment of two types of heterosexual-socially anxious subjects were drawn for both clinical practice and research.
TL;DR: The systematic distortion hypothesis as discussed by the authors states that under difficult memory conditions judges infer what must have happened from their general model of what the world is like and/or find it easier to retrieve conceptually affiliated memory items.
Abstract: The systematic distortion hypothesis states that under difficult memory conditions judges infer what “must” have happened from their general model of what the world is like and/or find it easier to retrieve conceptually affiliated memory items. The hypothesis further states that lay conceptual schemes “tend to be innacurate with respect to how behaviors covary, confusing ‘what is like what’ with ‘what goes with what’” (Shweder & D'Andrade, 1979), and that interbehavior correlations derived from memory-based ratings cannot be considered valid evidence for the objective existence of proposed personality traits, factors or syndromes. The systematic distortion hypothesis is clarified with reference to the Lamiell, Foss, and Cavenee “critique” (1980). That “critique,” it is argued, is neither a test of the systematic distortion hypothesis nor a critique. What Lamiell, Foss, and Cavenee demonstrate is that the validity of the systematic distortion hypothesis does not depend upon the unrealistic assumption that observers are capable of reporting only what they expect to see.
TL;DR: For example, this paper found that a physically strong and intelligent self-concept predicts higher educational goals and traditional career goals, and lower self-described strength and religiousness and greater intelligence predict more feminist attitudes.
Abstract: Questionnaires that assessed self-esteem, self-concept, educational goals, career goals, preferred and expected career commitment, and sex-role attitudes were completed by 884 male and female undergraduates representing two racial groups and two age groups. Men and women did not differ significantly in terms of self-esteem, but the men described themselves as more attractive than did the women in their age group. For the 18–25-year-old white women, an intelligent, unconventional, and/or nonreligious self-concept predicts nontraditional goals and feminist attitudes, and the interaction between self-esteem and socioeconomic status influences educational goals and sex-role attitudes. For the 18–25-year-old white men, a physically strong and intelligent self-concept predicts higher educational goals and traditional career goals, and lower self-described strength and religiousness and greater intelligence predict more feminist attitudes. Physical self-concept is unrelated to goals or attitudes for the female samples. Self-concept is less strongly predictive of goals and attitudes for the black women and the older men and women. Possible reasons for the sample differences and implications for related research are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors conducted five experiments to study the perceptions of self-disclosure by attractive and unattractive males and females, and found that highly disclosing females were preferred over females with medium or low selfdisclosure when their self-declaring was about a parental suicide or about sexual attitudes.
Abstract: Five experiments were conducted to study perceptions of self-disclosure by attractive and unattractive males and females. Results showed that highly disclosing females were preferred over females with medium or low self-disclosure when their self-disclosure was about a parental suicide or about sexual attitudes. Highly disclosing females were evaluated less favorably than females with medium self-disclosure when their self-disclosure was about aggressive feelings of competitiveness. Highly disclosing males were evaluated less favorably than males with medium and low self-disclosure on all disclosure topics. Disclosers with high physical attractiveness were evaluated more favorably than disclosers with low physical attractiveness, but there was considerable variation among subject populations.
TL;DR: This article investigated the influence of a mood manipulation on personality measures and found that mood manipulation did not affect any of the personality measures, while the effect of mood manipulation was independent of the mood manipulation.
Abstract: Previous findings of correlations between mood and personality variables were noted. It was suggested that the establishment of a causal relationship was crucially important, not merely to the understanding of how mood is related to personality but to the conceptualization of mood as a source of error in personality measurement as well. A prior attempt to establish a causal role for mood failed, but may have done so for methodological reasons. The present study investigated the influence of a mood manipulation on personality measures. There was also an opportunity to replicate prior correlational findings independent of the effect of the mood manipulation. College students were asked to think of happy, sad, or affectively neutral events and then filled out several personality measures. A manipulation check confirmed that different moods were induced by this procedure. The prior correlations between mood and personality variables were replicated, but the mood manipulation did not affect any of the personality measures. The implications of these results for personality measurement and for the relation between mood and behavior were discussed.
TL;DR: The validity of the assertion that rated and self-reported behavior is almost entirely under the influence of preexisting conceptual schemes is questioned in this paper, and an alternative approach is described.
Abstract: The validity of the assertion that rated and self-reported behavior is “almost entirely under the influence of preexisting conceptual schemes” is questioned. It is argued that the approach previously used to test this thesis is inadequate, and an alternative approach is described. A comparison of findings obtained using the two approaches suggests that the thesis is in need of revision: The presumed correspondence is neither as high nor as consistent as it may be thought to be. Some implications of the present findings for future research in social cognition and in personality are discussed.
TL;DR: The authors examined the accuracy and differentiation of 4-5-yearolds', 8-9-year-olds' and undergraduates' predictions of the preferences of peers and non-peers.
Abstract: Two studies examined the accuracy and differentiation of 4–5-yearolds‘, 8–9-year-olds’, and undergraduates' predictions of the preferences of peers and nonpeers. In Study 1 each subject was presented with separate arrays of snacks, meals, and activities depicted on cards and were asked to select their own preferences and the preferences of peers and nonpeers (“grown-ups” for the children, and “4- to 5-year-olds” for the undergraduates). In Study 2 each subject selected his or her own preference, the preference of peers, and the preferences of both older nonpeers (“grown-ups”) and younger nonpeers (“2-year-olds”). For all age groups, including 4–5-year-olds: (1) the preference predictions differentiated peers from nonpeers, as well as older nonpeers from younger nonpeers; (2) it was very rare for a subject to select his or her own preferences for the preference predictions of both peers and nonpeers. There were no consistent developmental differences either in the tendency to select one's own preferences when predicting the preferences of others or in the tendency to differentiate predictions for peers and nonpeers. In contrast, there was a clear developmental increase in predictive accuracy, with 4–5-year-olds being relatively inaccurate in predicting the preferences of nonpeers. The inadequacy of constructs such as “assumed similarity” and “egocentrism” as explanations for the general accuracy in predicting peers' preferences and the 4–5-year-olds' inaccuracy in predicting nonpeers' preferences is discussed. Possible alternative variables underlying developmental increases in judgmental accuracy, such as “social reference,”“self reference,” and “social category knowledge,” are then proposed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the social reward potential of self-disclosure and its impact on a receiver's attraction towards the sender was tested, and a sender self-perception effect was tested.
Abstract: This experiment tested the social reward potential of self-disclosure and its impact on a receiver's attraction towards the sender. Further, a sender self-perception effect was tested. Just as a receiver is speculated to use the intimacy level of a disclosure as an indication of sender regard and trust, the self-perception hypothesis maintains that the sender also uses intimacy level to self-attribute liking and trust for the receiver. A forced-compliance procedure with college males was used to have a sender subject send either a high or low intimacy self-disclosure essay. Consistent with the social reward and self-perception hypotheses were measures of sender's behavior as trusting and measures of feelings during the disclosure process. General measures of liking and trust were not successful, however.
TL;DR: In this paper, the impact of a person's sex role and occupational preferences on his/her social attractiveness, attractiveness as a coworker, and attractiveness to a prospective employer was assessed.
Abstract: The present experiment assessed the impact of a person's sex role and occupational preferences on his/her social attractiveness, attractiveness as a coworker, and attractiveness to a prospective employer. Male and female subjects were provided information describing a competent male or a competent female stimulus person. Stimulus persons (SPs) were portrayed as favoring either traditionally masculine or traditionally feminine occupations, and as masculine or feminine in their sex-role preferences. As expected, both male and female SPs were seen as most socially attractive when their sex-role preferences were “gender consistent.” In contrast, subjects favored SPs who expressed masculine sex-role preferences when assessing the individual's attractiveness as a prospective employee. These findings were compared and contrasted with the results of earlier research, and the implications of sex-role deviance for males and for females were discussed.
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that first and second disclosers matched their intimacy level to the normative cue rather than to the level of the other's disclosure, and the reciprocity effect was eliminated.
Abstract: Female dyads (strangers) exchanged self-descriptions under conditions in which normative demand for high, medium, or low intimacy was varied orthogonally to the level of intimacy received from the other member of the dyad. The reciprocity effect was eliminated in that both first and second disclosers matched their intimacy level to the normative cue rather than to the level of the other's disclosure. For first disclosers, evaluative impressions of the second member of the dyad were a curvilinear function of the level of intimacy received from her, regardless of level sent. For second disclosers, attributions to the initial discloser were influenced by the interaction between intimacy received from her and normative demand for intimacy sent. Evaluations were most positive when disclosure intimacy was slightly but not too much higher than that demand.
TL;DR: The dimension of integration, characteristic of increasing differentiation, frames the prediction that field independents are better able to utilize the right hemisphere on typically left-hemisphere tasks.
Abstract: Psychological differentiation, as measured by field independence, is studied in relationship to cerebral hemispheric differentiation as assessed through dichotic listening and spatial task performance. Predictions regarding right-hemisphere functions and field independence were confirmed. More differentiated versus less differentiated right-hemisphere superiorities are distinguished and discussed in light of the field-dependence construct. The dimension of integration, characteristic of increasing differentiation, frames the prediction that field independents are better able to utilize the right hemisphere on typically left-hemisphere tasks. The results are discussed in relationship to the potential role of cerebral mechanisms underlying different defensive styles, and in regard to the neuropsychological search for covariance between psychological and neurophysiological parameters.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors tested the hypothesis that performance evaluation guidelines moderate the difference in self-confidence between men and women in achievement situations, and concluded that women display lower selfconfidence than men across almost all achievement situations.
Abstract: Previous investigators have suggested that women display lower self-confidence than men across almost all achievement situations. The empirical validity of this suggestion is assessed in an experiment testing the hypothesis that performance evaluation guidelines moderate sex difference in self-confidence. Undergraduates read the guidelines by which their performance on an impending test would be evaluated. Guidelines were: ambiguous (A); clear—specifying the dimensions of performance to be examined, but not providing any examples of others' performance against which subjects' work would be compared (C); or clear with performance examples (CE). Subjects then completed the test and estimated how will they had done. Results showed the predicted pattern in conditions A and C: While women underestimated their actual performance much more than men when guidelines were ambiguous, they did not do so when guidelines were clear. Further, the rise in self-confidence for women from conditions A to C was greater than that for men. Also as predicted, both sexes' self-confidence and performance were higher in condition C than in condition A. Finally, although condition CE was expected to depress only women's self-confidence and performance, both sexes showed this effect. It is concluded that sex differences in self-confidence are moderated by situation variables and that programs designed to reduce such differences might be improved by a greater focus upon women's response to clearly specifiable factors in achievement settings.
TL;DR: In an initial attempt to assess the applicability of Weiner's (1972) attribution model to sport-related behavior, the effects of ability (high versus low), effort, high versus low) and outcome (success versus failure) on causal attributions were investigated as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In an initial attempt to assess the applicability of Weiner's (1972) attribution model to sport-related behavior, the effects of ability (high versus low), effort (high versus low) and outcome (success versus failure) on causal attributions were investigated. After riding a bicycle ergometer, subjects were asked to attribute the cause of their increased or decreased performance to ability, effort, task difficulty and/or luck. The results indicated that successful outcomes were attributed to both ability and effort and that unsuccessful outcomes were attributed to a lack of ability but not a lack of effort. While the task was seen as easier following success, the perception of low effort mediated this relationship. The results were interpreted to support a situationally specific conceptualization of sport achievement. First, whereas a motivational bias appears to preclude low ability attributions in intellectual pursuits, such is not the case with a novel physical task contingent on strength and muscular endurance. It was suggested that physiologically related ability may be viewed as relatively unstable. Second, relative to intellectual tasks, sport-related effort may be more salient and more quantifiable and may exert a greater influence on subsequent attributions for sport achievement. Finally, support was obtained for the assertions that affect is codetermined by both effort and ability and that expectancy discrepant performance is accounted for largely by perceptions of task difficulty.
TL;DR: The hypothesis associating psychological androgyny with greater personal adjustment has recently been contradicted in several studies in which masculine individuals, regardless of gender, generally appeared to be better adjusted than either androgynous or feminine persons as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The hypothesis associating psychological androgyny with greater personal adjustment has recently been contradicted in several studies in which masculine individuals, regardless of gender, generally appeared to be better adjusted than either androgynous or feminine persons. In the present research, five studies involving 363 subjects tested the hypothesis that such data may reflect a culture that values and differentially rewards agentic (masculine) characteristics and competencies in both men and women while taking communal (feminine) characteristics somewhat for granted. Subjects evaluating candidates for agentic roles preferred masculine candidates (regardless of gender). Masculine and androgynous persons were preferred for a communal role, while feminine persons were almost never chosen for either agentic or communal roles.
TL;DR: In this article, Shweder pointed out that the behavior report task used by Lamiell et al. did not meet his requirements for a "diffieult memory condition, or did it not?" and explained that the integrity of the illusory correlation hypothesis in its present form is compromised.
Abstract: In his reply to Lamiell, Foss, and Cavenee (1980), Shweder (1980) fails to address an important question: Did the behavior report task used by Lamiell et al. meet his requirements for a “diffieult memory condition,” or did it not? In light of the nature of the illusory correlation hypothesis and Lamiell et al.'s findings, it is explained that for any of three possible answers to this question (yes, no, or maybe) the integrity of the illusory correlation hypothesis in its present form is compromised. It is also explained that further research on the hypothesis is likely to be pointless, because Lamiell et al.'s findings suggest that it is not salvageable in any form. Finally, it is explained that the incompatibility between lay persons' usage of personality concepts and the study of individual differences does not lead inextricably to the conclusion that the former have no legitimate role to play in a science of personality.
TL;DR: The data generally support Leventhal's (1979) perceptual-motor theory of emotion and have pragmatic implications for those persons who provide preparatory information to individuals anticipating a stressful encounter.
Abstract: An experiment was conducted to investigate the conditions under which sensory information has beneficial versus detrimental value as preparatory information to assist individuals in coping with stress. Fourteen high fear and twelve low fear college women underwent exposure to the cold pressor test. Half of each fear group was provided with sensory information about the sensations produced by the cold pressor and half received a control message. Distress judgments made during the cold pressor showed (a) that sensory information effectively reduced distress for low fear women, but (b) sensory information exacerbated the distress of high fear women--at least during early portions of the cold pressor test. The data generally support Leventhal's (1979) perceptual-motor theory of emotion and have pragmatic implications for those persons who provide preparatory information to individuals anticipating a stressful encounter.