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Showing papers in "Journal of Public Affairs in 2017"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the potential of e-government in improving public services delivery by increasing efficiency, reducing the cost of operations, expanding access to services, and achieving customer satisfaction is affirmed.
Abstract: This article contributes to the growing discourse on the potential of e-government to transform the operations of public sector institutions, thereby improving public services. It does so by conceptualizing public service quality into efficiency, economy (cost reduction), customer satisfaction, and service accessibility and draws on qualitative data from the Ghanaian narrative for illustration. As previous studies have demonstrated, this study also affirms the potential of e-government in improving public services delivery by increasing efficiency, reducing the cost of operations, expanding access to services, and achieving customer satisfaction. Yet, there remains a repertoire of challenges such as weak ICT infrastructure especially in towns and villages, incessant power outages and illiteracy, which are drawbacks to fully harnessing the benefits of e-government in Ghana. The study recommends that these challenges should feature prominently in e-government policies to increase the chances of solving them.

44 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: For instance, this paper found that the level of social trust is only on a reasonable level in a very limited number of countries, such as Nordic countries, in the Netherlands, in Switzerland, Australia, and New Zealand.
Abstract: The importance of interpersonal social trust is difficult to exaggerate. It builds societies and lowers most kinds of transaction costs. The normative ideal in a society is to have high levels of social trust and a minimum of differences in trust between social, economic, and political groups. These normative expectations are put to a test using World Value Survey data from some 80 different countries. If one had high hopes, the outcome is somewhat of a disappointment. The level of social trust is only on a reasonable level in a very limited number of countries—in the Nordic countries, in the Netherlands, in Switzerland,Australia, and New Zealand. In most other countries, the majority of citizens do not trust their fellow man. Furthermore, except for gender and age differences in social trust, which tend to be minor in most countries, there are rather clear (and normatively unwanted) group differences in social trust in many countries, and especially so in established democracies. Citizens with university degrees, in good health, and gainfully employed do trust other people much more than citizens with low education, in poor health, and out of work. Less fortunate and less privileged people across the world tend to have lower levels of interpersonal trust. That is not good for them, and it is not good for society.

32 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The concept of the circular economy is gaining momentum within the business world, and it is seen as an important element in the transition to a more sustainable future as discussed by the authors, and is contrasted with the traditional linear economy that turns raw materials into waste in the production process and that is seen to lead to environmental pollution and the removal of natural capital from the environment.
Abstract: The concept of the circular economy is gaining momentum within the business world, and it is seen as an important element in the transition to a more sustainable future. Circular economies are built around a range of activities that look to reduce the demand for raw material inputs and natural resources and to recover, recycle, and reuse those inputs and resources as an integral part of the production process. As such, the concept of the circular economy restorative and regenerative and is contrasted, by its proponents, with the traditional “linear economy” that turns raw materials into waste in the production process and that is seen to lead to environmental pollution and the removal of natural capital from the environment. This commentary paper outlines the characteristic features of the concept of the circular economy, outlines how a number of companies are adopting circular economy approaches, and offers some general reflections on the application of the concept.

27 citations




Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the relationship between crude oil price fluctuations and inflation and its impact with reference to Indian economy and suggested that, although the price of petroleum products are insulated against international crude oil prices by way of subsidies in order to curb inflation, in the long run, inflation manifest itself in the form of worsening fiscal deficit and undermining the sustainability of public debt.
Abstract: Stabilising inflation around certain preconceived level remains the predominant objective of monetary authorities all over the world as its variability has crucial ramifications on the real economy. However, the effective operation of monetary policy to this end largely hinges on the nature and dynamics of inflation both in the short-run and long-run. In this context, the present study focuses on theoretical investigation of how crude oil price fluctuations affect inflation in a real economy. Moreover, the study examines the nature of relationship between crude oil price fluctuations and inflation and its impact with reference to Indian economy. The study suggest that, in India, although the price of petroleum products are insulated against international crude oil price fluctuations by way of subsidies in order to curb inflation, in the long run, inflation manifest itself in the form of worsening fiscal deficit and undermine the sustainability of public debt. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

18 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that a high procedural quality of bureaucracy may promote support for democracy by diminishing the likelihood of the occurrence of cognitive dissonance between democracy as an ideal and the experienced.
Abstract: This paper argues that in addition to “what democracies do,” “how democracies do it” produces an independent source of support for democracy. We argue that a high procedural quality of bureaucracy may promote support for democracy by diminishing the likelihood of the occurrence of cognitive dissonance between democracy as an ideal and the experienced. Furthermore, we expect the beneficial impact of a higher quality of government (QoG) to be more visible in younger democracies. We subject this claim to a multilevel empirical analysis with large n and N and across a considerable time span. The analysis reveals that higher QoG is linked with higher levels of diffuse support, and that this effect is stronger in younger democracies. The data are less supportive with respect to the positive impact of QoG on specific support, calling for further research into the matter.

17 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors find that people in both new and established democracies harbor lower levels of trust than an intuitive interpretation of normative theory would lead them to expect, and also find that the attitudes of tens of thousands of citizens garnered from across 42 new and old democracies suggest that levels of average trust in groups of these societies are not as equally distributed, as a simple reading of democratic theory would have us to believe.
Abstract: Parliaments are—or should at least be—the central rule-making institutions in democratic countries. If people do not have faith in the institution making the rules, it is less likely that people live by them. Consequently, it is beneficiary if trust in parliament is high. But it is also a normative good in itself. If the people do not trust the key institution whereby they can exercise “rule by the people over itself,” democracy itself is endangered. Secondly, trust levels should be reasonably even spread among relevant social and political groups in a society because parliament should ideally be a nonpartisan level playing field. However, because the majority in parliament typically chooses and sustains the acting government, one could say that legislatures in parliamentary democracies should not be level playing fields. According to this argument, there should be differences in trust in parliament between groups of individuals with varying political affiliations. Supporters of the majority in parliament should be expected to have higher trust in the legislature compared to citizens who voted for the opposition. We test our three hypotheses on data from some 80 countries participating in World Value Survey, either in Waves 5 or 6. We find that people in both new and established democracies harbor lower levels of trust than an intuitive interpretation of normative theory would lead us to expect. We also find that the attitudes of tens of thousands of citizens garnered from across 42 new and old democracies suggest that levels of average trust in groups of these societies are not as equally distributed, as a simple reading of democratic theory would have us to believe. In particular, individuals with a stronger interest in politics, and who are winners by the account of the last election, have statistically substantively relevant higher average levels of trust in parliament as an institution than do other citizens. The latter seems to us especially potentially problematic in particular for some of the new democracies where majority-dominant parties manage to cling on to power over several election cycles. If what we find here were generally applicable also over several election cycles, we would expect the gap between winners and losers to widen and sediment and potentially sow the seeds of anti-system movements opposed to democracy. Parliament is obviously a partisan creature in the eyes of most citizens in democracies. The level playing field idea does not fly.

16 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined social media use by cause and sectional interest groups in the European Union and found that cause groups focus on building a constituency more than sectional groups, because they do not offer exclusive benefits to their members.
Abstract: This paper examines social media use by cause and sectional interest groups in the European Union. The literature suggests that cause groups should focus on building a constituency more than sectional groups, because they do not offer exclusive benefits to their members. Cause groups face collective action problems more than sectional groups, so they have to take a proactive approach to community building. The nature of the causes cause groups lobby for is also more suitable for protest and thus calls to action. An in-depth analysis of a random sample of 1,000 tweets by cause and sectional groups reveals differences with respect to social media use. Cause groups use social media to pursue two-way communication with the public slightly—albeit not significantly—more than sectional groups. Cause groups mobilise the public to take action significantly and substantively more than specific interests.

14 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore how social caseworkers manage multiple accountability requirements compared to public managers by investing in the relationship with those who demand accountability, making a commitment to the given tasks and anticipating what might happen.
Abstract: Public employees are required to manage multiple accountability requirements by investing in the relationship with those who demand accountability, making a commitment to the given tasks and anticipating what might happen. The purpose of the study is to explore how social caseworkers manage multiple accountability requirements compared to public managers. The analysis from child welfare caseworkers' interview data highlights a number of ways on how social caseworkers respond to multiple accountabilities. Although most of acts from caseworkers are exposed within the public managers' strategies, talking or discussing with coworkers and supervisors seems the caseworkers' contextual and endemic response. Discussions followed.

13 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the extent of lobbying inequalities and theoretical frameworks for understanding how resources enable an influence advantage, before assessing the types of regulatory approaches that have been used by democratic institutions are considered, alongside the current interest in using digital platforms to identify inequalities and incorporate public preferences as a variable in allocating lobbying resources.
Abstract: Although vigorous lobbying by groups within society is essential for the functioning of democracy, it is widely perceived that resource-rich groups, particularly corporations, enjoy unfair advantages and influence. This perception damages public trust in the efficacy of civic participation and the legitimacy of policymaking. This problem intermittently leads reformers and scholars to assess and develop policies that might assist in addressing lobbying power imbalances. This paper takes up Moloney's call for exploring ways of intervening in the communicative economy to directly address the problem of lobbying inequality. It considers the extent of lobbying inequalities and theoretical frameworks for understanding how resources enable an influence advantage, before assessing the types of regulatory approaches that have been used by democratic institutions. Voluntary measures that could be taken by the corporate sector and professional associations are considered, alongside the current interest in using digital platforms to identify inequalities and incorporate public preferences as a variable in allocating lobbying resources.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a crisis management framework for Indian public sector banks is proposed, which is based on crisis management, stakeholder engagement, government relations, and issue management, and the authors make recommendations to tackle the NPAs crisis.
Abstract: Nonperforming assets (NPAs) crisis in Indian public sector banks is one of the biggest challenges before the current government in 2017. The finance ministry, Government of India, and the central bank, the Reserve Bank of India, are worried about the surging NPAs in Indian public sector banks because of their huge macroeconomic impact and systemic risk to the financial system. If not paid timely attention, it can hamper the economic and financial stability of the nation. Rising NPAs in Indian public sector banks are a result of bank specific, macroeconomic, and political factors. In order to control the surging NPAs in Indian public sector banks, the government and the Reserve Bank of India have implemented new crisis management framework which however is not immune to several challenges. This paper looks at NPAs crisis from the lens of crisis management, stakeholder's engagement, government relations, and issue management. Harris and Fleisher (2016) identify crisis management, stakeholder engagement, government relations, and issues management as important organizational activities that constitute part of public affairs. This paper follows a tripartite structure where it first investigates the causes of NPAs in Indian public sector banks. Second, it examines the crisis management framework developed by the policy makers and highlights the key challenges. Third, in light of these challenges, it makes recommendations to tackle the NPAs crisis in Indian public sector banks.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors outline the development and characteristics of the City Deals programme and offer a reflective commentary on a number of issues surrounding the programme, namely accountability and evaluation, the relationship between the local and national state, the role of planning and sustainable development.
Abstract: Within the UK, City Deals, essentially bespoke packages of funding and decision making negotiated between national government and local authorities, are increasingly taking centre stage in promoting economic growth. Each City Deals is seen to reflect the needs of individual cities and their surrounding regions and each has its own distinctive funding and development agenda. While the City Deal model has been broadly welcomed by national and local political leaders concerns have been more widely expressed about its operation and effectiveness. This paper outlines the development and characteristics of the City Deals programme and offers a reflective commentary on a number of issues surrounding the programme, namely accountability and evaluation, the relationship between the local and national state, the role of planning and sustainable development.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the role of CSOs in the promotion of community participation in governance, and look into the capacities of CSO involved in these efforts on governance, pointing out that CSOs lack vital capacities including adequate funds, staff, offices, and equipment.
Abstract: Although civil society organizations (CSOs) often receive attention in development discourse, they are particularly deemed to provide a new way that ensures good governance. Hence, an understanding of their contributions against the backdrop of governance-related challenges in Kenya calls for fresh and new research. This article gives attention to CSOs' role in the promotion of community participation in governance. Specifically, it looks into capacities of CSOs involved in these efforts on governance. It links persistent poor governance happening at the counties to inadequate capacities of CSOs involved in the fight against the vice. It argues that CSOs lack vital capacities including adequate funds, staff, offices, and equipment, to be able to sustain action against poor governance. The study methodology involved a survey, focus group discussions, and in-depth face-to-face interviews. A variety of tools were used that included a survey questionnaire, focus group discussion guide, and in-depth interview guide. Some of the recommendations are that it is important for stakeholders including the government to understand CSOs and provide them with required support. CSOs also need to be given training and exposure to programs in other countries that have successfully addressed governance issues.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a broad stakeholder concept for the political marketing context reconciles strategic and normative issues, as successful interactions with specific stakeholders are necessary to achieve completed political exchanges of value, all stakeholders that exist in democratic societies have some form of moral claim to representation.
Abstract: Stakeholders influence the ability of organisations to achieve their aims, but little work has been carried out into understanding the stakeholder concept as applied to political actors. This paper first discusses the contextual nature of stakeholders using normative and strategic, and broad and narrow dimensions, integrating these 2 dimensions with power asymmetries and reciprocity. This paper then argues that a broad stakeholder concept for the political marketing context reconciles strategic and normative issues, as whilst successful interactions with specific stakeholders are necessary to achieve completed political exchanges of value, all stakeholders that exist in democratic societies have some form of moral claim to representation. As each political exchange of value consists of 3 consecutive interactions, the direct stakeholders in 1 interaction become indirect stakeholders in subsequent interactions. As each interaction occurs within a “marketplace” context, interactions in previous marketplace(s) together with expectations of the impact on future marketplace(s) influence current decision-making. Finally, it is proposed that in the political marketing context, the stakeholder concept can be defined as “context-specific agents that directly or indirectly influence or are influenced by the political actor.”

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the relationship between counter-knowledge and open-mindedness was examined through an empirical investigation of Spanish city halls and the results showed a potential positive indirect effect of counterknowledge on openmindedness through city marketing programs.
Abstract: Counter-knowledge refers to flaws in citizens' mental models arising from utilization of rumours, inappropriate knowledge structures, outdated routines or procedures. When counter-knowledge is applied to civil servants, it may result in problems of efficiency, equity and motivation. This paper examines the relationship between counter-knowledge and open-mindedness to model a framework for improving city marketing and policy development. This study tested two measurement models. While the theoretical model represents the effect of counter-knowledge on city marketing and that the latter has a negative effect on open-mindedness, the alternative model involves that counter-knowledge has a positive indirect impact on open-mindedness. These relationships are examined through an empirical investigation of 203 Spanish city halls. The results show a potential positive indirect effect of counter-knowledge on open-mindedness through city marketing programmes. This paper clarifies the existing literature, which tries to contribute to the discussion of city marketing, and helps us to obtain meaning out of the relationship between counter-knowledge, city marketing and open-mindedness. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Natural disasters are a rare, yet inevitable part of living on Earth and disaster planning and preparedness are crucial for the continued safety and well-being of a city or nation's population.
Abstract: Natural disasters are a rare, yet inevitable part of living on Earth. As a result, disaster planning and preparedness are crucial for the continued safety and well-being of a city or nation’s population. Planning and preparedness are also important for organizational well-being and success, and for the cohesive synergy of the individuals in a company.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the claim that "most people in almost every country worldwide prefer democracy over other types of regimes" against new data, so as to add to the global map of popular perceptions about their support for various regime types.
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to examine the claim that “most people in almost every country worldwide prefer democracy over other types of regimes” against new data, so as to add to the global map of popular perceptions about their support for various regime types. We describe measured changes in levels of public support in 49 countries over four waves of the World Values Survey on three levels: country specific, regional–continental, and global. We found that levels of support for democracy are high and stable across most parts of the world; however, support for various alternate (authoritarian) regime types is steadily increasing and could threaten the extent to which democratic values are entrenched, especially in younger democracies. We conclude with an overview of some of the factors that could plausibly shape such perceptions at the level of the general citizenry.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Taking advantage of NPM's failings and austerity agenda, a French welfare elite regained control over health-care policy decisions at the expense of regions and other local actors.
Abstract: In foreign exemplars, key new public management (NPM) features such as decentralization and devolution of health-care responsibilities had outcomes below expectations. Other NPM traits such as the patient as overseer of reforms or the empowerment of patient remained elusive. In France, the integration of public values such as greater participation of patients and local actors (NGOs and elected officials) and NPM-driven private values such as performance evaluation has yet to be seen. Taking advantage of NPM's failings and austerity agenda, a French welfare elite regained control over health-care policy decisions at the expense of regions and other local actors. NPM outcomes were below expectations. Austerity cures led to weakening of the regional decision spaces, which can be explained under the principal–agent relationship. Accountability shifted to managerial (the professionalization of hospital managers) and legal (governance via regulations) forms in a bid to restore central government control. A democratic recess results from the lack of public engagement in recent health reforms.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyzed strategic communication plans for Multi-National Forces-Iraq, a United Nations military force of 40 countries led by the United States, and confirmed the usage of research and overarching goals as big strategy, and the operational and tactical parts of public relations planning as little strategy although big strategy can be elevated to the highest corporate levels as well.
Abstract: Grand strategy or overall strategy is essential to successful strategic communication planning as are the tactics of any campaign to accomplish that longer-term strategy. That is what is meant in thinking of big strategy to little strategy in the title of this study. The terms play off the phrase, the big idea, generally credited to David Ogilvy who some call the father of advertising but also used by Edward Bernays, who some call the father of public relations, in his 1936 work, Biography of an Idea: The Founding Principles of Public Relations. The purpose of the present study was to meld the big and little concepts of strategy in public relations through analyzing strategic communication plans for Multi-National Forces-Iraq, a United Nations military force of 40 countries led by the United States. It encompassed multiple case studies that included interviews, documents, participant observation, and direct observation in strategic communication planning. It also confirmed the usage of research and overarching goals as big strategy, and the operational and tactical parts of public relations planning as little strategy although big strategy can be elevated to the highest corporate levels as well.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a quantitative analysis based on the World Values Surveys and the elite surveys (parliamentarians) conducted in 2006 (before the financial crisis) and in 2012-2013 (post the crisis when apparently, the worst of the economic crunch had lessened up) in the 7 countries selected.
Abstract: There is ample consensus in the literature that institutional confidence by the public is needed in democracies and at the same time elites, particularly political elites, need to share this confidence in their guidance of state institutions, if political stability in established democracies and the consolidation of new democracies are desired. The research takes the form of a quantitative analysis based on the World Values Surveys and the elite surveys (parliamentarians) conducted in 2006 (before the financial crisis) and in 2012–2013 (post the crisis when apparently, the worst of the economic crunch had lessened up) in the 7 countries selected. We explore what lies at the base of political confidence in the selected countries. We investigate whether levels of confidence are more strongly based on political attitudes or more specifically influenced by economic attitudes. Countries from different continents, South Africa (Africa); Chile (Latin America); Germany and Sweden (Western Europe); South Korea (Asia); Poland (Eastern Europe); and Turkey (Eurasia) were included in the analysis. Political factors explain a high level of mainly confidence in state institutions, with different percentages of explained variance among the different countries. Capacity of the state to deal with the economy seems to worry elites more than the public. Elites, especially those in government, have in general, a higher level of confidence in state institutions compared to the public. Similarly, the elites also had a noticeable higher level of confidence in civil society than the public in 2006 and 2013 in the majority of the countries in the study.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The 2014 Health Project heralds a phase of policy hybridization that not only preserves earlier NPM tools but also seeks to reaffirm the role of the public and the medical profession in the governance of the health system.
Abstract: Public value appears to be reborn out of the ashes of earlier failed new public management (NPM)-driven policies in health care. It advocates greater consultation of the civic society and autonomy of public managers in decision-making. In France, the 2009 Hospital, Patient, Health, and Territory law recentralized the health system and strengthened the central government to restore consistency in policy implementation and address earlier NPM shortcomings. The 2014 Health Project heralds a phase of policy hybridization that not only preserves earlier NPM tools but also seeks to reaffirm the role of the public and the medical profession in the governance of the health system. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, Harris, P., and Sun, H. propose a global research agenda for political marketing and public affairs, which has been published in final form at http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pa.1693.
Abstract: This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Harris, P., & Sun, H. (2017). The ends justify the means: A global research agenda for political marketing and public affairs. Journal of Public Affairs, 14(4), e1693 which has been published in final form at http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pa.1693 This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Self-Archiving.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The ways in which election campaigns are planned, organized, and conducted have changed considerably during recent decades, and political parties constantly employ new ideas and practices in order to improve their campaigns as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The ways in which election campaigns are planned, organized, and conducted have changed considerably during recent decades, and political parties constantly employ new ideas and practices in order ...



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the relationship between firearm background check applications and denials and state characteristics such as poverty, race, gender, existing firearm ownership, and population density, and found that application and denial rates significantly increased over time.
Abstract: There is little previous research on firearm background check applications and denials despite the potential for such research to significantly benefit policy and practice. The U.S. firearm background check system is complex with federal, state, and local laws creating a patchwork system intended to increase public safety and reduce mortality. State characteristics may play an important role in changes in application and denial rates. We examined the relationship between application and denial rates and state characteristics such as poverty, race, gender, existing firearm ownership, and population density. Multi-level longitudinal modeling was used in an ecological study design with the state as the unit of analysis spanning a time period between 2005 and 2010, inclusive. Results indicated that application and denial rates significantly increased over time. Population density and poverty level were negatively related to application and denial rates. Firearm ownership, male population size, and percent of residents that were white were positively related to application and denial rates. Percent of African–American residents was negatively related to application rate. The importance of understanding the factors that predict firearm prevalence and the need for additional research on the denial of firearms is discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyzed the Slovak Trade Licensing Administration (TLA) and found that there are seven clusters of territorial units with specific local and regional needs, which can be used for tailor-made policy making from the central tier.
Abstract: Local public administration contributes to a favorable business environment. Slovak Trade Licensing Administration (TLA) provides public services for traders. Centrally managed policy making without taking into account of local and regional specifics is not fully conforming to the current local needs of territorial units. Innovative administrative interventions from the central tier may reflect territorial needs of these units. Spatial distribution of performance data points out regional differences in the territorial units of the TLA. There are significant regional differences in the numbers of trades per employees and performed administrative actions. It creates conditions for individual approach in policy making. Cluster analysis groups the territorial units of the TLA for suitable tailor-made policy making from the central tier. Based on the findings, there are seven clusters of territorial units with specific local and regional needs. Tailor-made policy making can take into account of territorial specifics and strengthening the role of territorial units of the TLA in regional development.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The optimal size of a city is marginal size when the city has inefficiencies in urban administration or the point that when a city loses attraction from citizens in South Korea.
Abstract: The optimum size of a city is marginal size when the city has inefficiencies in urban administration or the point that when a city loses attraction from citizens. This paper is examining optimal size of Seoul Autonomous Districts in South Korea. Because of the highly dense population in Seoul area, the government of South Korea is trying to solve this problem by implementing policies on developing non Seoul areas. However, it is important why Seoul in South Korea has abnormal dense population in comparison to other areas. Seoul is consisted of 25 autonomous districts and this paper found one autonomous district. Gangnam-gu is a highly inefficient district comparing to other districts in Seoul. This finding can be a cause of dense population problem in Seoul. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.