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Showing papers in "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology in 1994"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Examination of the scale on somewhat different grounds, however, does suggest that future applications can benefit from its revision, and a minor modification to the Life Orientation Test is described, along with data bearing on the revised scale's psychometric properties.
Abstract: Research on dispositional optimism as assessed by the Life Orientation Test (Scheier & Carver, 1985) has been challenged on the grounds that effects attributed to optimism are indistinguishable from those of unmeasured third variables, most notably, neuroticism. Data from 4,309 subjects show that associations between optimism and both depression and aspects of coping remain significant even when the effects of neuroticism, as well as the effects of trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem, are statistically controlled. Thus, the Life Orientation Test does appear to possess adequate predictive and discriminant validity. Examination of the scale on somewhat different grounds, however, does suggest that future applications can benefit from its revision. Thus, we also describe a minor modification to the Life Orientation Test, along with data bearing on the revised scale's psychometric properties.

6,395 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and behavioral activation system (BAS) sensitivities were created, and a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created.
Abstract: J. A. Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low in BIS sensitivity. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low in BAS sensitivity. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications.

6,345 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Social dominance orientation (SDO), one's degree of preference for inequality among social groups, is introduced in this article, which is related to beliefs in a lag number of social and political ideologies that support group-based hierarchy and to support for policies that have implications for intergroup relations (e.g., war, civil rights, and social programs).
Abstract: Social dominance orientation (SDO), one's degree of preference for inequality among social groups, is introduced. On the basis of social dominance theory, it is shown that (a) men are more social dominance-oriented than women, (b) high-SDO people seek hierarchy-enhancing professional roles and low-SDO people seek hierarchy-attenuating roles, (c) SDO was related to beliefs in a lag number of social and political ideologies that support group-based hierarchy (e.g., meritocracy and racism) and to support for policies that have implications for intergroup relations (e.g., war, civil rights, and social programs), including new policies. SDO was distinguished from interpersonal dominance, conservatism, and authoritarianism

3,967 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The present findings suggest that the Need for Closure Scale is a reliable and valid instrument of considerable potential utility in future "motivated social cognition" research.
Abstract: This article introduces an individual-difference measure of the need for cognitive closure. As a dispositional construct, the need for cognitive closure is presently treated as a latent variable manifested through several different aspects, namely, desire for predictability, preference for order and structure, discomfort with ambiguity, decisiveness, and close-mindedness. This article presents psychometric work on the measure as well as several validation studies including (a) a "known-groups" discrimination between populations assumed to differ in their need for closure, (b) discriminant and convergent validation with respect to related personality measures, and (c) replication of effects obtained with situational inductions of the need for closure. The present findings suggest that the Need for Closure Scale is a reliable and valid instrument of considerable potential utility in future "motivated social cognition" research.

1,933 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, three studies assessed the construct validity of the self and other-model dimensions underlying the 4-category model of adult attachment (Bartholomew, 1990), and the convergent and discriminant validity of these dimensions were assessed by multitrait-multimethod matrices and by confirmatory factor analysis.
Abstract: Three studies assessed the construct validity of the self- and other-model dimensions underlying the 4-category model of adult attachment (Bartholomew, 1990). Five methods were used to assess the hypothesized dimensions: self-reports, friend-reports, romantic partner reports, trained judges' ratings of peer attachment, and trained judges' ratings of family attachment. In each study, the convergent and discriminant validity of the dimensions were assessed by multitrait-multimethod matrices and by confirmatory factor analysis. Study 2 related the latent attachment dimensions to theoretically relevant outcome latent variables

1,677 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper proposed a new construct called consideration of future consequences (CFC), which is hypothesized to be a stable individual difference in the extent to which people consider distant versus immediate consequences of potential behaviors.
Abstract: We propose a new construct called consideration of future consequences (CFC), which is hypothesized to be a stable individual difference in the extent to which people consider distant versus immediate consequences of potential behaviors. Following a description of the construct itself, a measure of this individual difference is developed and validated. Data collected from 7 samples of college students indicates that the measure has acceptable reliability and validity. In addition, evidence of the role of CFC in regulating affective responses to negative events is reviewed. The utility of the CFC construct is demonstrated in 2 studies

1,476 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors argue that attribution patterns reflect implicit theories acquired from induction and socialization and hence differentially distributed across human cultures, and they test the hypothesis that dispositionalism in attribution for behavior reflects a theory of social behavior more widespread in individualist than collectivist cultures.
Abstract: The authors argue that attribution patterns reflect implicit theories acquired from induction and socialization and hence differentially distributed across human cultures. In particular, the authors tested the hypothesis that dispositionalism in attribution for behavior reflects a theory of social behavior more widespread in individualist than collectivist cultures

1,373 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Fatism appears to behave much like symbolic racism, but with less of the negative social desirability of racism, and three commonalities between antifat attitudes and racism were explored.
Abstract: Prejudice against fat people was compared with symbolic racism. An anti-fat attitudes questionnaire was developed and used in several studies testing the notion that antipathy toward fat people is part of an "ideology of blame." Three commonalities between antifat attitudes and racism were explored: (a) the association between values, beliefs, and the rejection of a stigmatized group, (b) the old-fashioned antipathy toward deviance of many sorts, and (c) the lack of self-interest in out-group antipathy. Parallels were found on all 3 dimensions. No in-group bias was shown by fat people. Fatism appears to behave much like symbolic racism, but with less of the negative social desirability of racism.

1,303 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The Work Preference Inventory (WPI) as discussed by the authors is designed to assess individual differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations, and it has meaningful factor structures, adequate internal consistency, good short-term test-retest reliability, and good longer term stability.
Abstract: The Work Preference Inventory (WPI) is designed to assess individual differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Both the college student and the working adult versions aim to capture the major elements of intrinsic motivation (self-determination, competence, task involvement, curiosity, enjoyment, and interest) and extrinsic motivation (concerns with competition, evaluation, recognition, money or other tangible incentives, and constraint by others). The instrument is scored on two primary scales, each subdivided into 2 secondary scales. The WPI has meaningful factor structures, adequate internal consistency, good short-term test-retest reliability, and good longer term stability. Moreover, WPI scores are related in meaningful ways to other questionnaire and behavioral measures of motivation, as well as personality characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors.

1,287 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: High- and low-task-importance Ss read a strong or weak unambiguous message or an ambiguous message that was attributed to a high- or low-credibility source, confirming that heuristic processing can bias systematic processing when evidence is ambiguous and implications for persuasion and other social judgment phenomena are discussed.
Abstract: High- and low-task-importance Ss read a strong or weak unambiguous message or an ambiguous message that was attributed to a high- or low-credibility source. Under low task importance, heuristic processing of the credibility cue was the sole determinant of Ss' attitudes, regardless of argument ambiguity or strength. When task importance was high and message content was unambiguous, systematic processing alone determined attitudes when this content contradicted the validity of the credibility heuristic; when message content did not contradict this heuristic, systematic and heuristic processing determined attitudes independently. Finally, when task importance was high and message content was ambiguous, heuristic and systematic processing again both influenced attitudes. Yet, source credibility affected persuasion partly through its impact on the valence of systematic processing, confirming that heuristic processing can bias systematic processing when evidence is ambiguous. Implications for persuasion and other social judgment phenomena are discussed.

1,263 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a self-report measure of affect was used to demostrate that dissonance is experienced as psychological discomfort and that this psychological discomfort is alleviated on implementation of a dissonance-reduction strategy, attitude change.
Abstract: Most empirical research investigating the motivational properties of cognitive dissonance has focused on the arousal component of dissonance rather than on the psychological component explicitly delineated by L. Festinger (1957) . In 2 induced-compliance experiments, a self-report measure of affect was used to demostrate that dissonance is experienced as psychological discomfort and that this psychological discomfort is alleviated on implementation of a dissonance-reduction strategy, attitude change. Experiment 1 yielded supporting evidence for both of these propositions. Experiment 2 replicated the 1st experiment and ruled out a self-perception-based alternative explanation for the dissonance-reduction findings in Experiment 1. Results from the 2 experiments strongly support Festinger's conceptualization of cognitive dissonance as a fundamentally motivational state.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: People with a more ruminative style were more depressed at 6 months, even after controlling for initial depression levels, social support, concurrent stressors, gender, and pessimism.
Abstract: In a longitudinal study of 253 bereaved adults, people with poorer social support, more concurrent stressors, and higher levels of postloss depression reported more rumination than people with better social support, fewer stressors, and lower initial depression levels. Women reported more rumination than men. People with a ruminative style at 1 month were more likely to have a pessimistic outlook at 1 month, which was associated with higher depression levels at 6 months. People with a more ruminative style were more depressed at 6 months, even after controlling for initial depression levels, social support, concurrent stressors, gender, and pessimism. Additional stressors and high depression scores at 1 month were also associated with higher levels of depression at 6 months. People who respond to the negative emotions aroused by stressful events by focusing passively and ruminatively on those emotions appear to be at risk for severe and prolonged periods of distress (Carver & Scheier, 1990; Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991; Pyszczynski & Greenberg, 1987). A number of questions about the relationship between passive, ruminative coping and adjustment to negative events remain, however. First, do some people consistently engage in passive, ruminative coping? Second, are there characteristics of people's environment that make it more likely they will engage in passive, ruminative coping? Third, what are some of the mechanisms by which passive, ruminative coping interferes with adjustment? Fourth, might ruminative coping mediate the effects of other well-known risk factors for depression, such as poor social support? We addressed these questions in a longitudinal study of peo- ple coping with the recent death of a loved one after a serious illness. Bereavement provides a rich context in which to study emotion-focused coping because the event arouses strong emo- tions, but people differ in the duration of these emotions (Os- terweis, Solomon, & Green, 1984). In addition, because the loss of a loved one to an illness is an uncontrollable event, we can study strategies for coping with the emotions aroused by this event without being concerned that these coping strategies actu-

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors tested three main hypotheses concerning people's predictions of task completion times: (a) people underestimate their own but not others' completion times, (b) people focus on plan-based scenarios rather than on relevant past experiences while generating their predictions, and (c) people's attributions diminish the relevance of past experiences.
Abstract: This study tested 3 main hypotheses concerning people's predictions of task completion times: (a) People underestimate their own but not others' completion times, (b) people focus on plan-based scenarios rather than on relevant past experiences while generating their predictions, and (c) people's attributions diminish the relevance of past experiences. Results supported each hypothesis. Ss' predictions of their completion times were too optimistic for a variety of academic and nonacademic tasks. Think-aloud procedures revealed that Ss focused primarily on future scenarios when predicting their completion times. In Study 4, the optimistic bias was eliminated for Ss instructed to connect relevant past experiences with their predictions. In Studies 3 and 4, Ss attributed their past prediction failures to relatively external, transient, and specific factors. In Study 5, observer Ss overestimated others' completion times and made greater use of relevant past experiences.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors used a dual-task paradigm and found that stereotypes function as resource-preserving devices in mental life, and used a subliminal priming procedure to activate stereotypes in the task of impression-formation.
Abstract: By use of a dual-task paradigm, 3 studies investigated the contention that stereotypes function as resource-preserving devices in mental life. In Study 1, Ss formed impressions of targets while simultaneously monitoring a prose passage. The results demonstrated a significant enhancement in Ss' prose-monitoring performance when stereotype labels were present on the impression-formation task. To investigate the intentionality of this effect, in Study 2, the procedures used in Study 1 were repeated using a subliminal priming procedure to activate stereotypes. Subliminal activation of stereotypes produced the same resource-preserving effects as supraliminal activation did. This effect, moreover, was replicated in Study 3 when a probe reaction task was used to measure resource preservation. These findings, which generalized across a range of social stereotypes, are discussed in terms of their implications for contemporary models of stereotyping and social inference. Human adaptation to the challenging and complex environment has often taken the form of developing tools that facilitate the execution of mundane but necessary tasks, leaving more time and energy available for other, perhaps more interesting or rewarding activities. It is reasonable to suppose, as some contemporary psychologists have, that the development of physical tools, such as plows or printing presses, has been paralleled by the development of cognitive "tools," or routine strategies of inference and evaluation (cf. Tooby & Cosmides, 1990) that permit a sufficiently effective analysis of the social environment to be accomplished in an efficient fashion. The benefit of such mental tools presumably lies in the fact that they free up limited cognitive resources for the performance of other necessary or desirable mental activities. Social psychologists have frequently characterized stereotypes as energy-saving devices that serve the important cognitive function of simplifying information processing and response generation (e.g., Allport, 1954; Andersen, Klatzky, & Murray, 1990; Bodenhausen & Lichtenstein, 1987; Brewer, 1988; Fiske & Neuberg, 1990; Tajfel, 1969). Building on this tradition, Gilbert and Hixon (1991) aptly characterized stereotypes as "tools that jump out" of a metaphorical cognitive toolbox "when there is a job to be done" (p. 510). Anyone who has ever succumbed to the temptation to evaluate others in terms of their social group membership would doubtlessly recognize the power of this contention. Individuation, in its many guises, is a rather

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Although the self-perceptions showed convergent validity with the staff criterion, Ss were less accurate when judging themselves than when judging their peers; however, this general self-enhancement effect was dwarfed by substantial individual differences, which ranged from self- enhancement to self-diminishment bias and were strongly related to four measures of narcissism.
Abstract: Accuracy and bias in self-perceptions of performance were studied in a managerial group-discussion task. Ss ranked their own performance and were ranked by the 5 other group members and by 11 assessment staff members. Although the self-perceptions showed convergent validity with the staff criterion, Ss were less accurate when judging themselves than when judging their peers. On average, Ss evaluated their performance slightly more positively than their performance was evaluated by either the peers or the staff; however, this general self-enhancement effect was dwarfed by substantial individual differences, which ranged from self-enhancements to self-diminishment bias and were strongly related to four measures of narcissism. Discussion focuses on issues in assessing the accuracy of self-perceptions and the implications of the findings for individual differences in self-perception bias and the role of narcissism.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Two studies using different paradigms activated either ideal versus ought discrepant Ss or ought self-guides and measured Ss' concern with different forms of self-regulation, suggesting that a concern with approach is greater for ideal than oughtself-regulation.
Abstract: Two studies using different paradigms activated either ideal self-guides (a person's hopes or wishes) or ought self-guides (a person's sense of duty and responsibility) and measured Ss' concern with different forms of self-regulation: approaching matches to desired end states or mismatches to undesired end states and avoiding mismatches to desired end states or matches to undesired end states. A 3rd study asked ideal versus ought discrepant Ss to select among alternative strategies for friendship. The results suggest that a concern with approach is greater for ideal than ought self-regulation, whereas a concern with avoidance is greater for ought than ideal self-regulation.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors found that discrete emotions have distinctive goals and action tendencies, as well as thoughts and feelings, and they provided empirical support for hypothesized emotion states that have received insufficient attention from researchers.
Abstract: Prior research has typically attempted to distinguish one emotion from another by identifying distinctive expressions, physiology, and subjective qualities. Recent theories claim emotions can also be differentiated by distinctive action tendencies, actions, and emotivational goals. To test hypotheses from both older and more recent theories, 100 Ss were asked to recall experiences of particular negative emotions and answer questions concerning what they felt, thought, felt like doing, actually did, and wanted. Results support hypotheses specifying characteristic responses for fear, sadness, distress, frustration, disgust, dislike, anger, regret, guilt, and shame. The findings indicate that discrete emotions have distinctive goals and action tendencies, as well as thoughts and feelings. In addition, they provide empirical support for hypothesized emotion states that have received insufficient attention from researchers.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Findings suggest that mortality salience effects are unique to thoughts of death and occur primarily when such thoughts are highly accessible but outside of consciousness.
Abstract: On the basis of terror management theory, research has shown that subtle mortality salience inductions engender increased prejudice, nationalism, and intergroup bias. Study 1 replicated this effect (increased preference for a pro-U.S. author over an anti-U.S. author) and found weaker effects when Ss are led to think more deeply about mortality or about the death of a loved one. Study 2 showed that this effect is not produced by thoughts of non-death-related aversive events. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated that this effect occurs only if Ss are distracted from mortality salience before assessment of its effects. Study 4 revealed that although the accessibility of death-related thoughts does not increase immediately after mortality salience, it does increase after Ss are distracted from mortality salience. These findings suggest that mortality salience effects are unique to thoughts of death and occur primarily when such thoughts are highly accessible but outside of consciousness. Language: en

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Two psychological theories consider why people care about justice: social exchange-based resource model argues that people want to maximize the resources they obtain from social interactions, a goal that they believe is facilitated by following rules of distributive and procedural justice; identity-based relational model suggests that people attempt to maintain high status within groups and use the justice of their experiences to evaluate their group status as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Two psychological theories consider why people care about justice. The social-exchange-based resource model argues that people want to maximize the resources they obtain from social interactions, a goal that they believe is facilitated by following rules of distributive and procedural justice; the identity-based relational model suggests that people attempt to maintain high status within groups and use the justice of their experiences to evaluate their group status. Two studies on reactions to experiences with authorities ― legal and managerial ― examine the influence of these motives on (a) people's evaluations of the distributive and procedural justice of their experiences and (b) affective and behavioral reactions to those experiences

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Exercise appears to be the most effective mood-regulating behavior, and the best general strategy to change a bad mood is a combination of relaxation, stress management, cognitive, and exercise techniques.
Abstract: Four studies evaluated the success of behaviors and strategies used to self-regulate bad moods, raise energy, and reduce tension. Study 1 (N = 102) used an open-ended questionnaire to identify behavioral categories. Studies 2 and 4 surveyed a representative sample (N = 308) with a fixed-response questionnaire to quantify behaviors, general strategies, and individual differences. Study 3 used psychotherapist (N = 26) judgments of the likely success of the strategies. Therapist and self-rating converged on success of strategies and gender differences. These studies clarify and confirm previous research findings, particularly gender differences in controlling depression. Exercise appears to be the most effective mood-regulating behavior, and the best general strategy to change a bad mood is a combination of relaxation, stress management, cognitive, and exercise techniques. Results support a 2-dimensional biopsychological model of mood.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper found that feelings of harm before an exam induced several kinds of coping after the exam, mostly dysfunctional, while confidence about one's grade was a better predictor of emotions throughout than was coping.
Abstract: After reporting dispositional coping styles, students reported situational coping and 4 classes of affect (from threat, challenge, harm, and benefit appraisals) 2 days before an exam, after the exam but before grades were posted, and after posting of grades. Coping did not predict lower levels of future distress; indeed, some coping seemed to induce feelings of threat. Feelings of harm before the exam induced several kinds of coping after the exam, mostly dysfunctional. Confidence about one's grade was a better predictor of emotions throughout than was coping. Dispositional coping predicted comparable situational coping at low-moderate levels in most cases. Coping dispositions did not reliably predict emotions, however, with these exceptions: Dispositional denial was related to threat, as was dispositional use of social support; dispositional use of alcohol was related to both threat and harm.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors investigated the extent to which this kind of rebound effect extends to unwanted stereotypic thoughs about others and found that stereotype suppressors responded more pejoratively to a stereotyped target on a range of dependent measures.
Abstract: For a variety of reasons, social perceivers may often attempt to actively inhibit stereotypic thoughts before their effects impinge on judgment and behavior. However, research on the psychology of mental control raises doubts about the efficacy of this strategy. Indeed, this work suggests that when people attempt to suppress unwanted thoughts, these thoughts are likely to subsequently reappear with even greater insistence than if they had never been suppressed (i.e., a ''rebound'' effect). The present research comprised an investigation of the extent to which this kind of rebound effect extends to unwanted stereotypic thoughs about others. The results provided strong support for the existence of this effect. Relative to control subjects (i.e., stereotype users), stereotype suppressors responded more pejoratively to a stereotyped target on a range of dependent measures. We discuss our findings in the wider context of models of mind, thought suppression, and social stereotyping.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The empirical evidence is interpreted as supporting theories that postulate both a high degree of universality of differential emotion patterning and important cultural differences in emotion elicitation, regulation, symbolic representation, and social sharing.
Abstract: The major controversy concerning psychobiological universality of differential emotion patterning versus cultural relativity of emotional experience is briefly reviewed. Data from a series of cross-cultural questionnaire studies in 37 countries on 5 continents are reported and used to evaluate the respective claims of the proponents in the debate. Results show highly significant main effects and strong effect sizes for the response differences across 7 major emotions (joy, fear, anger, sadness, disgust, shame, and guilt). Profiles of cross-culturally stable differences among the emotions with respect to subjective feeling, physiological symptoms, and expressive behavior are also reported. The empirical evidence is interpreted as supporting theories that postulate both a high degree of universality of differential emotion patterning and important cultural differences in emotion elicitation, regulation, symbolic representation, and social sharing.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Adult attachment styles in 354 heterosexual couples in serious dating relationships were examined and relationships of avoidant men and of anxious women were surprisingly stable over 3 years, particularly in light of the relatively poor ratings of these relationships by both partners at Time 1.
Abstract: Adult attachment styles in 354 heterosexual couples in serious dating relationships were examined. Principal findings included the following: (a) male and female attachment styles were nonrandomly paired, for example, no anxious-anxious or avoidant-avoidant pairs were found; (b) male and female styles related to concurrent relationship ratings of both partners in different but theoretically meaningful ways; (c) male and female styles contributed significantly to longitudinal prediction of relationship stability and status, even when prior duration and commitment to the relationship were statistically controlled; (d) specifically, relationships of avoidant men and of anxious women were surprisingly stable over 3 years, particularly in light of the relatively poor ratings of these relationships by both partners at Time 1. Discussion focuses on the need to integrate gender role considerations and relationship dynamics and processes into theorizing on adult attachment.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the impact of change in context on identity maintenance, the implications of maintenance efforts for group identification, and the effects of perceived threats to identity on self-esteem associated with group membership.
Abstract: The impact of change in context on identity maintenance, the implications of maintenance efforts for group identification, and the effects of perceived threats to identity on self-esteem associated with group membership are examined in a longitudinal study of Hispanic students during their 1st year at predominately Anglo universities. Whereas ethnic identity is initially linked to the strength of the students'cultural background, maintenance of ethnic identity is acoomplished by weakening that link and remooring the identity to the current college context. Results suggest 2 distinct paths by which students negotiate their ethnic identity in a new context. Students with initially strong ethnic identity become involved in cultural activities, increasing the strength of their identification

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper found that counterfactual thoughts may serve an affective function (feeling better) and a preparative function (future improvement) in anagram task, and three studies showed that the direction and structure of counterfactuality may differentially serve these two functions.
Abstract: Counterfactual thoughts (“might-have-been” reconstructions of past outcomes) may serve an affective function (feeling better) and a preparative function (future improvement). Three studies showed that counterfactuals varying in their direction and structure may differentially serve these 2 functions. Direction influenced affect such that downward (vs. upward) counterfactuals caused more positive affect. Direction influenced intentions such that upward (vs. downward) counterfactuals heightened intentions to perform success-facilitating behaviors. Both direction and structure influenced performance on an anagram task such that upward and additive (vs. downward and subtractive) counterfactuals engendered greater improvement. These findings suggest that people can strategically use downward counterfactuals to make themselves feel better and upward and additive counterfactuals to improve performance.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For example, Hamilton et al. as mentioned in this paper found that individuals who had been induced to feel happy rendered more stereotypic judgments than did those in a neutral mood, except under conditions in which they had been told that they would be held accountable for their judgments.
Abstract: Four experiments examined the effects of happiness on the tendency to use stereotypes in social judgment. In each experiment, individuals who had been induced to feel happy rendered more stereotypic judgments than did those in a neutral mood. Experiment 1 demonstrated this phenomenon with a mood induction procedure that involved recalling life experiences. Experiments 2 and 3 suggested that the greater reliance on stereotypes evident in the judgments of happy individuals was not attributable to cognitive capacity deficits created by intrusive happy thoughts or by cognitively disruptive excitement or energetic arousal that may accompany the experience of happiness. In Experiment 4, happy individuals again were found to render more stereotypic judgments, except under conditions in which they had been told that they would be held accountable for their judgments. These results suggest that although happy people's tendency to engage in stereotypic thinking may be pervasive, they are quite capable of avoiding the influence of stereotypes in their judgments when situational factors provide a motivational impetus for such effort. Discovering the conditions under which group stereotypes are likely to be applied in forming impressions of and making judgments about individuals has been an issue of perennial interest in social psychology. Factors such as information overload (Pratto & Bargh, 1991; Stangor & Duan, 1991) and task difficulty (Bodenhausen & Lichtenstein, 1987), for example, have been shown to increase the social perceiver's reliance on stereotypic preconceptions (for a review, see Hamilton & Sherman, in press). In the present research, we investigated the role of emotion, specifically happiness, in the application of stereotypes during social information processing. Does being happy have any impact on the likelihood of stereotyping others? If so, what is the mechanism involved? It was these questions that we sought to address. Interest in the relationship between emotion and stereotyping is certainly not new. However, previous attempts to understand the role of affective experience in prejudice and stereotyping have focused almost exclusively on the impact of negative emotions. Conventional wisdom indicates that it is during times of stress, anxiety, or hostility that prejudice and stereotypes are most likely to emerge and exert their influence on social perception. Psychological research lends credence to the idea that anger, conflict, frustration, and anxiety are indeed associated with

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper found that when offered an opportunity to win $1 on every "win" trial in which they drew a red jelly bean, subjects frequently elected to draw from a bowl that contained a greater absolute number, but a smaller proportion, of red beans (e.g., 7 in 100) than from a Bowl with fewer red beans but better odds (e., 1 in 10).
Abstract: When offered an opportunity to win $1 on every "win" trial in which they drew a red jelly bean, subjects frequently elected to draw from a bowl that contained a greater absolute number, but a smaller proportion, of red beans (e.g., 7 in 100) than from a bowl with fewer red beans but better odds (e.g., 1 in 10). Subjects reported that although they knew the probabilities were against them, they felt they had a better chance when there were more red beans. Similar, but less extreme results were obtained on "lose" trials, where drawing a red bean meant losing $1. These results were predicted from the concretive and experiential principles of cognitive-experiential self-theory. Nonoptimal choices in the laboratory were significantly correlated with heuristic responses to relevant vignettes and with self-reported gambling in real life.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Social network analysis was used to identify peer groups (cliques), clique liaisons, and isolates among adolescents in 5 schools at 2 data collection rounds and suggested the importance of using social network analysis in studies of peer group influence and selection.
Abstract: Understanding the homogeneity of peer groups requires identification of peer groups and consideration of influence and selection processes. Few studies have identified adolescent peer groups, however, or examined how they become homogeneous. This study used social network analysis to identify peer groups (cliques), clique liaisons, and isolates among adolescents in 5 schools at 2 data collection rounds (N = 926). Cigarette smoking was the behavior of interest. Influence and selection contributed about equally to peer group smoking homogeneity. Most smokers were not peer group members, however, and selection provided more of an explanation than influence for why isolates smoke. The results suggest the importance of using social network analysis in studies of peer group influence and selection.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Application of learning principles across affective states led the authors to hypothesize that hedonic rewards are more contingent on scrutiny ofHedonic consequences in happy than sad states, and happy people should scrutinize the hedonics consequences of potential behaviors more than sad people.
Abstract: Mood management in positive and negative moods is relevant to a variety of social phenomena and has been especially important in the helping literature. Theorists have predicted that sad people strategically engage in mood management activities more than happy people. However, application of learning principles across affective states led the authors to hypothesize that hedonic rewards are more contingent on scrutiny of hedonic consequences in happy than sad states. Thus, happy people should scrutinize the hedonic consequences of potential behaviors more than sad people. A selective exposure paradigm was used to test this hedonic contingency hypothesis. People in whom happy, sad, or neutral states were induced were asked to choose activities in which to engage. In 3 experiments, happy people based their choices on the affective consequences of those activities more than sad or neutral individuals. Implications for interpreting past work are discussed.